The Climate System Its components

The climate system is an interactive system

consisting of five major components:
• the atmosphere,
• the hydrosphere,
• the cryosphere,
• the land surface and
• the biosphere,

Forced or influenced by various external forcing

mechanisms, the most important of which is the
Sun. Also the direct effect of human activities
on the climate system is considered an external
forcing.
The atmosphere is the most unstable and rapidly changing part of the
system. Its composition, which has changed with the evolution of the
Earth, is of central importance to the problem assessed in this Report. The
Earth’s dry atmosphere is composed mainly of nitrogen (N2, 78.1%
volume mixing ratio), oxygen (O2, 20.9% volume mixing ratio, and argon
(Air, 0.93% volume mixing ratio). These gases have only limited
interaction with the incoming solar radiation and they do not interact with
the infrared radiation emitted by the Earth. However there are a number
of trace gases, such as carbon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4), nitrous
oxide (N2O) and ozone (O3), which do absorb and emit infrared
radiation. These so called greenhouse gases.
The cryosphere, including the ice sheets of
Greenland and Antarctica, continental glaciers
and snow fields, sea ice and permafrost, derives
its importance to the climate system from its high
reflectivity for solar radiation.
The hydrosphere is the component comprising all
liquid surface and subterranean water, both fresh water,
including rivers, lakes and aquifers, and saline water of
the oceans and seas. Fresh water runoff from the land
returning to the oceans in rivers influences the ocean’s
composition and circulation. The oceans cover
approximately 70% of the Earth’s surface. They store
and transport a large amount of energy and dissolve and
store great quantities of carbon dioxide.
Vegetation and soils at the land surface control how
energy received from the Sun is returned to the
atmosphere. Some is returned as long-wave
(infrared) radiation, heating the atmosphere as the
land surface warms. Some serves to evaporate water,
either in the soil or in the leaves of plants, bringing
water back into the atmosphere.
The marine and terrestrial biospheres have a major impact
on the atmosphere’s composition. The biota influence the
uptake and release of greenhouse gases. Through the
photosynthetic process, both marine and terrestrial plants
(especially forests) store significant amounts of carbon
from carbon dioxide.
The ultimate source of energy that drives the climate system is radiation
from the Sun. About half of the radiation is in the visible short-wave part of the
electromagnetic spectrum. The other half is mostly in the near-infrared part, with
some in the ultraviolet part of the spectrum. Each square metre of the Earth’s
spherical surface outside the atmosphere receives an average throughout the year
of 342 Watts of solar radiation, 31% of which is immediately reflected back into
space by clouds, by the atmosphere, and by the Earth’s surface. The remaining
235 Wm−2 is partly absorbed by the atmosphere but most (168 Wm−2 ) warms
the Earth’s surface: the land and the ocean. The Earth’s surface returns that heat
to the atmosphere, partly as infrared radiation, partly as sensible heat and as
water vapour which releases its heat when it condenses higher up in the
atmosphere. This exchange of energy between surface and atmosphere maintains
under present conditions a global mean temperature near the surface of 14°C,
decreasing rapidly with height and reaching a mean temperature of –58°C at the
top of the troposphere
 Climate change refers to long-term shifts in
temperatures and weather patterns. These
shifts may be natural, but since the 1800s,
human activities have been the main driver of
climate change.

Burning fossil fuels generates greenhouse gas emissions that act like
a blanket wrapped around the Earth, trapping the sun’s heat and
raising temperatures.

The main greenhouse gases that are causing climate change include
carbon dioxide and methane. These come from using gasoline for
driving a car or coal for heating a building, for example. Clearing
land and cutting down forests can also release carbon dioxide.
Agriculture, oil and gas operations are major sources of methane
emissions. Energy, industry, transport, buildings, agriculture and land
use are among the main sectors causing greenhouse gases.
Humans are responsible for Climate Change

Climate scientists have showed that humans are responsible for virtually
all global heating over the last 200 years. Human activities are causing
greenhouse gases that are warming the world faster than at any time in at
least the last two thousand years.
The average temperature of the Earth’s surface is now about 1.1°C
warmer than it was in the late 1800s (before the industrial revolution)
and warmer than at any time in the last 100,000 years. The last decade
(2011-2020) was the warmest on record, and each of the last four
decades has been warmer than any previous decade since 1850.
Many people think climate change mainly means warmer
temperatures. But temperature rise is only the beginning of
the story. Because the Earth is a system, where everything
is connected, changes in one area can influence changes in
all others.

The consequences of climate change now include, among

others, intense droughts, water scarcity, severe fires, rising
sea levels, flooding, melting polar ice, catastrophic storms
and declining biodiversity.
Climate change is primarily caused by human activities that release greenhouse gases
(GHGs) into the atmosphere, leading to the greenhouse effect and subsequent warming of
the planet. While natural factors also influence the climate, the current rapid and
unprecedented changes are primarily attributed to human activities. The main causes of
climate change include:

1.Burning of Fossil Fuels

2.Deforestation
3.Industrial Processes
4.Transportation
5.Waste Management
6.Agriculture
7.Powering Buildings
Generating electricity and heat by burning fossil fuels causes a large chunk
of global emissions. Most electricity is still generated by burning coal, oil,
or gas, which produces carbon dioxide and nitrous oxide – powerful
greenhouse gases that blanket the Earth and trap the sun’s heat.
Deforestation

Cutting down forests to create farms or pastures, or for

other reasons, causes emissions, since trees, when they
are cut, release the carbon they have been storing. Each
year approximately 12 million hectares of forest are
destroyed. Since forests absorb carbon dioxide,
destroying them also limits nature’s ability to keep
emissions out of the atmosphere. Deforestation, together
with agriculture and other land use changes, is
responsible for roughly a quarter of global greenhouse
gas emissions.
Using transportation
Most cars, trucks, ships, and planes run on fossil fuels. That makes
transportation a major contributor of greenhouse gases, especially
carbon-dioxide emissions. Road vehicles account for the largest part,
due to the combustion of petroleum-based products, like gasoline, in
internal combustion engines. But emissions from ships and planes
continue to grow. Transport accounts for nearly one quarter of global
energy-related carbon-dioxide emissions. And trends point to a
significant increase in energy use for transport over the coming years.
Agriculture
Direct agricultural emissions are dominated by
CH4 and N2O.

Modern agriculture, food production and

distribution are major contributors of
greenhouse gases: Agriculture is directly
responsible for 14 per cent of total greenhouse
gas emissions, and broader rural land use
decisions have an even larger impact.
Deforestation currently accounts for an
additional 18 per cent of emissions.
Powering buildings

Globally, residential and commercial buildings consume over

half of all electricity. As they continue to draw on coal, oil,
and natural gas for heating and cooling, they emit significant
quantities of greenhouse gas emissions. Growing energy
demand for heating and cooling, with rising air-conditioner
ownership, as well as increased electricity consumption for
lighting, appliances, and connected devices, has contributed
to a rise in energy-related carbon-dioxide emissions from
buildings in recent years.
 Consequences of Climate Change

Hotter temperatures
As greenhouse gas concentrations rise, so does the global
surface temperature. The last decade, 2011-2020, is the
warmest on record. Since the 1980s, each decade has
been warmer than the previous one. Nearly all land areas
are seeing more hot days and heat waves. Higher
temperatures increase heat-related illnesses and make
working outdoors more difficult. Wildfires start more
easily and spread more rapidly when conditions are
hotter. Temperatures in the Arctic have warmed at least
twice as fast as the global average.
Increased drought

Climate change is changing water availability, making it

scarcer in more regions. Global warming exacerbates water
shortages in already water-stressed regions and is leading to
an increased risk of agricultural droughts affecting crops,
and ecological droughts increasing the vulnerability of
ecosystems. Droughts can also stir destructive sand and dust
storms that can move billions of tons of sand across
continents. Deserts are expanding, reducing land for
growing food. Many people now face the threat of not
having enough water on a regular basis.
A warming, rising ocean

The ocean soaks up most of the heat from global

warming. The rate at which the ocean is warming strongly
increased over the past two decades, across all depths of
the ocean. As the ocean warms, its volume increases since
water expands as it gets warmer. Melting ice sheets also
cause sea levels to rise, threatening coastal and island
communities. In addition, the ocean absorbs carbon
dioxide, keeping it from the atmosphere. But more carbon
dioxide makes the ocean more acidic, which endangers
marine life and coral reefs.
Loss of species

Climate change poses risks to the survival of species on

land and in the ocean. These risks increase as
temperatures climb. Exacerbated by climate change, the
world is losing species at a rate 1,000 times greater than
at any other time in recorded human history. One
million species are at risk of becoming extinct within
the next few decades. Forest fires, extreme weather, and
invasive pests and diseases are among many threats
related to climate change. Some species will be able to
relocate and survive, but others will not.
More health risks

Climate change is the single biggest health threat facing

humanity. Climate impacts are already harming health, through
air pollution, disease, extreme weather events, forced
displacement, pressures on mental health, and increased hunger
and poor nutrition in places where people cannot grow or find
sufficient food. Every year, environmental factors take the lives
of around 13 million people. Changing weather patterns are
expanding diseases, and extreme weather events increase deaths
and make it difficult for health care systems to keep up.
Not enough food

Changes in the climate and increases in extreme weather

events are among the reasons behind a global rise in
hunger and poor nutrition. Fisheries, crops, and livestock
may be destroyed or become less productive. With the
ocean becoming more acidic, marine resources that feed
billions of people are at risk. Changes in snow and ice
cover in many Arctic regions have disrupted food supplies
from herding, hunting, and fishing. Heat stress can
diminish water and grasslands for grazing, causing
declining crop yields and affecting livestock.
 CONSEQUENCES OF CLIMATE CHANGE

1.Rising Temperatures
2.Melting Ice and Rising Sea Levels
3.Increased Frequency and Severity of Extreme
Weather Events
4.Ocean Acidification
5.Disruption of Ecosystems and Biodiversity
6.Water Scarcity and Droughts
7.Changes in Agriculture and Food Security
8.Human Health Impacts (Air Quality, Vector-
Borne Diseases, Heat-related Illnesses)
9.Extinction of plant and animals
https://www.nytimes.com/article/climate-change-global-
warming-faq.html
• Here are the key indicators of global climate change:

•Global Temperature Rise

•Greenhouse Gas Concentrations
•Sea Level Rise
•Extreme Weather Events
• Polar ice melt
•Ocean Acidification
•Shifts in Ecosystems and Species Distribution
• Bleaching of Coral Reefs
How to combat climate change?

1.Transition to renewable energy sources.

2.Improve energy efficiency.
3.Afforestation.
4.Promote sustainable land use and agriculture.
5.Use alternate fuel transportation.
6.Implement climate policies and regulations.
7.Climate education and awareness..
8.Foster international cooperation on climate action.
9.Invest in carbon capture and storage technologies.
10.Develop adaptation and resilience strategies.
11.Support green innovation and investment.
Climate change has significant implications for building design,
as architects and engineers need to consider the changing
environmental conditions and aim for more sustainable and resilient
structures. Some of the key impacts of climate change on building
design are as follows:
1.Increased temperatures: As global temperatures rise, buildings
need to be designed to provide thermal comfort to occupants during
hot periods. This may involve using passive cooling strategies like
natural ventilation, shading devices, and cool roofs to reduce the
reliance on energy-intensive air conditioning.

2.Extreme weather events: Buildings must be designed to

withstand more frequent and severe extreme weather events such as
hurricanes, storms, and heavy rainfall. This includes ensuring
structural integrity, proper drainage systems, and using resilient
materials.
3.Rising sea levels and flooding: Coastal buildings face the risk of
flooding due to sea-level rise and storm surges. Building design in these
areas should consider elevating structures, using flood-resistant
materials, and implementing efficient water management systems.

4.Water scarcity: In regions facing water scarcity, buildings can

incorporate water-saving measures such as rainwater harvesting,
graywater recycling, and low-flow fixtures to reduce water
consumption.

5.Energy efficiency: Climate change has increased the demand for

cooling and heating in buildings. Therefore, architects must prioritize
energy-efficient design, including better insulation, high-performance
windows, and energy-efficient HVAC systems to reduce greenhouse gas
emissions and energy costs.
6. Net-zero and carbon-neutral buildings: Designing buildings that
produce as much energy as they consume (net-zero) or have a net-zero
carbon footprint is becoming increasingly important to mitigate
climate change. This involves incorporating renewable energy sources,
energy-efficient systems, and smart building technologies.

Incorporating climate change considerations into building design is

essential to reduce greenhouse gas emissions, enhance resilience, and
ensure a sustainable future in the face of a changing climate. Building
codes and regulations may also need to be updated to reflect these
changing climate realities and promote more climate-friendly
construction practices.
Adaptation – adapting to life in a changing climate – involves adjusting to
actual or expected future climate. The goal is to reduce our risks from the
harmful effects of climate change (like sea-level rise, more intense extreme
weather events, or food insecurity). It also includes making the most of any
potential beneficial opportunities associated with climate change (for example,
longer growing seasons or increased yields in some regions).
A global climate model (GCM) is a complex mathematical
representation of the major climate system components
(atmosphere, land surface, ocean, and sea ice), and their
interactions.
•Climate change models are computer-based simulations that
represent the Earth's climate system.

•These models use mathematical equations to simulate the

interactions between the atmosphere, oceans, land, and ice,
incorporating physical, chemical, and biological processes.

•Climate models aim to replicate past climate conditions accurately

and predict future changes under various scenarios.
1.General Circulation Models (GCMs) or Global Climate Models: These are the
most comprehensive and widely used climate models. GCMs simulate the Earth's
climate system by dividing the atmosphere and oceans into a three-dimensional grid
and solving mathematical equations that represent the physical processes governing
the climate. They include components for atmospheric circulation, ocean circulation,
sea ice, and land surface processes.

2.Regional Climate Models (RCMs): RCMs are similar to GCMs but focus on
smaller geographical regions (typically a few hundred kilometers) with higher spatial
resolution. They are often nested within larger GCMs to provide more detailed
information for specific regions.

3.Earth System Models (ESMs): ESMs are an extension of GCMs that include
additional components representing biogeochemical processes, such as carbon
cycling, vegetation dynamics, and interactions between the atmosphere and the
biosphere. ESMs aim to provide a more comprehensive representation of the Earth
system, including its interactions with the biosphere and human activities.
Earth System Models Include all physics.
Simulate (nearly) all components of the earth
system.
 Hugely expensive - no ensembles.
Carry out ‘snapshots’ or short transients.

Complex General Circulation Models As ESMs, but do not simulate all components of
the earth system, usually atmos, ocean, (veg).
(GCMs).
Still too slow to carry out long transient simulations,
but can be used for ensembles.

Earth-system Models of Intermediate Include some physics.

Complexity (EMICs). Include all components of earth-system.
Can carry out long transient simulations and
snaphots.

Conceptual Models Include a few or no processes.

Can aid understanding.
Building energy use and efficiency

Buildings consume a significant amount of

energy for heating, cooling, lighting, and
running various appliances. Improving energy
efficiency in buildings is essential for reducing
greenhouse gas emissions, mitigating climate
change, and achieving energy conservation.
Energy-efficient building design principles focus on optimizing the building's
performance to minimize energy consumption and reduce environmental
impact while maintaining occupant comfort and functionality. Here are some
key principles:
1.Passive Design: Maximize the use of natural resources, such as sunlight
and wind, to reduce the need for mechanical heating, cooling, and lighting.
Proper building orientation, strategic window placement, and shading can
enhance passive design.
2.Insulation and Air Sealing: Effective insulation and air sealing of the
building envelope prevent heat transfer, reducing the energy required for
heating and cooling.
3.High-Performance Windows: Install energy-efficient windows with low-
emissivity coatings and multiple panes to minimize heat loss and gain.
4.Efficient Lighting: Use energy-efficient lighting systems, such as LED
technology, and implement lighting controls like dimmers and occupancy
sensors to optimize lighting usage.
5.HVAC System Design: Opt for properly sized and energy-efficient HVAC
systems that match the building's heating and cooling needs while
considering climate and building usage.
6.Renewable Energy Integration: Incorporate on-site renewable energy
sources, such as solar panels or wind turbines, to generate electricity and
offset the building's energy demand.
7.Thermal Mass: Utilize materials with high thermal mass, such as concrete or masonry, to store
and release heat slowly, improving temperature stability.
8.Natural Ventilation: Design the building to allow for natural ventilation when weather
conditions permit, reducing reliance on mechanical cooling.
9.Energy-Efficient Appliances and Equipment: Choose energy-efficient appliances and
equipment, such as ENERGY STAR-rated products, to reduce energy consumption.
10.Water Efficiency: Implement water-saving fixtures and technologies to reduce the energy
required for water heating and distribution.
11.Green Roof and Living Walls: Greenery on roofs and walls provides additional insulation,
reduces the urban heat island effect, and enhances indoor air quality.
12.Daylighting: Maximize natural light within the building to reduce the need for artificial lighting
and enhance occupant well-being.
13.Energy Management Systems (EMS): Implement EMS to monitor and control
building systems, optimizing their performance and reducing energy waste.