EELE341 Electronics I

Diodes – Part 1
C H A P T E R 01

Signals and Amplifiers

Ali Zeki
Diodes
A diode is a non-linear resistor with an asymmetrical behavior.
Its resistance is very small for a positive voltage (forward voltage) and
very large for a negative voltage (reverse voltage).
In other words, when the voltage across its terminals is positive, it
permits a large amount of current flow in the forward direction (ON),
whereas, for negative voltages, it blocks the current flow in the reverse
direction (OFF).
For an "ideal" diode, we can assume the very small and very large
resistances as zero (short circuit) and infinite (open circuit), respectively:

Forward bias: Diode ON → short circuit (conduction)

(voltage is zero for any amount of current)

Reverse bias: Diode OFF → open circuit (cut off)

(current is zero for any amount of voltage)
The ideal diode

(c) equivalent circuit in (d) equivalent circuit in

(a) diode circuit symbol the forward direction
the reverse direction

The use of an external resistor to limit the

(b) i–v characteristic forward current (a) and the reverse voltage (b).
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A simple application: Rectifier Example

(a) Rectifier circuit. (b) Input waveform.

12 V

(c) Equivalent circuit (d) Equivalent circuit (a) Find the fraction of each cycle
when vI  0. when vI < 0. during which the diode conducts.
(b) Find the peak value of diode current.
vI  0 : The diode (c) Find the maximum reverse-bias
behaves like a short voltage that appears across the diode.
circuit → vO = vI
Sol.: (a) 24 cos = 12
vI < 0 : The diode  = 60o , 60  2 / 360 = 1 / 3
behaves like an open 24 − 12
(b) Id = = 0.12 A
circuit → vO = 0×R = 0 100
(e) Output waveform. (c) VDrp = 24 + 12 = 36 V 4
Diode logic gates Solution: We don’t know whether none, one, or both
diodes are conducting.
Make a plausible assumption, proceed with the
Y=A∙B∙C analysis, and then check whether we end up with a
consistent solution !

(a) Assume that both diodes are conducting.

10 − 0
VB = 0, V = 0 I D2 = = 1 mA
Y=A+B+C 10
V − ( −10)
Writing a node equation at B, I + I D 2 = B
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0 − ( −10)
I +1= , I = 1 mA, V =0 V
(a) OR gate (b) AND gate 5
(b) Assume that both diodes are conducting.
Example Find I and V. 10 − 0
VB = 0, V = 0 I D2 = = 2 mA
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V − ( −10)
Writing a node equation at B, I + I D 2 = B
10
0 − ( −10)
I+2= , I = −1 mA Impossible !!
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Assume that D1 is off, and D2 is on.

10 − ( −10)
I D2 = = 1.33 mA
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VB = −10 + 10  1.33 = +3.3 V

I = 0, V = 3.3 V

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Terminal characteristics of junction diodes
We study characteristics of real diode - specifically, semiconductor junction diode made of silicon.

The i–v characteristic of a silicon junction diode. The diode i–v relationship with some scales expanded
and others compressed in order to reveal details.
The characteristic curve consists of three distinct regions:
1. The forward-bias region, determined by υ > 0
2. The reverse-bias region, determined by υ < 0
3. The breakdown region, determined by υ < -VZK 6
1. The Forward-Bias region
The forward-bias region, determined by υ > 0

This equation can be derived from semiconductor theory.

Is : reverse saturation current at a given temperature
* proportional to the cross-sectional area of the diode
* order of 10-15 A for low-power small-signal diode
* very strong function of temperature
(doubles for every 5 oC rise)
VT = kT/q : thermal voltage
25mV at 20oC
k : Boltzmann’s constant =1.38 x 10-23 joules/kelvin
T : absolute temperature in kelvins =273 + temperature in oC
q : magnitude of electronic charge = 1.60 x 10-19 coulomb

n = 1~2 depending on the material and the physical structure of the diode.
1 for diode made using the standard integrated-circuit fabrication process.
2 for discrete diode

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 Threshold voltage
υ>0.7 V, fully conducting
I1 = I s e1 / nVT I2
= e (2 −1 ) / nVT
I 2 = I s e2 / nVT I1 Cut-in voltage

I2
V2 − V1 = nVT ln
I1
I
V2 − V1 = 2.3nVT log 2 (3.5)
I1
2.3nVT = 60 mV for n=1, 120 mV for n = 2.

Not knowing the exact value of n (which can be obtained from a simple experiment),
circuit designers use the convenient approximate number of 0.1 V/decade for the slope
of the diode logarithmic characteristic.
* Threshold Voltage = Voltage drop: 0.7 V @1 mA for small signal diode, 0.7 V@1 A for high power diode.

Example

For small signal diode, evaluate IS in the event

that n is 1 or 2. i = I S e / nV T

I S = ie − / nVT

Illustrating the temperature dependence of the diode

forward characteristic. At a constant current, the
The value of n used can be quite important !!! voltage drop decreases by approximately 2 mV for
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every 1C increase in temperature.
2. The Reverse-Bias region
The reverse-bias region, determined by υ < 0

If υ is negative & a few times greater than VT (25 mV),

Real Diode
Reverse current i >> Saturation current Is
order of 1 nA order of 10-14~10-15A
increases with reverse voltage constant
mostly due to leakage diffusion
doubles for every 10 oC rise doubles for every 5 oC rise

3. The Breakdown region

The breakdown region, determined by υ < -VZK
VZK : The breakdown voltage, knee voltage. Z stands for Zener.

* Diode breakdown is normally not destructive provided that the power dissipated in the
diode is limited by external circuitry to a safe value specified in data sheets.
* Voltage regulation is possible in this region
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Modeling the diode forward characteristic (Detailed analysis of diode circuits)
ID=? VD=?
Exponential model
Ideal-Diode model
Piecewise–Linear model
Constant-Voltage-Drop model
Small-Signal model

The Exponential Model – the most accurate description of the diode, but difficult to use

How to solve this simultaneous equations ?

Graphical Analysis
Use the i- υ curve given in the data sheet, ruler, and your eyes.
Iterative Analysis
Use computer, but you need programming.

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The need for Rapid Analysis
* In design process, rapid circuit analysis is necessary, the piecewise-linear model.

not in the final confirmation process.

* In the final confirmation process, SPICE is the best choice.
The Piecewise-Linear model

the constant-voltage-drop model

The Constant-Voltage-Drop model

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 The ideal diode model
* This model can be used when circuit’s input voltage is much greater than the typical diode voltage drop (0.6~0.8 V).
* We had learned this at the beginning of the chapter.
* Useful in determining which diodes are on or off.
The Small-signal Model
* Approximate linear model to estimate AC quantities Quiescent point
Recall: iD(t) = ID + id(t) , vD(t) = VD + vd(t)

Valid for υd < 10 mV n=2

υd < 5 mV n=1
Since iD(t) = ID + id(t) , we can relate the AC parts ( id(t) and vd(t) )
linearly as follows:

Diode small-signal conductance (Siemens)

Slope of iD–vD
curve @ Q point
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 Example
V+ = 10 Vdc on which is superimposed υs , 60 Hz sinusoid of 1 V peak (power supply ripple). R = 10 kΩ
Calculate both the dc voltage of the diode and the amplitude of the signal appearing on it.
Assume the diode to have 0.7 V drop at 1 mA and n = 2.
Solution: First, consider dc component only,
10 − 0.7
ID = = 0.93 mA
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0.93 mA ≈1 mA, assumed 0.7 V is valid !
nVT 2  25
rd = = = 53.8 
ID 0.93

Use of the diode forward drop in Voltage Regulation

Voltage regulator: A circuit keeping its output voltage as constant as possible in spite of;
(a) changes in the load current drawn from the regulator output,
(b) changes in the dc power supply voltage that feed the regulator.
Example
(a) Find the % changes in υO caused by ±10 % change in dc power supply voltage.
(b) Find the % changes in υO caused by connection of 1 kΩ load resistance.
10 − 2.1 nVT 2  25
n=2 (a) w/o load, I = = 7.9 mA for each diode, rd = = = 6.3 
1 I 7.9
r = 3rd = 18.9 
37.1 mV/2
= 0.9% 6.2 mV change per diode justifies the small signal model.
2.1 V
2.1
(b) w load, I RL  = 2.1 mA Then, diode current decreases by 2.1 mA.
1000 O = −2.1  r = −39.7 mV
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Questions?