Introduction

A common denominator of most sophisticated manufacturing equipment is a positioning system. A part

or workpiece must be brought into a predefined location envelope so that operations may be performed
upon it. Since much of this type of manufacturing equipment is computer-controlled, flexible positioning
systems are necessary to derive all of the advantages that the computer can provide. Flexibility can be
achieved via closed- or open-loop motor-driven systems-each offering distinct advantages. But whereas
stepper motors are optional in the former instance, for an open- loop system, a digital driving device
such as a stepper motor must be used to maintain control.
It is often desirable when designing electric or electronic equipment to convert digital pulses into
positional changes or vice versa. Many electrically driven mechanical systems such as machining devices
and paper feeds are dependent upon such a conversion. The concept also can be used, reversibly, to
translate digital signals into analog voltages.
Stepper motors are very practical devices for converting digital-pulse inputs into analog shaft-output (or
rotary) motions. Each shaft revolution can be expressed in terms of a number of discrete identical steps,
or increments. Each step can be triggered by a single pulse. Many devices that provide incremental
rotary motion can serve as stepper motors. These include "true" motors, rotary solenoids,
electromagnetic slip clutches, and linear- rotary actuators. True stepper motors are permanent- magnet
or variable-reluctance types.

1:
A common denominator of most sophisticated manufacturing equipment is a positioning system. A part
or workpiece must be brought into a predefined location envelope so that operations may be performed
upon it. Since much of this type of manufacturing equipment is computer-controlled, flexible positioning
systems are necessary to derive all of the advantages that the computer can provide. Flexibility can be
achieved via closed- or open-loop motor-driven systems each offering distinct advantages. But whereas
stepper motors are optional in the former instance, for an open loop system, a digital driving device
such as a stepper motor must be used to maintain control. It is often desirable when designing electric
or electronic equipment to convert digital pulses into positional changes—or vice versa. Many
electrically driven mechanical systems such as machining devices and paper feeds are dependent upon
such a conversion. The concept also can be used, reversibly, to translate digital signals into analog
voltages. Stepper motors are very practical devices for converting digital-pulse inputs into analog shaft-
output (or rotary) motions. Each shaft revolution can be expressed in terms of a number of discrete
identical steps, or increments Each step can be triggered by a single pulse. Many devices that provide
incremental rotary motion can serve as stepper motors. These include “true” motors, rotary
solenoids, electromagnetic slip clutches, and I rotary actuators. True stepper motors are permanent-
magnet or variable-reluctance types.

2
Operating principles

Permanent-magnet stepper motors. In these devices, the rotor is 4 cylindrical permanent magnet that is
magntized along a diameter, and may have one or more pairs of poles. The rotor rotates in a slotted
stator containing windings. Tn operation, the rotor lines up with the stator magnetic field produced by
applying de voltages to the stator windings. By switching the polarity of the dc voltages, the stator field
(and consequently the rotor) is made to rotate.
Polarity sequencing to obtain 90-degree stepping is depicted in Fig. 1. When S, is positive and Sis
negative, a magnetic field is produced by the stator causing the rotor to line up with this field as shown
in Fig. 1(A). If positive, polarity is switched from 5, to S: and negative polarity is switched from S; to Si,
the magnetic field and rotor alignment shift 90 degrees as shown in Fig. 1(B). Subsequent polarity
changes [Figs. 1(C) and 1(D)] advance the stator field, and thus the rotor, through 360 degrees in 90-
degree steps. See Table |
It is also possible to obtain %0-degree stepping by using the resultant of two fields. This sequencing
mode shown in Table II. Since in switching mode B, both windings are energized at the same time,
current and power input are 100 percent higher than in switching mode A, but torque is only 41 percent
higher. A 45-degree stepping mode can also be obtained, as shown in Table III.
The polarity switching delineated in the tables is readily accomplished with mechanical switching
devices, but solid-state clectronic switching is difficult because two polarities must be switched. To
simplify electronic driving circuits, multiphase stepper motors with a center tap in each winding are
generally employed.

Variable-reluctance stepper motors. In a variable-reluctance stepper motor, stator-rotor phases are

aligned in a shaft. The soft-iron stators are magnetically and electrically independent and the
nonmagnetic rotors are all fixed to the shaft. Figure 2 shows an arrangement consisting of three stator-
rotor phases: A, B, and C.
Each stator and rotor has the same number of teeth, and all stator teeth in all phases are aligned with
each other. Rotor teeth in cach phase are slightly offset from teeth in adjacent phases—the amount of
offset depending upon the number of phases. In the case illustrated in Fig. 2, the rotor tecth in each
phase are offset by two thirds of a tooth width. When one rotor is fully aligned with its stator, the other
rotors are misaligned by two thirds the width of a tooth. in opposite directions.

‘When phase A is energized, the teeth of rotor A and stator A will be aligned. Now, if phase 4 is
deenergized and phase B is energized simultancously, the tecth of rotor B will adopt a position of
minimum reluctance by moving into alignment with the teeth of stator B. In the arrangement shown in
Fig. 2, the shaft will move one step in a clockwise direction each time the stators are
energized or pulsed, in the sequence A, B, C, A, +. Pulsing 4, C, B, 4, - causes counterclockwise motion.
‘The index angle, or angular rotation of the shaft per step, in a variable-reluctance stepper motor, is
obtained by dividing 360 degrees by the product of the number of teeth and the number of phases.

Other types of stepper ‘motors.’ Other devices, some of which will be described, are also used for the
stepper motor function. In general, they are not as fast-acting, have shorter life, are unidirectional, and
are available in more limited step sizes than rue stepper motors.

One stepping device employs an electric coil mounted in a “stator” case having three inclined raceways.
An “armature,” capable of moving axially, has mating raceways. Steel balls separate the raceways.
Activation of the coil pulls the armature toward the coil. and the applied Tinear force causes the
armature plate to rotate because of the slope and arc of the raceways. A clutch engages the output
shaft, which turns and detents at the end of the stroke. Deactivation of the coil returns the armature 10
the start position, ready for the next step.

A different device, which consists of a solenoid coil and a spring-driven plunger, is also available. Upon
energization of the solenoid, the plunger is pulled into the coil against the force of the drive spring.
Upon decergization, the spring drives the plunger out of the coil, rotating a multistep star wheel on the
output shaft. An actuator prevents the shaft from moving any more than one step,
and a stop pawl prevents opposite movement.

One manufacturer makes a “digital motor” with an armature similar to that of a de motor except that it
moves in a direction dependent upon which field coils are energized. When the armature moves, a
number of pawls actuate a cylindrical star wheel having teeth on its outside and inside circumferences.
The inside teeth drive the output shaft via other pawls. When the motor is decnergized, the outer pawls
lock the star wheel and motor shaft, and the armature is spring-returned to its
initial position.

Electrohydraulic pulse motors combine a true electric stepper motor and a hydraulic torque amplifier.
The electric motor drives a four-way pilot valve thus directing oil admission to the hydraulic motor. The
design provides a high-speed pulsed output at a very high torque level.

A unique way to achieve very high stepping rates with moderate to high torque outputs is accomplished
by USM’s Responsyn® stepper motors. These motors employ an adaptation of the Harmonic Drive, a
USM patented power transmission system that combines the
functions of electric motor and speed reducer.

‘Stepper-motor characteristics.

As explained earlier when the rotor of a permanent magnet stepper lines up with the stator field, so
that a rotor N poles) is aligned with an S poles) o the stator magnetic field, no motion occurs. Rotation of
the stepper motor rotor I achieved by switching the polarities of the stator fed 1 the next Step position,
causing the rotor to follow. Obviously, switching of the stator magnetic field must precede rotor rotation
and, in the dynamic condition, the rotor is always behind the stator fled switching, trying to catch up and
align self N to S, with the stator field. This situation is displayed in Fig. 3. When the relative displacement
between rotor and stator field is 0 degree—ie., when N and S poles align, neither torque
nor motion occurs. As soon as an angular difference exists between the two poks, a restoring torque is
developed and rotor motion s produced. Maximum torque, called holding torque, is developed when
the rotor and stator field positions are 90 degrees apart. The value of holding torque that the sicpper-
motor manufacturer usually provides should be sed only as a figure of merit. “The motor cannot drive a
load requiring this amount of torque sinc this is 4 maximum torque level achicved at only one relative
displacement position. A more mearingful indication of the loading capacity of the motor is the pullout
torque, o running torque. From Fig. 4, it is seen that pull-out torque varies with the switching rat. It is
limited by inherent dumping in the motor, and load inertia has little or no effect.
“The lower curve of Fig. 4 describes the pull-in torque. It varies with the total inertia and is a measure of
the switching rate at which a motor can star without losing steps. This curse is the upper boundary of
the response range or start angle. A motor can start, stop, and reverse on command in the response
rang; in this range, therefore, a stepper motor can be successfully used as an open- loop positioning
device (A small, nebulous angle exits near the curve itself wherein the stepper motor can bring
the load into synchronism, but not without losing some steps.)

The area between the two curves is identified as the slew range. The sew range is entered while the
motor is running and within it the moor can start, sop, or reverse on command. However, the slew
range is useful since the motor can run unidirectionally and follow the switching rate within a certain
acceleration without step losses while it develops enough torque 10 overcome the load torque.

Within the response range there is region where the stepper motor behaves erratically. Stepping occurs
but with irregular step angles. Pullout torque varies considerably and at certain switching rates can
actually be Tower than at higher rates. This unstable operation is caused by a combined inertia of load
and rotor that causes. overshoot and, subsequently, an oscillatory motion at the end of a step. Friction,
eddy currents, and hysteresis dampen these step-end oscillations (Fig. 5)

Stable operation is achieved through proper selection of the physical and operational parameters of the
system, viz., load inertia, damping, and switching rate. For example, if the step duration between pulses
is sufficiently long. the next pulse comes after the oscillation has diminished [Fig. 5(A). Operation in this
mode occur at a switching rate below the unstable region of erratic operation. Stability can ls be
achieved at a higher switching Fate where the time duration between pulses is equal to or shorter than,
the initial period of the oscillation [Fig. 5(B)]. in both cases, operation is within the response range.

Stepper-motor selection
To select the proper stepper motor for a given system certain parameters of the system should be
known. With his information, it is possible to make a judicious choice from the catalogues of most motor
manufacture.
The fist, and most obvious, observation is that the motor must deliver sufficient true © operate the
system. The greatest torque demand on the motor is made when starting the system because, in
addition to the torque required to drive the load, inertia effects must be overcome. The total torque
requirement may be expressed as:
Ttotal = Tload + Tinertia
This expression is presented graphically in Fig. 6, which shows the torque demands of the system during
the starting and accelerating stag for a constant switching rate, and for stopping. It is well to remember
that the starting and stopping sage may involve only one step of the motor. The torque demand for
stopping is dependent on the relative values of inertia and load torques. The load torque (friction, eddy
currents, and hysteresis effects) aids the slowdown and stop process and, if it is larger than inertia-
torque effects, it is entirely possible to stop the motor, in synchronism, without providing a
counteracting torque via an electrical input to the motor.
Ordinarily, if it is intended to operate the system “open loop" i.e. without positional feedback —the
motor chosen must provide sufficient torque and stepping speed within the response range. It is only
within this angle that the motor can star, stop, or reverse on command “instantaneously.”

“The motor can be driven into the slew range by increasing the switching rate. But one in the slew
range, the motor cannot be stopped of reversed instantaneously without losing synchronism. (if a
deceleration schedule is preprogrammed into the motor driver, it is possible maintain synchronism
while reducing the slewing rate gradually. In this manner, the motor can be brought back
into response ranges operation and stopped. Instantaneously.)

For closed-loop operation, maintenance of synchronism throughout the entire diving cycle is less
important since the actual position of the system output is monitored constantly. Efficiency dedicate
that the system be started and driven as fast as possible, sometimes even with the probability that
synchronism will be lost. Unless precautions are taken, the system output will overshoot at the end of
travel because of inertial effects. A closed-loop system automatically will correct the overshoot, but at
the expense of time. Therefore, it may be desirable to anticipate the end of a run by keeping count of
steps actually taken (or distance traveled by the output of the system) in order to provide a controlled
deceleration and prevent overshoot.

“As mentioned previously, the total maximum torque required of the motor is the summation of load
torque and inertia torque. Load torque is defined as the torque required at the system input shaft 0
move the load. (The small difference between the starting, or breakaway torque required to overcome
stiction, or static fiction, and the torque required to maintain dynamic operation the running torques
usually negligible) Although the Toad torque may be calculated, is the system is available

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