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3.
COAL
o Coal is a combustible rock that is composed

primarily of carbon rich organic material.
o Coal is a heterogeneous sedimentary rock that
reflects both the different sedimentological
regimes within which peat forms and the varied
vegetation types from which it is derived.
o Coal is a major source of energy in the production of electrical power using
steam generation.
o Different varieties of coal arise because of differences in the kinds of plant

material (coal type), degree of coalification (coal rank), and range of
impurities (coal grade).
o Although most coals occur in stratified sedimentary deposits, the deposits

may later be subjected to elevated temperatures and pressures caused by
igneous intrusions or deformation during orogenesis (i.e., processes of
mountain building), resulting in the development of anthracite and even
graphite.
i. Origins of Coal
o Coal is especially worthy of the name fossil fuel, as it frequently bears
visible traces of the geologic time period in which it has its origin. The journey
from those ancient origins to the modern coke or reprocessing plant is
hundreds of millions of years long.
o In swamps, the lignin accumulates under water, compacting into peat. Over
the geological ages, the peat layers of the primeval swamps metamorphosed
into coal. Depression and thrusting of earth’s crust buried the deposits and
subjected them to high pressures and tempratures for long periods of time.
o Under those conditions, the lignin gradually lost its oxygen atoms via the
expulsion of water and carbon dioxide gas, and additional bonds formed
among the aromatic groups, producing a hard, black, carbon-rich material,
which we mine as coal.
Heat and Pressure
Swamp
Peat Lignite Coal
Time
o Evidence that coal was derived from plants comes from three principal
sources.
1. Lignites, the lowest coal rank, often contain recognizable plant remains.
2. Sedimentary rock layers above, below, and adjacent to coal seams contain
plant fossils in the form of impressions and carbonized films (e.g., leaves
and stems) and casts of larger parts such as roots, branches, and trunks.
3. Even coals of advanced rank may reveal the presence of precursor plant
material. When examined microscopically in thin sections or polished blocks,
cell walls, cuticles (the outer wall of leaves), spores, and other structures can
still be recognized. Algal and fungal remains also may be present. (Algae
are major components in boghead coal, a type of sapropelic coal.)
Formation Processes
1. Peat
Although peat is used as a source of energy, it is not usually considered

a coal. It is the precursor material from which coals are derived, and
the process by which peat is formed is studied in existing swamps in
many parts of the World.
o The formation of peat is controlled by several factors including;
1. The evolutionary development of plant life,

2. The climatic conditions (warm enough to sustain plant growth and wet
enough to permit the partial decomposition of the plant material and
preserve the peat),
3. The physical conditions of the area (its geographic position relative to the
sea or other bodies of water, rates of subsidence or uplift, and so forth).
o Warm moist climates are thought to produce broad bands of bright coal.
Cooler temperate climates, on the other hand, are thought to produce detrital
coal with relatively little bright coal.
o The process of peat formation —biochemical coalification— is most active in
the upper few metres of a peat deposit. Fungi are not found below about 0.5
metre, and most forms of microbial life are eliminated at depths below about
10 metres.
o If either the rate of subsidence or the rate of influx of new sediment

increases, the peat will be buried and soon thereafter the coalification process
—geochemical coalification— begins.
2. Coalification
o The general sequence of coalification is from lignite to subbituminous to

bituminous to anthracite. Since microbial activity ceases within a few metres of
the Earth’s surface, the coalification process must be controlled primarily by
changes in physical conditions that take place with depth.
Peat Lignite Bituminous coal Anthracite coal

(50 m thick) (10 m thick) (5 m thick) (5 m thick)
0 years Million of years Hundreds of millions of years 280 to 360 million years
o Some coal characteristics are determined by events that occur during peat
formation—e.g., charcoal-like material in coal is attributed to fires that
occurred during dry periods while peat was still forming.
o Three major physical factors —duration, increasing temperature, and

increasing pressure— may influence the coalification process.
o The formation of coal from organic debris is by a process of coalification.

When some types of organic materials are heated and compressed over time,
they can form water, gas, and coal. In some cases, a high-molecular weight,
waxy oil is also formed.
ii. Types of Coal
o There are four major types (or “ranks”) of coal. Coals are classified by rank
and rank is a measure of the degree of coalification or maturation of
carbonaceous material.
o By coalification, buried plant matter changes into an ever denser, drier, more
carbon rich, and harder material.
o The four ranks are:
1. Lignite: Lignite coal, aka brown coal, is the lowest grade coal with the least
concentration of carbon.
2. Subbituminous: Subbituminous coal is black in color and dull (not shiny), and has
a higher heating value than lignite.
3. Bituminous: Bituminous coal is a middle rank coal between subbituminous and
anthracite. Bituminous usually has a high heating value and is the most common
type of coal used in electricity generation. Bituminous coal appears shiny and
smooth when you first see it, but look closer and you may see it has layers.
4. Anthracite: The highest rank of coal. It is a hard, brittle, and black lustrous coal,
often referred to as hard coal, containing a high percentage of fixed carbon
and a low percentage of volatile matter.
Approximate age, Approximate carbon Calorific Value
Coal type
years content, % (MJ/kg)
Lignites 60,000,000 65-72 5.5–14.3
Subbituminous coals 100,000,000 72-76 8.3–25
Bituminous coals 300,000,000 76-90 18.8–29.3
Anthracites 350,000,000 90-95 30
COAL
Advantages Disadvantages
It is easy to burn and is highly reliable. It leaves a large carbon footprint.
It is affordable It is highly exhaustible.
It produces high levels of energy. It is not a renewable resource.
It is highly accessible and transportable. It is hazardous to health and safety.
It can be used in a range of activities.
It reduces dependence on other fossil fuels.

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3.

o Coal is a combustible rock that is composed

o Different varieties of coal arise because of differences in the kinds of plant

o Although most coals occur in stratified sedimentary deposits, the deposits

Heat and Pressure

Peat Lignite Coal

Although peat is used as a source of energy, it is not usually considered

1. The evolutionary development of plant life,

o If either the rate of subsidence or the rate of influx of new sediment

o The general sequence of coalification is from lignite to subbituminous to

Peat Lignite Bituminous coal Anthracite coal

o Three major physical factors —duration, increasing temperature, and

o The formation of coal from organic debris is by a process of coalification.

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