Symbol Digit Neuronorma

Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology 24 (2009) 321–341
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Spanish Multicenter Normative Studies (NEURONORMA Project):
Norms for Verbal Span, Visuospatial Span, Letter and Number
Sequencing, Trail Making Test, and Symbol Digit Modalities Test
Jordi Peña-Casanova a,b,*, Sonia Quiñones-Úbedab, Marı́a Quintana-Aparicio b, Miquel Aguilarc,
Dolors Badenes c, José Luis Molinuevod, Laura Tornerd, Alfredo Robles e, Marı́a Sagrario Barquerof,†,
Clara Villanuevaf, Carmen Antúnez g, Carlos Martı́nez-Parrah, Anna Frank-Garcı́a i, Azucena Sanzi,
Manuel Fernández j, Verónica Alfonsok, Josep M. Sol k, Rafael Blesal, for the NEURONORMA
Study Team‡
a
Section of Behavioral Neurology and Dementias, Hospital del Mar, Institut Municipal d’Assistència Sanitària, Barcelona, Spain
b
Behavioral Neurology Group, Institut Municipal d’Investigació Mèdica, Barcelona, Spain
c
Service of Neurology, Hospital Mútua de Terrassa, Terrassa, Spain
d
Service of Neurology, Hospital Clı́nic, Barcelona, Spain
e
Service of Neurology, Hospital Clı́nico Universitario, Santiago de Compostela, Spain
f
Service of Neurology, Hospital Clı́nico San Carlos, Madrid, Spain
g
Service of Neurology, Hospital Virgen Arrixaca, Murcia, Spain
h
Service of Neurology, Hospital Virgen Macarena, Sevilla, Spain
i
Department of Neurology, Hospital Universitario La Paz, Madrid, Spain
j
Service of Neurology, Hospital de Cruces, Bilbao, Spain
k
European Biometrics Institute, Barcelona, Spain
l
Service of Neurology, Hospital de la Santa Creu i Sant Pau, Barcelona, Spain
Accepted 29 June 2009
Abstract
As part of the Spanish Multicenter Normative Studies (NEURONORMA project), we provide age- and education-adjusted norms for the
following instruments: verbal span (digits), visuospatial span (Corsi’s test), letter –number sequencing (WAIS-III), trail making test, and
symbol digit modalities test. The sample consists of 354 participants who are cognitively normal, community-dwelling, and age ranging
from 50 to 90 years. Tables are provided to convert raw scores to age-adjusted scaled scores. These were further converted into edu-
cation-adjusted scaled scores by applying regression-based adjustments. The current norms should provide clinically useful data for evaluat-
ing elderly Spanish people. These data may be of considerable use for comparisons with other normative studies. Limitations of these
normative data are mainly related to the techniques of recruitment and stratification employed.
Keywords: Attention; Problem-solving; Wechsler scales; Demography; Educational status; Reference values
Introduction
Attention is a very important aspect of neuropsychological assessment (Lezak, Howieson, & Loring, 2004), and attentional
disorders affect a significant number of brain-injured patients (Strauss, Sherman, & Spreen, 2006). Many attentional tasks are
*
Corresponding author at: Institut Municipal d’Investigació Mèdica, Biomedical Research Park Building. Carrer Dr. Aiguader, 88, 08003 Barcelona, Spain.
Tel.: þ34 34 933160765; fax: þ34 34 933160723.
E-mail address: jpcasanova@imas.imim.es (J. Peña-Casanova).
†
Deceased.
‡
For the NEURONORMA.ES Study Team members, see Appendix.
# The Author 2009. Published by Oxford University Press. All rights reserved. For permissions, please e-mail: journals.permissions@oxfordjournals.org.
doi:10.1093/arclin/acp038 Advance Access publication on 5 August 2009
322 J. Peña-Casanova et al. / Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology 24 (2009) 321–341
multifactorial and overlap with other neuropsychological domains such as executive functions and memory, including
components such as inhibition, switching capacity, or mental tracking (Strauss et al., 2006). Classification of these tasks is
controversial and they may appear under different headings, for example, attention, working memory (WM), or executive
tests. In fact, attention overlaps with the executive function of WM (Baddeley, 1986, 2003), so many existing tests of attention
are a combination of attentional and executive functions. Attention is considered a complex system of interacting circuits that
allow the filtering of relevant and irrelevant information within the context of internal and external stimuli.
A series of functional models of attention have been proposed (see Banich, 2004; Cohen, 1993). The standard model of WM

(Baddeley, 1986) can no longer accommodate many empirical findings, and an alternative has been suggested: WM functions
arise through the recruitment, via attention, of brain systems that have evolved to accomplish sensory-, representation-, and
action-related functions (Postle, 2006). A recent computational and neural model, called PBWM (prefrontal cortex, basal
ganglia WM model), relies on actively maintained representations in the prefrontal cortex which are dynamically updated/
gated by the basal ganglia (Hazy, Frank, & O’Reilly, 2006). Functional connectivity argues for separate contributions of
ventral and dorsal visual and auditory streams in WM (Buchsbaum, Olsen, Koch, & Berman, 2005).
In this paper, normative data are presented for the attention measures included in the Spanish Multicenter Normative Studies
(NEURONORMA project) (Peña-Casanova et al. this issue). Some tests cover aspects of selective attention (i.e., WM) such as
digit span or symbol substitution tasks, whereas others include capacities such as mental flexibility and motor speech, for
example, the Trail Making Test. The Stroop Test (Golden, 1978; Stroop, 1935), which also measures attention, has also
been studied, but is presented in another paper in this issue.
Verbal Span (Digit Span Forward and Backward)
This is both an attention and memory task. The digit span requires repeating sequences of digits of increasing length forward
and then in reverse order. Both tests consist of seven pairs of random number sequences that the examiner reads aloud at the
rate of one per second. Each test involves different mental activities and is affected differently by brain lesions (Banken, 1985;
Kaplan, Fein, Morris, & Delis, 1991). The digit span test in the Wechsler tests is the format most commonly used to measure
the span of immediate recall. Current Spanish norms are included in the WAIS-III and WMS-III manuals (Wechsler, 1987,
1997, 2004a, 2004b). Artiola, Hermosillo, Heaton, and Pardee (1999) included in the Spanish battery a digit span test
adapted from the WAIS. The sample included 205 subjects from Spain, of whom only 33 were in the 55þ year range.
Forward Span
The digit forward span has a relatively restricted range and 89% of the subjects show spans within the 5 – 8 digit range
(Kaplan et al., 1991). The normal range for forward digits is 6 + 1 (Miller, 1956; Spitz, 1972), and education has an effect
on the score (Ardila & Rosselli, 1989; Kaufman, McLean, & Reynolds, 1988). Age minimally affects forward span beyond
the ages of 65 or 70 years (Hickman, Howieson, Dame, Sexton, & Kaye, 2000; Howieson, Holm, Kaye, Oken, &
Howieson, 1993; Orsini, Grossi, Capitani, Laiacoma, Papagno, & Vallar, 1987). It is important to point out that differences
in digit span forward performance between English and Spanish speakers are probably due to the greater number of syllables
per digit in the Spanish language (Olazarán, Jacobs, & Stern, 1996).
Backward Span
This task involves mental tracking with verbal and visual processes (Larrabee & Kane, 1986) and includes a strong WM
component. It is distinct from the more passive span measured by Digits Forward (Banken, 1985; Black, 1986). The
normal raw score difference between forward digits and backward digits tends to range around 1 (from 0.59 to 2) (Black &
Strub, 1978; Kaplan et al., 1991; Mueller & Overcast, 1976; Orsini et al., 1987). The normal span for backward digits is
4 – 5, and a score of 3 is considered borderline defective or defective depending on the educational level of the subject
(Botwinick & Storand, 1974; Lezak et al., 2004). Scores typically decrease about one point beyond age 70, but not all
older subjects get lower scores than younger ones (Canavan et al., 1989; Howieson et al., 1993).
Visuospatial Span (Corsi’s Test)
It consists of nine cubes fastened in a random order in a board. Each time the examiner taps the blocks into a prearranged
sequence, the patient must attempt to copy this pattern (Milner, 1971, 1972).
Block span is normally one to two points below digit span (Kaplan et al., 1991; Ruff, Evans, & Marshall, 1986) although in
young controls a disparity of more than two points may be found (Smirni, Villardita, & Zappala, 1983). Education contributes
significantly to performance on the test, and men tend to achieve slightly higher scores than women although this discrepancy is
J. Peña-Casanova et al. / Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology 24 (2009) 321–341 323
virtually nonexistent for people with more than 12 years of education (Orsini, Chiacchio, Cinque, Cocchiara, Schiappa, &
Grossi, 1986). Age effects appear after 60 years (Mittenberg, Seindenberg, O’Leary, & DiGiuglio, 1989). In a comparative
study, English and Spanish speakers had similar scores on Visual Span (Olazarán et al., 1996).
The rate of age-related performance decline is equivalent for forward and backward measures of digit and spatial spans
(Hester, Kinsella, & Ong, 2004).
Letter – Number Sequencing

Letter–Number Sequencing (LNS) is an addition to the standard measures of WM (digit span and visual span) included in the
WAIS (WAIS-III, Wechsler, 1997). Patients are required to listen to an auditory presentation of alternating numbers and letters
and then repeat back the numbers in ascending order, followed by the letters alphabetically. This test assesses processing speed
and verbal and visual spatial WM (Crowe, 2000; Haut, Kuwabara, Leach, & Arias, 2000). Normative data show a moderate age
effect (Crowe, 2000). Spanish norms of this test are included in the WMS-III Spanish edition (Wechsler, 2004a, 2004b).
Trail Making Test
Trail Making Test (TMT) assesses speed of visuomotor tracking, divided attention, mental flexibility, and motor function
(Crowe, 1998). For historical aspects and versions of the test, see Strauss et al. (2006). The test has two parts: (A) drawing a line
linking numbers in sequence and (B) drawing a line linking letters and numbers in sequence (Partington & Leiter, 1949; Reitan
& Wolfson, 1993). The score derived for each trail is the number of seconds required to complete the task. Motor agility and
speed make a strong contribution to successful performance in this test (Schear & Sato, 1989).
Normative data vary markedly according to the characteristics of the normative samples (Ashendorf et al., 2008;
Giovagnioli et al., 1996; Lezak et al., 2004; Mitrushina, Boone, Razani, & D’Elia, 2005; Periáñez et al., 2007; Suokup
et al., 1988; Strauss et al., 2006). Demographic effects such as age, education, ethnicity, and sex have been associated with
TMT scores (Horton & Roberts, 2003). A recent meta-analysis study stressed that normative data from different countries
and cultures are not equivalent, a fact that might lead to serious diagnostic errors (Fernández & Marcopulos, 2008).
Performance on TMT is affected by age: increased age is related to poorer test scores (Ernst, Warner, Townes, Peel, &
Preston, 1987; Periáñez et al., 2007; Rasmusson, Zonderman, Kawas, & Resnick, 1998; Salthouse et al., 2000; Stuss,
Stethem, & Poirier, 1987; Wecker, Kramer, Wisniewski, Delis, & Kaplan, 2000). Lower levels of education are associated
with the poorest test scores (Bornstein, 1985; Bornstein & Suga, 1988; Ernst, 1987; Stuss, Stethem, Hugenholtz, &
Richard, 1989). Sex has little impact on performance in adults (Hester, Kinsella, Ong, & McGregor, 2005; Lucas et al.,
2005; Tombaugh, 2004) although women may perform slower than men in part B (Bornstein, 1985; Ernst, 1987).
The TMT was included in the MOANS (Steinberg, Bieliauskas, Smith, & Ivnik, 2005) and MOAANS (Lucas et al., 2005)
projects. Spanish norms are available (Del Ser et al., 2004; Periáñez et al., 2007). The study of Periáñez and colleagues (2007)
consisted of 223 healthy control subjects: 69 were in the 16 –24 year range, 89 were in the 25– 54 year range, and 65 were in the
55– 80 year range. The study of Del Ser and colleagues (2004) examined a population sample aged more than 70 years.
Spanish speakers commonly use two versions of the alphabet, one that includes the sound/grapheme “Ch” between C and D
and another that goes directly from C to D. Recently, versions of the TMT part B have been created and compared (Cherner
et al., 2008). The findings of the comparison suggest that both versions are equivalent and can be administered to Spanish
speakers without affecting comparability.
Symbol Digit Modalities Test
Symbol Digit Modalities Test (SDMT) (Smith, 1982 [First Edition, 1973]) measures divided attention, visual scanning,
visual tracking, perceptual speed, motor speed, and memory (Shum, McFarland, & Bain, 1990). A coding key is presented,
consisting of nine meaningless geometric designs each paired with a number. The subject is required to scan the key and
write down the number corresponding to each design as rapidly as possible in 90 seconds. There is a practice period (10
boxes). The number of correct responses is recorded. The maximum score is 110.
A series of normative studies have been published (Lezak et al., 2004; Mitrushina et al., 2005; Smith, 1982 [Revised
Manual]; Strauss et al., 2006; Sheridan et al., 2006) including a Spanish version (Smith, 2002). The Spanish normative
study consists of 1,054 adult subjects from 18 to 85 years old. Norms are presented for six age groups and only two groups
of education (basic and superior).
Manual speed and agility contribute significantly to SDMT performance (Schear & Sato, 1989). SDMT scores decline with
age (see Strauss et al., 2006 for a review). This decline probably reflects changes in the speed of both motor response and
information processing (Gilmore, Royer, & Gruhn, 1983a, 1983b) and in memory (Joy, Kaplan, & Fein, 2004). Performance
improves with increasing education (Richardson & Marottoli, 1996). Education- and age-corrected norms for people older than
75 years have been developed (Richardson & Marottoli, 1996). Sex differences have not always been found and appear to be of
insufficient magnitude to create separate gender-based norms (Gilmore et al., 1983a, 1983b), although this finding has not
always been consistent (Jorm, Anstey, & Christensen, 2004).
Materials and Methods

Research Participants
Recruitment procedures, socio-demographic characteristics and participant characteristics of the entire NEURONORMA sample
have been reported in a previous paper (see Peña-Casanova et al., 2009). Due to logistic organization, not all the participants were
administered one or more neuropsychological measures. Data from all completed tests were included in the normative studies,
leading to minor sample size variations among tests. The distribution of demographic variables by test is presented in Table 1.
Neuropsychological Measures
The neuropsychological measures were administered as part of a larger neuropsychological test battery, the
NEURONORMA battery (Peña-Casanova et al., 2009). Tests were administered by neuropsychologists specifically trained
for this project.
Verbal Span
The two parts of the digit span test (forward and backward) in the Spanish version (Peña-Casanova, 2005) were adminis-
tered following standard procedures as indicated in the WAIS-III manual (Wechsler, 1997). The range of raw scores (last
series) is the following: forward digits 0 – 9; backward digits 0– 8.
Table 1. Sample size by demographics and test

Verbal Span Visuospatial LNS Trail Making Test Symbol-Digit
Span Modalities Test
Part A Part B
N % N % N % N % N % N %
Age Group
50–56 76 21.47 76 21.78 74 22.16 76 21.71 75 22.94 76 21.97
57–59 51 14.41 51 14.61 51 15.27 51 14.57 49 14.98 51 14.74
60–62 34 9.60 34 9.74 34 10.18 34 9.71 30 9.17 34 9.83
63–65 19 5.37 18 5.16 16 4.79 18 5.14 16 4.89 17 4.91
66–68 26 7.34 26 7.45 24 7.19 25 7.14 24 7.34 26 7.51
69–71 50 14.12 48 13.75 46 13.77 49 14.00 49 14.98 49 14.16
72–74 33 9.32 32 9.17 30 8.98 33 9.43 29 8.87 32 9.25
75–77 31 8.76 31 8.88 29 8.68 31 8.86 26 7.95 30 8.67
78–80 21 5.93 21 6.02 20 5.99 21 6.00 19 5.81 21 6.07
.80 13 3.67 12 3.44 10 2.99 12 3.43 10 3.06 10 2.89
Education (Years)
5 76 21.47 73 20.92 63 18.86 72 20.57 57 17.43 69 19.94
6 –7 26 7.34 25 7.16 24 7.19 25 7.14 22 6.73 24 6.94
8 –9 67 18.93 66 18.91 64 19.16 67 19.14 62 18.96 67 19.36
10–11 41 11.58 41 11.75 40 11.98 40 11.43 40 12.23 40 11.56
12–13 35 9.89 36 10.32 35 10.48 36 10.29 36 11.01 36 10.40
14–15 33 9.32 33 9.46 33 9.88 34 9.71 34 10.40 34 9.83
16 76 21.47 75 21.49 75 22.46 76 21.71 76 23.24 76 21.97
Gender
Male 143 40.40 140 40.11 138 41.32 141 40.29 138 42.20 140 40.46
Female 211 59.60 209 59.89 196 58.68 209 59.71 189 57.80 206 59.54
Total Sample (n) 354 349 334 350 327 346
Notes: N ¼ number (count); LNS ¼ letter– number sequencing.
Visuospatial Span
The two parts of the visual memory span (tapping forward and tapping backward) were administered following adminis-
tration procedures as indicated in the WMS-R-NI manual (Corsi’s Test, from the WAIS-R-NI, Kaplan et al., 1991). This
version requires two administrations at each level. The longest span was recorded (last item score) and the global score as
well (sum of all administrations). The range scores for forward and backward formats are the following: last item (longest
score) 0 – 8; raw score (global score) 0 – 16.

Standard administration procedures were followed as indicated in the test manual (WAIS-III, Wechsler, 1997). The range of
the possible raw scores is from 0 to 21. The last item (the longest score) has a maximum of 7.
Trail Making Test

Parts A and B were administered following the procedures described by Reitan and Wolfson (1985). Following these stan-
dard procedures, “Ch” was not included. We allowed unlimited time for participants to complete the test. Score was recorded as
the time in seconds to complete each of the two parts of the test.

Standard administration procedures were followed as indicated in the test manual (Smith, 1973). In all cases, 10 sample
practice boxes were administered prior to the presentation of the actual 110 test items. The score of the test is the number
of correct substitutions in a 90-second interval. The maximum score is 110.
Statistical Analysis
The same statistical procedures as those used in other NEURONORMA normative studies were applied to all measures (see
Peña-Casanova et al., 2009). Briefly, the primary steps of this process were: (a) use of midpoint age intervals (Pauker, 1988) to
maximize the information available at each age and measure. Each midpoint age group provides norms for individuals of that
age, +1 year; (b) coefficients of correlation (r) and determination (r 2) of all raw scores with age, years of education, and sex
were determined; (c) to ensure a normal distribution, the frequency distribution of the raw scores was converted into
age-adjusted scaled scores, NSSA (NEURONORMA Scaled Score age-adjusted). For each age range, a cumulative frequency
distribution of the raw scores was generated. Raw scores were assigned percentile ranks in function of their place within a
distribution. Subsequently, percentile ranks were converted into scaled scores (from 2 to 18) based on percentile ranges.
From these data, normative tables (NSSA) were created. This transformation of raw scores to NSSA produced a normalized
distribution (mean ¼10; SD ¼3) on which linear regressions could be applied; (d) years of education were modeled using
the following equation: NSSA ¼kþ(b * Educ). The regression coefficient (b) from this analysis was taken as the basis for
education adjustments. A linear regression was employed to derive age- and education-adjusted scaled scores. The following
formula outlined by Mungas, Marshall, Weldon, Haan, and Reed (1996) was employed:
NSSA&E ¼ NSSA ðb ½Educ 12Þ:
The obtained value was truncated to the next lower integer (e.g., 10.75 would be truncated to 10).
Results
Age distribution of the sample made it possible to calculate norms for 10 midpoint age groups. The sample sizes resulting
from mid-point age intervals are shown in each normative table.
Effects of age, education, and sex (correlations and shared variances) on raw scores are presented in Table 2. Age and edu-
cation accounted significantly for raw score variance for all measures. Sex differences were minimal (2 – 3%) or not observed,
indicating no need to control this demographic variable.
Age-adjusted NEURONORMA scaled scores (NSSA), percentile ranks, ranges of ages contributing to each normative
group, and the number of participants contributing to each test normative estimate are shown in Tables 3 – 12. To use these
data, select the appropriate normative table corresponding to the patient’s age, find the appropriate test heading, find the
patient’s raw score, and subsequently refer to the corresponding NSSA and associated percentile rank (left part of the table).
Table 2. Correlations (r) and shared variance (r 2) of raw scores with age, years of education and sex
Neuropsychological Measure Age (years) Education (years) Sex

2 2
r r r r r r2
Verbal Span
Forward 20.22285 0.04966 0.48146 0.23180 20.14623 0.02138
Backwards 20.26298 0.06916 0.52124 0.27169 20.18675 0.03488

Visuospatial Span
Last Item Forward 20.21009 0.04414 0.25412 0.06458 20.12325 0.01519
Forward Raw Score 20.24247 0.05879 0.33336 0.11113 20.14558 0.02119
Last Item Backwards 20.30296 0.09178 0.42161 0.17775 20.14292 0.02043
Backwards Raw Score 20.31042 0.09636 0.46298 0.21435 20.12384 0.01534
Letter Number Sequencing
Last Item 20.34826 0.12129 0.51502 0.26525 20.18212 0.03317
Raw Score 20.39787 0.15830 0.59019 0.34832 20.15682 0.02459
Trail Making Test
Part A 0.36752 0.13507 20.47575 0.22634 0.07414 0.00550
Part B 0.33183 0.11011 20.51500 0.26523 0.09482 0.00899
Total Score 20.47709 0.22761 0.66646 0.44417 20.04979 0.00248
Table 3. Age-adjusted NEURONORMA scores (NSSA) for age 50– 56 (age range for norms ¼ 50–60)
Scaled Percentile Digit Span Corsi Blocks LNS Trail Making Test SDMT
Score Range
Forward Backward Forward Backward Raw Last Part A Part B
Score Item Score
Raw Last Item Raw Last Item
Score Score Score Score
2 ,1 3 0 2 1 1 1 2 0 121 480 5
3 1 — 2 — — — — 3 1 118– 120 406 –479 6
4 2 — — 3 — 2 — — — 102– 117 381 –405 7– 12
5 3– 5 4 — 4 2 3 — 4 — 81–101 223 –380 13– 17
6 6– 10 — — — — — 2 5 2 68–80 178 –222 18– 21
7 11–18 — — 5 — 4 — 6 — 59–67 138 –177 22– 27
8 19–28 — — — — 5 — 7 — 54–58 123 –137 28– 33
9 29–40 5 3 — 3 — — 8 3 47–53 108 –122 34– 36
10 41–59. — 4 6 –7 4 6 3 9 –10 — 36–46 80– 107 37– 48
11 60–71 6 — 8 — 7 4 — 4 34–35 71– 79 49– 52
12 72–81 — — — — — — 11 — 29–33 64– 70 53– 54
13 82–89 — 5 9 5 8 — 12 — 26–28 55– 63 55– 56
14 90–94 7 — 10 — — 5 — 5 25 51– 54 57– 59
15 95–97 8 6 11 6 9 — 13 — 24 45– 50 60– 63
16 98 — — — — 10 — 14 — 23 43– 44 64– 67
17 99 — — 12 7 — — 15 6 18–22 42 68– 69
18 .99 9 7 13 8 11 6 16 7 17 41 70
Sample Size 136 136 135 137 133 137
Notes: LNS ¼ letter–number sequencing; SDMT ¼ symbol digit modalities test.
Correlation (r) and shared variances (r 2) for age and education with NSSA are presented for all neuropsychological measures
in Table 13. As expected, the normative adjustments eliminated the shared variance for all tests. Education, however, continues
to account for up to 38% of shared variances with NSSA.
The transformation of raw scores to NSSA produced a normalized distribution on which linear regressions could be applied.
Linear regressions resulted in computational formulae to calculate NSSA&E (Table 14). From these data we have constructed
NSSA&E adjustment tables (Tables 15– 25) to help the clinician make the necessary adjustments. To use the tables select the
appropriate column corresponding to the patient’s years of education, find the patient’s NSSA, and subsequently refer to the
corresponding NSSA&E. When these formulae were applied to the normative sample, the shared variances between NSSA&E
and years of education fell to ,1%.
Scaled Percentile Range Digit Span Corsi Blocks LNS Trail Making Test SDMT
Score
Forward Backward Forward Backward Raw Last Item Part A Part B
Score Score
2 ,1 3 0 2 1 1 0 2 0 121 406 5

3 1 — — — — — — — 1 118– 120 383– 405 6
4 2 — — — — — — 3 — 110– 117 381– 382 7 –11
5 3 –5 — 2 3 2 2 1 — — 87–109 231– 380 12–16
6 6 –10 4 — 4 — 3 — 4 — 73–86 197– 230 17–19
7 11– 18 — — — — 4 2 5 2 61–72 151– 196 20–24
8 19– 28 — — 5 — — — 6 — 56–60 129– 150 25–30
9 29– 40 — 3 — 3 5 — 7–8 3 50–55 114– 128 31–34
10 41– 59 5 4 6– 7 4 — 3 9 — 41–49 89–113 35–44
11 60– 71 — — 8 — 6 — 10 4 35–40 73–88 45–49
12 72– 81 6 — 9 — 7 4 11 — 30–34 66–72 50–52
13 82– 89 — 5 — 5 8 — — — 26–29 56–65 53–55
14 90– 94 7 — 10 — 9 5 12 5 25 53–55 56–57
15 95– 97 — 6 — 6 — — 13 — 24 45–52 58–59
16 98 8 — — — — — — — 23 — 60–63
17 99 — — 11 7 10 — 14 — 18–22 42–44 64–67
18 .99 9 7 12 8 11 6 15 6 17 41 68
Sample Size 133 133 131 133 125 132
Score Range
Score Score
2 ,1 3 0 2 1 1 0 2 0 131 406 5
3 1 — — — — — — — 1 121– 130 383– 405 6
4 2 — — — — — — — — — 381– 382 7– 11
5 3– 5 — 2 3 2 2 1 3 — 103– 119 253– 380 12–15
6 6– 10 — — 4 — 3 — 4 — 85– 102 206– 252 16–18
7 11–18 4 — — — — 2 5 2 68– 84 161– 205 19–21
8 19–28 — — 5 — 4 — 6 — 60– 67 135– 160 22–28
9 29–40 — 3 — 3 5 — 7 — 55– 59 119– 134 29–33
10 41–59 5 — 6– 7 4 — 3 8 3 42– 54 101– 118 34–37
11 60–71 — 4 — — 6 — 9 4 36– 41 79–100 38–46
12 72–81 6 — 8 — 7 4 10– — 32– 35 71–78 47–49
11
13 82–89 — — — 5 8 — — — 27– 31 61–70 50–53
14 90–94 7 5 9 — — 5 12 5 26 53–61 54–56
15 95–97 — 6 10 6 9 — — — 25 49–52 57–58
16 98 8 — — — — — 13 — 24 48 59
17 99 — — 11 7 10 — 14 6 — 47 60–63
18 .99 9 7 12 8 12 6 15 7 23 46 64
Sample Size 125 125 122 123 116 123
Discussion
In this study, we present normative data on age and education for the attention measures included in the NEURONORMA
project. These data were derived from a well-characterized Spanish sample of 354 participants who were cognitively normal,
community-dwelling, and ranging from 50 to 90 years.
Score
Score Score
2 ,1 3 0 2 1 1 0 2 0 132 481 6

3 1 — — — — — — — 1 121– 131 449– 480 —
4 2 — — — — — — — — 112– 120 402– 448 7 –11
5 3 –5 — 2 3 2 2 1 3 — 104– 111 301– 401 12–14
6 6 –10 — — 4 — — — — — 87–103 222– 300 15–16
7 11– 18 4 — — — 3 2 4 — 75–86 191– 221 17–20
8 19– 28 — — 5 — 4 — 5 2 64–74 145– 190 21–24
9 29– 40 — — — 3 5 — 6 — 59–63 131– 144 25–30
10 41– 59 5 3 6 — — 3 7–8 3 47–58 101– 130 31–36
11 60– 71 — 4 7 4 — — — — 38–46 82–100 37–40
12 72– 81 — — 8 — 6 4 9–10 4 33–37 70–81 41–46
13 82– 89 6 — — 5 7– 8 — 11 — 30–32 64–69 47–50
14 90– 94 — 5 9 — 9 5 12 — 27–29 56–63 51–54
15 95– 97 7 — — — — — — 5 25–26 48–55 55
16 98 8 — — — 10 — — — 24 43–47 56
17 99 — — 10 6 11 — 13 6 — 42 57
18 .99 9 6 11 7 12 6 14 7 23 41 58
Sample Size 109 109 102 106 99 106
Score
Score Score
2 ,1 2 0 2 1 1 0 2 0 138 402 8
3 1 — — — — — — — 1 132– 137 383– 401 —
4 2 3 — — — 2 — — — 125– 131 318– 382 9
5 3 –5 — 2 3 2 3 1 3 — 104– 124 267– 317 10–12
6 6 –10 — — 4 — 4 — — — 87–103 222– 266 13–15
7 11– 18 — — — — — 2 4 — 74–86 193– 221 16–19
8 19– 28 4 — 5 3 5 — 5 2 63–73 157– 192 20–24
9 29– 40 — 3 6 — — — 6 — 58–62 137– 158 25–27
10 41– 59 5 — 7 4 6 — 7–8 3 49–57 106– 136 28–34
11 60– 71 — 4 — — — 3 — — 44–48 92–105 35–39
12 72– 81 — — 8 — 7 4 — 4 37–43 79–91 40–44
13 82– 89 6 — — — 8 — 9 — 33–36 72–78 45–48
14 90– 94 — 5 9 5 9 — 10 — 31–32 68–71 49–50
15 95– 97 7 — — — — 5 11 5 25–30 60–67 51–56
16 98 — — — — — — 12 — 24 48–59 57
17 99 8 — — 6 10 6 — 6 — 43–47 58
18 .99 9 6 10 7 11 7 14 7 23 42 59
Sample Size 124 124 114 121 116 121
Data from Table 2 show that education had more effect than age on raw scores of all tests. The effect of age for the raw score
variance was 9% for Verbal Span (VS) and Visuospatial Span (VSS). The effect of age was higher for more complex tests
(LNS, TMT, SDMT) and especially for SDMT (23% [rounded]). Education accounted significantly for the raw score variance
of all measures and particularly, again, for SDMT (44%). The effect of sex was very small (3%) or practically absent (,1%)
in all tests.
Score
Score Score
2 ,1 2 0 2 1 1 0 0 0 171 501 8

3 1 — — — — — — — — 159– 170 449– 500 —
4 2 3 — — 2 — — — 1 158 421– 448 —
5 3 –5 — 2 3 — 2 1 1 –3 — 121– 157 309– 420 9 –11
6 6 –10 — — 4 — 3 — — — 110– 120 241– 308 12–14
7 11– 18 — — — — 4 2 4 — 79– 109 194– 240 15–19
8 19– 28 4 — 5 — — — 5 — 68– 78 168– 193 20–22
9 29– 40 — — — 3 5 — 6 2 60– 67 139– 167 23–26
10 41– 59 5 3 6 — — — 7 –8 3 51– 59 114– 138 27–31
11 60– 71 — — 7 4 — 3 — — 45– 50 97– 113 32–35
12 72– 81 — 4 8 — 6 — 9 — 38– 44 82– 96 36–40
13 82– 89 6 — — — 7 4 — 4 34– 37 73– 81 41–47
14 90– 94 — 5 9 — 8 — 10 — 32– 33 67– 72 48–50
15 95– 97 7 — — 5 9 5 11–12 5 28– 31 61– 66 51–55
16 98 — — — — — — — — 25– 27 — —
17 99 8 6 — — 10 6 13 6 — 43– 60 56–58
18 .99 9 7 10 6 11 7 14 7 24 42 59
Sample Size 129 129 120 124 120 126
Score
Score Score
2 ,1 2 0 2 1 1 0 0 0 171 501 8
3 1 — — — — — — — — 161– 170 462– 500 —
4 2 3 — — — — — — — 160 449– 461 —
5 3 –5 — 2 3 2 2 1 1–2 1 138– 159 337– 448 9
6 6 –10 — — 4 — 3 — 3 — 110– 137 274– 336 10–13
7 11– 18 4 — — — — 2 4 — 85–109 214– 273 14–17
8 19– 28 — — 5 — 4 — 5 — 73–84 191– 213 18–21
9 29– 40 — — — 3 — — 6 2 64–72 149– 190 22–24
10 41– 59 5 3 6 — 5 — 7 3 54–63 116– 148 25–30
11 60– 71 — — 7 4 — 3 8 — 47–53 105– 115 31–33
12 72– 81 — 4 8 — 6 — 9 — 43–46 92–104 34–38
13 82– 89 6 — — — 7 4 — 4 36–42 76–91 39–42
14 90– 94 — 5 9 — 8 — 10 — 34–35 69–75 46–50
15 95– 97 7 — — 5 9 5 11 — 31–33 64–68 51–55
16 98 — — — — 10 — 12 — 30 61–63 —
17 99 8 6 — — — 6 13 5 29 — 56–58
18 .99 9 7 10 6 11 7 14 6 28 60 59
Sample Size 129 129 119 127 117 117
We chose to use the same methods of analysis that have been used in normative studies at the Mayo Clinic (e.g., Ivnik et al.,
1992; Lucas et al., 2005). Although some measures (e.g., the digit span) are psychometrically different to, for example, the
TMT or the SDMT, we decided to maintain the same model of analysis (see below).
Table 10. Age-adjusted NEURONORMA scores (NSSA) for age 75– 77 (age range for norms ¼ 71– 81)
Score
Score Score
2 ,1 2 0 2 1 1 0 0 0 171 540 8

3 1 3 — — — — — — — 161– 170 501– 539 —
4 2 — — — — — — 1 — 160 462– 500 —
5 3 –5 — — 3 2 2 1 — — 138– 159 365– 461 9 –10
6 6 –10 — 2 4 — — — 2 1 110– 137 281– 364 11–12
7 11– 18 4 — — — 3 — 3 –4 — 88–109 221– 280 13–15
8 19– 28 — — 5 — — 2 — — 78–87 194– 220 16–19
9 29– 40 — — — 3 4 — 5 2 68–77 160– 193 20–22
10 41– 59 5 3 6 — 5 — 6 –7 — 57–67 121– 159 23–28
11 60– 71 — — — — — 3 8 3 48–56 107– 120 29–31
12 72– 81 — 4 7 4 6 — 9 — 45–47 96–106 32–34
13 82– 89 6 — 8 — — — 10 4 38–44 83–95 35–41
14 90– 94 — 5 — — 7 4 11 — 36–37 75–82 42–49
15 95– 97 — — 9 — 9 — 12 — 34–35 64–74 50–55
16 98 7 — — 5 — 5 13 5 — 61–63 —
17 99 8 6 — — — 6 14 — 30–33 60 58
18 .99 9 7 10 6 10 7 15 6 29 59 59
Sample Size 103 103 94 103 91 101
Table 11. Age-adjusted NEURONORMA scores (NSSA) for age 78– 80 (age range for norms ¼ 74– 84)
Score
Score Score
2 ,1 2 0 1 1 1 0 0 0 171 539 7
3 1 3 — 2 — — — 1 — 170 462– 538 8
4 2 — — — — — — — — 161– 169 429– 461 —
5 3 –5 — — 3 — — — — — 146– 160 353– 428 9 –10
6 6 –10 — 2 4 2 2 1 2 1 106– 145 317– 352 11
7 11– 18 4 — — — 3 — 3 –4 — 88–105 241– 316 12–14
8 19– 28 — — 5 — — 2 — — 80–87 215– 240 15–19
9 29– 40 — — — 3 — — 5 2 74–79 191– 214 20–21
10 41– 59 5 3 6 — 4– 5 — 6 –7 — 63–73 142– 190 22–26
11 60– 71 — — — — — 3 — — 55–62 120– 141 27–29
12 72– 81 — 4 7 4 — — 8 3 43–54 107– 119 30–33
13 82– 89 6 — 8 — 6 — 9 4 42 84–106 34–35
14 90– 94 — 5 9 — — — 10 — 36–41 83 36–40
15 95– 97 — — — 5 7 4 11 — 31–35 80–82 41–42
16 98 — — — — — — 12 — — 64–79 43–46
17 99 7 6 10 — 8 — — — 30 63 —
18 .99 8 7 11 6 9 5 13 5 29 62 47
Sample Size 67 67 61 67 58 68
VS and VSS
Our results show that age and education were associated with verbal and visuospatial span raw score. Tables 3 – 12 show a
highly significant distribution of NSSA scores, especially considering that the critical NSSA 6 has an associated percentile rank
of 6 – 10. In fact, Lezak et al. (2004), although recognizing the effect of age and education, suggested that “spans of 6 or better
are well within normal limits, a span of 5 may be marginal to normal limits, a span of 4 is definitely borderline, and 3 is
Table 12. Age-adjusted NEURONORMA scores (NSSA) for age 81–90 (age range for norms ¼ 77– 90)
Score Range
Score Score
2 ,1 3 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 161 461 9

3 1 — — — — — — — — — — —
4 2 — — 2 — — — 1 — 160 429– 460 10
5 3 –5 — — — — — — — — 106– 159 368– 428 11
6 6 –10 — — 3 2 2 1 2 1 92– 105 353– 367 12
7 11–18 — 2 4 — — — 3 — 88– 91 299– 352 13– 15
8 19–28 4 — 5 — — — 4 — 81– 87 236– 298 16– 18
9 29–40 — — — 3 3 2 5 2 75– 80 211– 235 19– 20
10 41–59 — 3 6 — 4 — 6 — 65– 74 164– 210 21– 24
11 60–71 5 — — 4 5 — 7 — 58– 64 121– 163 25– 27
12 72–81 — 4 7 — 6 3 8 3 43– 57 115– 120 28– 30
13 82–89 6 — 8 — — — 9– 10 — 42 99– 114 31– 33
14 90–94 — 5 — — — — — 4 37– 41 84– 98 34– 40
15 95–97 — — 9 5 7 4 11– 12 — 25– 36 81– 83 41– 42
16 98 — — 10 — — — — — 24 80 —
17 99 — — — — — — — — — — —
18 .99 7 6 11 6 8 5 13 5 23 79 43
Sample 43 43 38 48 37 40
Size
Table 13. Correlations (r) and shared variance (r 2) of age-adjusted NEURONORMA scores (NSSA) with age, and years of education
Neuropsychological Measure Age (years) Education (years)
2
r r r r2
Verbal Span
Forward 0.00518 0.00003 0.42410 0.17986
Backwards 20.02659 0.00071 0.44477 0.19782
Visuospatial Span
Last Item Forward 20.00218 0.00000 0.21603 0.04667
Forward Raw Score 20.04978 0.00248 0.28257 0.07985
Last Item Backwards 20.02284 0.00052 0.34355 0.11803
Backwards Raw Score 20.00671 0.00005 0.38367 0.14720
Last Item 20.01629 0.00027 0.46607 0.21722
Raw Score 20.04192 0.00176 0.54233 0.29412
Trail Making Test
Part A 0.05760 0.00332 20.42860 0.18370
Part B 0.05578 0.00311 20.52234 0.27284
Total Score 20.05487 0.00301 0.61922 0.38343
defective” (p. 353). Our results tend to confirm this statement, but are more objective because we introduced adjustments for
age and education. Also, due to the NEURONORMA adjustments, it is possible to go beyond the statement that “a [digit] span
of 4 is definitely borderline.” Tables 3 – 12 show that a span of 4 is only defective in younger subjects (50 – 59 years old)
because it is associated with an NSSA of 5 for 50– 56 years, and with an NSSA of 6 for 57– 59 years. Furthermore,
Table 15 (NSSA&E), shows that only in cases of practically no education (0 – 2 years) for 50– 56 years the adjusted final
NSSA&E is 7. When years of education increase NSSA&E goes down. The same effect is observed for age 57– 59 years, but
for cases of no/minimal education (0– 2 years) the resulting NSSA of 6 is adjusted to an NSSA&E of 8 (normal). The same
subject with 3 – 7 years of education would receive a NSSA&E of 7, and with a range of 17– 20 years of education would
receive an NSSA&E of 5 (clearly defective).
Table 14. Computational formulae for age and education adjusted NEURONORMA scores
Neuropsychological Measure b
Verbal Span
Forward 0.21327
Backwards 0.21298
Visuospatial Span
Last Item Forward 0.11357

Forward Raw Score 0.14886
Last Item Backwards 0.17787
Backwards Raw Score 0.20213
Last Item 0.24927
Raw Score 0.28804
Trail Making Test
Part A 20.21832
Part B 20.27320
Total Score 0.32136
Notes: NSSA&E ¼ NSSA 2 (b*(Educ 2 12)).
Table 15. Verbal span: Digits forward

NSSA Education (years)
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
2 4 4 4 3 3 3 3 3 2 2 2 2 2 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0
3 5 5 5 4 4 4 4 4 3 3 3 3 3 2 2 2 2 1 1 1 1
4 6 6 6 5 5 5 5 5 4 4 4 4 4 3 3 3 3 2 2 2 2
5 7 7 7 6 6 6 6 6 5 5 5 5 5 4 4 4 4 3 3 3 3
6 8 8 8 7 7 7 7 7 6 6 6 6 6 5 5 5 5 4 4 4 4
7 9 9 9 8 8 8 8 8 7 7 7 7 7 6 6 6 6 5 5 5 5
8 10 10 10 9 9 9 9 9 8 8 8 8 8 7 7 7 7 6 6 6 6
9 11 11 11 10 10 10 10 10 9 9 9 9 9 8 8 8 8 7 7 7 7
10 12 12 12 11 11 11 11 11 10 10 10 10 10 9 9 9 9 8 8 8 8
11 13 13 13 12 12 12 12 12 11 11 11 11 11 10 10 10 10 9 9 9 9
12 14 14 14 13 13 13 13 13 12 12 12 12 12 11 11 11 11 10 10 10 10
13 15 15 15 14 14 14 14 14 13 13 13 13 13 12 12 12 12 11 11 11 11
14 16 16 16 15 15 15 15 15 14 14 14 14 14 13 13 13 13 12 12 12 12
15 17 17 17 16 16 16 16 16 15 15 15 15 15 14 14 14 14 13 13 13 13
16 18 18 18 17 17 17 17 17 16 16 16 16 16 15 15 15 15 14 14 14 14
17 19 19 19 18 18 18 18 18 17 17 17 17 17 16 16 16 16 15 15 15 15
18 20 20 20 19 19 19 19 19 18 18 18 18 18 17 17 17 17 16 16 16 16
Notes: Education adjustment applying the following formula: NSSA&E ¼ NSSA 2 (b * (Education(years) 2 12)), where b ¼ 0.21327.
As expected, our study shows that the raw score difference between forward and backward digits tends to range from 1 to 2
(see NSSA 10 in Tables 5 – 12). Normal raw scores for backward digits are 4 to 5, and a score of 3 may be considered borderline.
In fact, a raw score of 2 has an associated NSSA of 5 in all tables, except in tables for subjects aged 75þ years. For subjects
aged 75– 80 years the associated NSSA is 6, and for subjects aged 80þ years the associated NSSA is 7. These data show clearly
the effect of age (see Canavan et al., 1989; Howieson et al., 1993). Despite of high prevalence of pre-clinical dementia in the
elderly, we consider that the minimal education level of oldest groups could explain the low raw scores obtained in backward
digits. In this case, education adjustments of NSSA scores are fundamental because they add one or two points at people with
few years of education (see Table 16). The final Scaled Score obtained after those adjustments are much more comparable to
the other authors presented (see Botwinick & Storand, 1974; Lezak et al., 2004).
Our results also confirm that block span is normally one to two points below digit span and that education contributes sig-
nificantly to performance on the test. Although we offer normative tables for block total score (sum of all administrations [raw
Table 16. Verbal span: Digits backward

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
2 4 4 4 3 3 3 3 3 2 2 2 2 2 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0
3 5 5 5 4 4 4 4 4 3 3 3 3 3 2 2 2 2 1 1 1 1
4 6 6 6 5 5 5 5 5 4 4 4 4 4 3 3 3 3 2 2 2 2

5 7 7 7 6 6 6 6 6 5 5 5 5 5 4 4 4 4 3 3 3 3
6 8 8 8 7 7 7 7 7 6 6 6 6 6 5 5 5 5 4 4 4 4
7 9 9 9 8 8 8 8 8 7 7 7 7 7 6 6 6 6 5 5 5 5
8 10 10 10 9 9 9 9 9 8 8 8 8 8 7 7 7 7 6 6 6 6
9 11 11 11 10 10 10 10 10 9 9 9 9 9 8 8 8 8 7 7 7 7
10 12 12 12 11 11 11 11 11 10 10 10 10 10 9 9 9 9 8 8 8 8
11 13 13 13 12 12 12 12 12 11 11 11 11 11 10 10 10 10 9 9 9 9
12 14 14 14 13 13 13 13 13 12 12 12 12 12 11 11 11 11 10 10 10 10
13 15 15 15 14 14 14 14 14 13 13 13 13 13 12 12 12 12 11 11 11 11
14 16 16 16 15 15 15 15 15 14 14 14 14 14 13 13 13 13 12 12 12 12
15 17 17 17 16 16 16 16 16 15 15 15 15 15 14 14 14 14 13 13 13 13
16 18 18 18 17 17 17 17 17 16 16 16 16 16 15 15 15 15 14 14 14 14
17 19 19 19 18 18 18 18 18 17 17 17 17 17 16 16 16 16 15 15 15 15
18 20 20 20 19 19 19 19 19 18 18 18 18 18 17 17 17 17 16 16 16 16
Notes: Education adjustment applying the following formula: NSSA&E ¼ NSSA 2 (b*(Education(years) 2 12)), where b ¼ 0.21298.
Table 17. Visuospatial span forward: Last item

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
2 3 3 3 3 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
3 4 4 4 4 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
4 5 5 5 5 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3
5 6 6 6 6 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4
6 7 7 7 7 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5
7 8 8 8 8 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6
8 9 9 9 9 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7
9 10 10 10 10 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8
10 11 11 11 11 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9
11 12 12 12 12 11 11 11 11 11 11 11 11 11 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10
12 13 13 13 13 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 11 11 11 11 11 11 11 11
13 14 14 14 14 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12
14 15 15 15 15 14 14 14 14 14 14 14 14 14 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13
15 16 16 16 16 15 15 15 15 15 15 15 15 15 14 14 14 14 14 14 14 14
16 17 17 17 17 16 16 16 16 16 16 16 16 16 15 15 15 15 15 15 15 15
17 18 18 18 18 17 17 17 17 17 17 17 17 17 16 16 16 16 16 16 16 16
18 19 19 19 19 18 18 18 18 18 18 18 18 18 17 17 17 17 17 17 17 17
Notes: Education adjustment applying the following formula: NSSA&E ¼ NSSA – (b*(Education(years) – 12)), where b ¼ 0.11357.
score]) we agree with Lezak and colleagues (2004) that for neuropsychological purposes—as in the case of digits—“spans
forward and reversed are meaningful pieces of information that require no further elaboration for interpretation” (p. 352).
Due to significant differences in samples, methods, and age ranges, it is difficult to compare our data with norms published
in the Spanish WMS-III manual (2004). It is noteworthy that, despite this problem, there is a practical equivalence of our
Table 5 (age range 56– 66, n ¼ 122) with table D4 of the WMS-III manual (age range 55– 65, n ¼ 122). Furthermore, a
raw score of 4 is associated with a scaled score of 6 (cut-off score, percentile range 6 – 10) in both sets of norms. For older
subjects (NEURONORMA Tables 11– 12 and WMS-III manual Table D-6) this fact has not been observed. A major difference
Table 18. Visuospatial Span Forward: Raw score

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
2 3 3 3 3 3 3 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 0
3 4 4 4 4 4 4 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 2 2 2 2 2 2 1 1
4 5 5 5 5 5 5 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 3 3 3 3 3 3 2 2

5 6 6 6 6 6 6 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 4 4 4 4 4 4 3 3
6 7 7 7 7 7 7 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 5 5 5 5 5 5 4 4
7 8 8 8 8 8 8 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 6 6 6 6 6 6 5 5
8 9 9 9 9 9 9 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 7 7 7 7 7 7 6 6
9 10 10 10 10 10 10 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 8 8 8 8 8 8 7 7
10 11 11 11 11 11 11 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 9 9 9 9 9 9 8 8
11 12 12 12 12 12 12 11 11 11 11 11 11 11 10 10 10 10 10 10 9 9
12 13 13 13 13 13 13 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 11 11 11 11 11 11 10 10
13 14 14 14 14 14 14 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 12 12 12 12 12 12 11 11
14 15 15 15 15 15 15 14 14 14 14 14 14 14 13 13 13 13 13 13 12 12
15 16 16 16 16 16 16 15 15 15 15 15 15 15 14 14 14 14 14 14 13 13
16 17 17 17 17 17 17 16 16 16 16 16 16 16 15 15 15 15 15 15 14 14
17 18 18 18 18 18 18 17 17 17 17 17 17 17 16 16 16 16 16 16 15 15
18 19 19 19 19 19 19 18 18 18 18 18 18 18 17 17 17 17 17 17 16 16
Table 19. Visuospatial span backward: Last item

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
2 4 3 3 3 3 3 3 2 2 2 2 2 2 1 1 1 1 1 0 0 0
3 5 4 4 4 4 4 4 3 3 3 3 3 3 2 2 2 2 2 1 1 1
4 6 5 5 5 5 5 5 4 4 4 4 4 4 3 3 3 3 3 2 2 2
5 7 6 6 6 6 6 6 5 5 5 5 5 5 4 4 4 4 4 3 3 3
6 8 7 7 7 7 7 7 6 6 6 6 6 6 5 5 5 5 5 4 4 4
7 9 8 8 8 8 8 8 7 7 7 7 7 7 6 6 6 6 6 5 5 5
8 10 9 9 9 9 9 9 8 8 8 8 8 8 7 7 7 7 7 6 6 6
9 11 10 10 10 10 10 10 9 9 9 9 9 9 8 8 8 8 8 7 7 7
10 12 11 11 11 11 11 11 10 10 10 10 10 10 9 9 9 9 9 8 8 8
11 13 12 12 12 12 12 12 11 11 11 11 11 11 10 10 10 10 10 9 9 9
12 14 13 13 13 13 13 13 12 12 12 12 12 12 11 11 11 11 11 10 10 10
13 15 14 14 14 14 14 14 13 13 13 13 13 13 12 12 12 12 12 11 11 11
14 16 15 15 15 15 15 15 14 14 14 14 14 14 13 13 13 13 13 12 12 12
15 17 16 16 16 16 16 16 15 15 15 15 15 15 14 14 14 14 14 13 13 13
16 18 17 17 17 17 17 17 16 16 16 16 16 16 15 15 15 15 15 14 14 14
17 19 18 18 18 18 18 18 17 17 17 17 17 17 16 16 16 16 16 15 15 15
18 20 19 19 19 19 19 19 18 18 18 18 18 18 17 17 17 17 17 16 16 16
to WMS-III norms is that NEURONORMA norms permit adjustments for years of education. This is a very important point in
helping clinicians to arrive at clinically meaningful interpretation of scores (see Ryan, Sattler, & Lopez, 2000).
Finally, it is worth commenting that when comparing VS and VSS with LNS data, the effects of age and education are
different and this fact is reproduced in our norms. This result probably reflects differences in the overlap of these tasks
with other neuropsychological domains (see Crowe, 2000; Emery, Myerson, & Hale, 2007; Myerson, Emery, White, &
Hale, 2003).
Trail Making Test
Demographic variables, age, and education affected the score of the TMT, but sex was found to be unrelated to scores in this
normal sample. Thus our data are in accordance with previous studies (e.g., Bornstein, 1985; Bornstein & Suga, 1988; Ernst
Table 20. Visuospatial Span Backward: Raw score

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
2 4 4 4 3 3 3 3 3 2 2 2 2 2 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0
3 5 5 5 4 4 4 4 4 3 3 3 3 3 2 2 2 2 1 1 1 1
4 6 6 6 5 5 5 5 5 4 4 4 4 4 3 3 3 3 2 2 2 2

5 7 7 7 6 6 6 6 6 5 5 5 5 5 4 4 4 4 3 3 3 3
6 8 8 8 7 7 7 7 7 6 6 6 6 6 5 5 5 5 4 4 4 4
7 9 9 9 8 8 8 8 8 7 7 7 7 7 6 6 6 6 5 5 5 5
8 10 10 10 9 9 9 9 9 8 8 8 8 8 7 7 7 7 6 6 6 6
9 11 11 11 10 10 10 10 10 9 9 9 9 9 8 8 8 8 7 7 7 7
10 12 12 12 11 11 11 11 11 10 10 10 10 10 9 9 9 9 8 8 8 8
11 13 13 13 12 12 12 12 12 11 11 11 11 11 10 10 10 10 9 9 9 9
12 14 14 14 13 13 13 13 13 12 12 12 12 12 11 11 11 11 10 10 10 10
13 15 15 15 14 14 14 14 14 13 13 13 13 13 12 12 12 12 11 11 11 11
14 16 16 16 15 15 15 15 15 14 14 14 14 14 13 13 13 13 12 12 12 12
15 17 17 17 16 16 16 16 16 15 15 15 15 15 14 14 14 14 13 13 13 13
16 18 18 18 17 17 17 17 17 16 16 16 16 16 15 15 15 15 14 14 14 14
17 19 19 19 18 18 18 18 18 17 17 17 17 17 16 16 16 16 15 15 15 15
18 20 20 20 19 19 19 19 19 18 18 18 18 18 17 17 17 17 16 16 16 16
Notes: Education adjustment applying the following formula: NSSA&E ¼NSSA –(b*(Education(years) –12)), where b ¼ 0.20213.
Table 21. Letter–number sequencing: Last item

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
2 4 4 4 4 3 3 3 3 2 2 2 2 2 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0
3 5 5 5 5 4 4 4 4 3 3 3 3 3 2 2 2 2 1 1 1 1
4 6 6 6 6 5 5 5 5 4 4 4 4 4 3 3 3 3 2 2 2 2
5 7 7 7 7 6 6 6 6 5 5 5 5 5 4 4 4 4 3 3 3 3
6 8 8 8 8 7 7 7 7 6 6 6 6 6 5 5 5 5 4 4 4 4
7 9 9 9 9 8 8 8 8 7 7 7 7 7 6 6 6 6 5 5 5 5
8 10 10 10 10 9 9 9 9 8 8 8 8 8 7 7 7 7 6 6 6 6
9 11 11 11 11 10 10 10 10 9 9 9 9 9 8 8 8 8 7 7 7 7
10 12 12 12 12 11 11 11 11 10 10 10 10 10 9 9 9 9 8 8 8 8
11 13 13 13 13 12 12 12 12 11 11 11 11 11 10 10 10 10 9 9 9 9
12 14 14 14 14 13 13 13 13 12 12 12 12 12 11 11 11 11 10 10 10 10
13 15 15 15 15 14 14 14 14 13 13 13 13 13 12 12 12 12 11 11 11 11
14 16 16 16 16 15 15 15 15 14 14 14 14 14 13 13 13 13 12 12 12 12
15 17 17 17 17 16 16 16 16 15 15 15 15 15 14 14 14 14 13 13 13 13
16 18 18 18 18 17 17 17 17 16 16 16 16 16 15 15 15 15 14 14 14 14
17 19 19 19 19 18 18 18 18 17 17 17 17 17 16 16 16 16 15 15 15 15
18 20 20 20 20 19 19 19 19 18 18 18 18 18 17 17 17 17 16 16 16 16
et al., 1987; Hester et al., 2005; Lucas et al., 2005; Rasmusson et al., 1998; Salthouse, et al., 2000; Stuss et al., 1987;
Tombaugh, 2004; Wecker et al., 2000). Age accounts for 13% and 11% of the variance of raw score for Trails A and B, respect-
ively, whereas education accounts for 22% and 26%, respectively. As we allowed unlimited time for participants to complete
the test our norms do not show the floor effect observed by Lucas and colleagues (2005) in Part B. Comparison of our Part A
scaled score of 10 (Tables 4– 11) with MOAANS data (Lucas et al., 2005 [Tables 4 – 10]) shows practically the same results.
Furthermore, scaled scores 7 – 6 are in very similar range of raw score in both norms.
Due to significant differences in samples and methods, it is difficult to compare our data with other Spanish language studies
(e.g., Del Ser et al. 2004; Periáñez et al., 2007).
Table 22. Letter–number sequencing raw score

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
2 5 5 4 4 4 4 3 3 3 2 2 2 2 1 1 1 0 0 0 21 21
3 6 6 5 5 5 5 4 4 4 3 3 3 3 2 2 2 1 1 1 0 0
4 7 7 6 6 6 6 5 5 5 4 4 4 4 3 3 3 2 2 2 1 1

5 8 8 7 7 7 7 6 6 6 5 5 5 5 4 4 4 3 3 3 2 2
6 9 9 8 8 8 8 7 7 7 6 6 6 6 5 5 5 4 4 4 3 3
7 10 10 9 9 9 9 8 8 8 7 7 7 7 6 6 6 5 5 5 4 4
8 11 11 10 10 10 10 9 9 9 8 8 8 8 7 7 7 6 6 6 5 5
9 12 12 11 11 11 11 10 10 10 9 9 9 9 8 8 8 7 7 7 6 6
10 13 13 12 12 12 12 11 11 11 10 10 10 10 9 9 9 8 8 8 7 7
11 14 14 13 13 13 13 12 12 12 11 11 11 11 10 10 10 9 9 9 8 8
12 15 15 14 14 14 14 13 13 13 12 12 12 12 11 11 11 10 10 10 9 9
13 16 16 15 15 15 15 14 14 14 13 13 13 13 12 12 12 11 11 11 10 10
14 17 17 16 16 16 16 15 15 15 14 14 14 14 13 13 13 12 12 12 11 11
15 18 18 17 17 17 17 16 16 16 15 15 15 15 14 14 14 13 13 13 12 12
16 19 19 18 18 18 18 17 17 17 16 16 16 16 15 15 15 14 14 14 13 13
17 20 20 19 19 19 19 18 18 18 17 17 17 17 16 16 16 15 15 15 14 14
18 21 21 20 20 20 20 19 19 19 18 18 18 18 17 17 17 16 16 16 15 15
Table 23. Trail making test: Part A

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
2 3 3 3 3 2 2 2 2 2 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 21 21 21
3 4 4 4 4 3 3 3 3 3 2 2 2 2 1 1 1 1 1 0 0 0
4 5 5 5 5 4 4 4 4 4 3 3 3 3 2 2 2 2 2 1 1 1
5 6 6 6 6 5 5 5 5 5 4 4 4 4 3 3 3 3 3 2 2 2
6 7 7 7 7 6 6 6 6 6 5 5 5 5 4 4 4 4 4 3 3 3
7 8 8 8 8 7 7 7 7 7 6 6 6 6 5 5 5 5 5 4 4 4
8 9 9 9 9 8 8 8 8 8 7 7 7 7 6 6 6 6 6 5 5 5
9 10 10 10 10 9 9 9 9 9 8 8 8 8 7 7 7 7 7 6 6 6
10 11 11 11 11 10 10 10 10 10 9 9 9 9 8 8 8 8 8 7 7 7
11 12 12 12 12 11 11 11 11 11 10 10 10 10 9 9 9 9 9 8 8 8
12 13 13 13 13 12 12 12 12 12 11 11 11 11 10 10 10 10 10 9 9 9
13 14 14 14 14 13 13 13 13 13 12 12 12 12 11 11 11 11 11 10 10 10
14 15 15 15 15 14 14 14 14 14 13 13 13 13 12 12 12 12 12 11 11 11
15 16 16 16 16 15 15 15 15 15 14 14 14 14 13 13 13 13 13 12 12 12
16 17 17 17 17 16 16 16 16 16 15 15 15 15 14 14 14 14 14 13 13 13
17 18 18 18 18 17 17 17 17 17 16 16 16 16 15 15 15 15 15 14 14 14
18 19 19 19 19 18 18 18 18 18 17 17 17 17 16 16 16 16 16 15 15 15
Notes: Education adjustment applying the following formula: NSSAE ¼ NSSA – (b*(Education(years) – 12)), where b ¼ 2 0.21832.
Our results confirm previous studies on the effect of demographic variables on raw scores and demonstrate that education-
and age-corrected norms are needed (Gilmore et al., 1983a; 1983b; Richardson & Marottoli, 1996; Strauss et al., 2006). Age
and education accounted significantly for the raw score variance of SDMT (see Table 2). Sex differences were not observed,
indicating no need to control this demographic variable. This test is the one most affected by education in the series of tests
presented in this paper. It is clear that education adjustments are needed for a correct analysis of scores. In fact, Table 25 shows
a three-point adjustment (up or down) of NSSA to NSSA&E. This kind of adjustment is specifically important in cases of edu-
cation higher than 12 years or lower than 9 years.
It is extremely difficult to compare our results with the normative tables of the Spanish manual (Smith, 2002) due to evident
methodological and demographic differences (e.g., the manual includes only two education groups [cut-off .12] and the age
Table 24. Trail making test: Part B

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
2 4 3 3 3 3 2 2 2 2 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 21 21 21 22 22
3 5 4 4 4 4 3 3 3 3 2 2 2 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 21 21
4 6 5 5 5 5 4 4 4 4 3 3 3 2 2 2 2 1 1 1 0 0

5 7 6 6 6 6 5 5 5 5 4 4 4 3 3 3 3 2 2 2 1 1
6 8 7 7 7 7 6 6 6 6 5 5 5 4 4 4 4 3 3 3 2 2
7 9 8 8 8 8 7 7 7 7 6 6 6 5 5 5 5 4 4 4 3 3
8 10 9 9 9 9 8 8 8 8 7 7 7 6 6 6 6 5 5 5 4 4
9 11 10 10 10 10 9 9 9 9 8 8 8 7 7 7 7 6 6 6 5 5
10 12 11 11 11 11 10 10 10 10 9 9 9 8 8 8 8 7 7 7 6 6
11 13 12 12 12 12 11 11 11 11 10 10 10 9 9 9 9 8 8 8 7 7
12 14 13 13 13 13 12 12 12 12 11 11 11 10 10 10 10 9 9 9 8 8
13 15 14 14 14 14 13 13 13 13 12 12 12 11 11 11 11 10 10 10 9 9
14 16 15 15 15 15 14 14 14 14 13 13 13 12 12 12 12 11 11 11 10 10
15 17 16 16 16 16 15 15 15 15 14 14 14 13 13 13 13 12 12 12 11 11
16 18 17 17 17 17 16 16 16 16 15 15 15 14 14 14 14 13 13 13 12 12
17 19 18 18 18 18 17 17 17 17 16 16 16 15 15 15 15 14 14 14 13 13
18 20 19 19 19 19 18 18 18 18 17 17 17 16 16 16 16 15 15 15 14 14
Notes: Education adjustment applying the following formula: NSSAE ¼ NSSA – (b*(Education(years) – 12)), where b ¼ 2 0.27320.
Table 25. Symbol-digit modalities test total score

SSSA Education (years)
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
2 5 5 5 4 4 4 3 3 3 2 2 2 2 1 1 1 0 0 0 21 21
3 6 6 6 5 5 5 4 4 4 3 3 3 3 2 2 2 1 1 1 0 0
4 7 7 7 6 6 6 5 5 5 4 4 4 4 3 3 3 2 2 2 1 1
5 8 8 8 7 7 7 6 6 6 5 5 5 5 4 4 4 3 3 3 2 2
6 9 9 9 8 8 8 7 7 7 6 6 6 6 5 5 5 4 4 4 3 3
7 10 10 10 9 9 9 8 8 8 7 7 7 7 6 6 6 5 5 5 4 4
8 11 11 11 10 10 10 9 9 9 8 8 8 8 7 7 7 6 6 6 5 5
9 12 12 12 11 11 11 10 10 10 9 9 9 9 8 8 8 7 7 7 6 6
10 13 13 13 12 12 12 11 11 11 10 10 10 10 9 9 9 8 8 8 7 7
11 14 14 14 13 13 13 12 12 12 11 11 11 11 10 10 10 9 9 9 8 8
12 15 15 15 14 14 14 13 13 13 12 12 12 12 11 11 11 10 10 10 9 9
13 16 16 16 15 15 15 14 14 14 13 13 13 13 12 12 12 11 11 11 10 10
14 17 17 17 16 16 16 15 15 15 14 14 14 14 13 13 13 12 12 12 11 11
15 18 18 18 17 17 17 16 16 16 15 15 15 15 14 14 14 13 13 13 12 12
16 19 19 19 18 18 18 17 17 17 16 16 16 16 15 15 15 14 14 14 13 13
17 20 20 20 19 19 19 18 18 18 17 17 17 17 16 16 16 15 15 15 14 14
18 21 21 21 20 20 20 19 19 19 18 18 18 18 17 17 17 16 16 16 15 15
groups stop at 65þ years). Due to the significant effect of education on raw score, this oversimplification for clinical purposes,
especially in elderly subjects, appears inadequate.
Finally, it is worth commenting that in a community-based sample, SDMT was not significantly affected by age, education,
and sex (Sheridan et al., 2006). It is probable that this was the result of a combination of influential age and education range
restrictions and a low number of subjects.
Final Comments
One of the strengths of this normative sample is its inclusion of a wide range of educational levels (from illiterate to higher
educated) and the provision of education-based adjustments. Tables with both age and education adjustments may be
particularly useful to reduce the risk of misdiagnosing cognitive impairment in elderly Spanish subjects. These kinds of adjust-
ments should improve diagnostic accuracy of cognitive impairment because they can better predict the patient’s decline from
premorbid status and give information about their expected premorbid scores (Silverberg & Millis, 2009).
One of the advantages of the NEURONORMA norms is that they allow the valid comparison of a subject’s performance
across all normed tests. This is due to the NEURONORMA practice of simultaneously co-norming multiple tests. Separate
NEURONORMA publications (this issue) report on other tests included in the project: Boston Naming Test (Kaplan,
Goodglass, & Weintraub, 2001); Token Test (De Renzi & Faglioni, 1978); Selected test of the Visual Object and Space

Perception Battery (Warrington & James, 1991); Judgment of Line Orientation (Benton, Hannay, & Varney, 1975, 1994);
Rey – Osterrieth Complex Figure (Osterrieth, 1944; Rey, 1941); Free and Cued Selective Reminding Test (Buschke, 1973,
1984); Verbal Fluency (Ramier & Hécaen, 1970) including three semantic fluency tasks (animals, fruit and vegetables, and
kitchen tools), three formal lexical tasks (words beginning with p, m, and r), and three excluded letter fluency task (excluded
a, e, and s) (Crawford, Wright, & Bate, 1995); Stroop Color– Word Interference Test (Golden, 1978; Stroop, 1935); Tower of
London Drexel University version (Culbertson & Zillmer, 2001). Recently, some authors have concluded that raw scores
without sociodemographic corrections are more appropriate to determine patient’s acquired brain dysfunction than
demographic-adjusted scores (Silverberg & Millis, 2009).
The limitations of NEURONORMA norms have been previously discussed and are mainly related to the techniques of
recruitment employed (see Peña-Casanova et al., 2009). It is, however, important to point out that the current norms derive
from several local Spanish samples who may not reflect the full diversity of cultural experiences of Spanish-speaking
people. The data of this study could be used to assess Spanish-speaking subjects from different countries, provided that the
subject’s age and education are taken into account (Ostrosky-Solı́s, Lozano, Ramirez, & Ardila, 2007; Ramirez,
Ostrosky-Solı́s, Fernández, & Ardila, 2005). Consequently, the clinician must determine the degree of similarity between
the individual subject tested and the demographic characteristics of the normative sample when deciding whether to use
NEURONORMA norms for a given subject.
Despite its limitations, this study reflects the largest normative study to date for neuropsychological performance of older
Spanish subjects co-normed attention/WM tests. As this tasks are frequently multifactorial and overlap with other neuropsy-
chological domains (e.g., executive functions, memory, switching capacity, mental tracking), future studies should analyze
correlations between present tests (e.g., SDMT and TMT, as in McCaffrey, Krahula, Heimberg, Keller, & Purcell, 1988)
and with other tests (e.g., Tower of London, Stroop Test) included in the NEURONORMA Battery.
Funding
This study was mainly supported by a grant from the Pfizer Foundation, and by the Medical Department of Pfizer, SA,
Spain. It was also supported by the Behavioral Neurology group of the Program of Neuropsychopharmacology of the
Institut Municipal d’Investigació Mèdica, Barcelona, Spain. J.P.-C. has received an intensification research grant from the
CIBERNED (Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red sobre Enfermedades Neurodegenerativas), Instituto Carlos III
(Ministry of Health & Consumer Affairs of Spain).
Conflict of Interest
None declared.
Appendix
Members of the NEURONORMA.ES Study Team
Steering Committee: JP-C, Hospital del Mar, Barcelona, Spain; Rafael Blesa, Hospital de la Santa Creu i Sant Pau,
Barcelona, Spain; Miguel Aguilar, Hospital Mútua de Terrassa, Terrassa, Spain.
Principal Investigators: JP-C, Hospital de Mar, Barcelona, Spain; Rafael Blesa, Hospital de la Santa Creu i Sant Pau,
Barcelona, Spain; Miquel Aguilar, Hospital Mútua de Terrassa, Terrassa, Spain; Jose Luis Molinuevo, Hospital Clı́nic,
Barcelona, Spain; Alfredo Robles, Hospital Clı́nico Universitario, Santiago de Compostela, Spain; Marı́a Sagrario
Barquero, Hospital Clı́nico San Carlos, Madrid, Spain; Carmen Antúnez, Hospital Virgen Arrixaca, Murcia, Spain; Carlos
Martı́nez-Parra, Hospital Virgen Macarena, Sevilla, Spain; Anna Frank-Garcia, Hospital Universitario La Paz, Madrid,
Spain; Manuel Fernández, Hospital de Cruces, Bilbao, Spain.
Genetics Sub-Study: Rafael Oliva, Service of Genetics, Hospital Clı́nic, Barcelona, Spain.
Neuroimaging Sub-Study: Beatriz Gómez-Ansón, Radiology Department and IDIBAPS, Hospital Clı́nic, Barcelona, Spain.
Research Fellows: Gemma Monte, Elena Alayrach, Aitor Sainz and Claudia Caprile, Fundació Clinic, Hospital Clinic,
Barcelona, Spain; Gonzalo Sánchez, Behavioral Neurology Group. Institut Municipal d’Investigació Mèdica. Barcelona,
Spain.
Clinicians, Psychologists, and Neuropsychologists: Nina Gramunt (coordinator), Peter Böhm, Sonia González, Yolanda
Buriel, Marı́a Quintana, Sonia Quiñones, Gonzalo Sánchez, Rosa M. Manero, Gracia Cucurella, Institut Municipal

d’Investigació Mèdica. Barcelona, Spain; Eva Ruiz, Mónica Serradell, Laura Torner, Hospital Clı́nic. Barcelona, Spain;
Dolors Badenes, Laura Casas, Noemı́ Cerulla, Silvia Ramos, Loli Cabello, Hospital Mútua de Terrassa, Terrassa, Spain;
Dolores Rodrı́guez, Clinical Psychology and Psychobiology Dept. University of Santiago de Compostela, Spain; Marı́a
Payno, Clara Villanueva, Hospital Clı́nico San Carlos. Madrid, Spain; Rafael Carles, Judit Jiménez, Martirio Antequera,
Hospital Virgen Arixaca. Murcia, Spain; Jose Manuel Gata, Pablo Duque, Laura Jiménez, Hospital Virgen Macarena.
Sevilla, Spain; Azucena Sanz, Marı́a Dolores Aguilar, Hospital Universitario La Paz. Madrid, Spain; Ana Molano, Maitena
Lasa, Hospital de Cruces. Bilbao, Spain.
Data Management and Biometrics: Josep Maria Sol, Francisco Hernández, Irune Quevedo, Anna Salvà, Verónica Alfonso,
European Biometrics Institute. Barcelona, Spain.
Administrative Management: Carme Pla (†), Romina Ribas, Department of Psychiatry and Forensic Medicine, Universitat
Autònoma de Barcelona, and Behavioral Neurology Group. Institut Municipal d’Investigació Mèdica. Barcelona, Spain.
English Edition: Stephanie Lonsdale, Program of Neuropsychopharmacology, Institut Municipal d’Investigació Mèdica,
Barcelona, Spain.
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Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology 24 (2009) 321–341

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Verbal Span (Digit Span Forward and Backward)

Visuospatial Span (Corsi’s Test)

Letter – Number Sequencing

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Trail Making Test

Symbol Digit Modalities Test

Materials and Methods

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Table 1. Sample size by demographics and test

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Trail Making Test

Symbol Digit Modalities Test

NSSA&E ¼ NSSA ðb ½Educ 12Þ:

Neuropsychological Measure Age (years) Education (years) Sex

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Notes: LNS ¼ letter–number sequencing; SDMT ¼ symbol digit modalities test.

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Notes: NSSA&E ¼ NSSA 2 (b*(Educ 2 12)).

Table 15. Verbal span: Digits forward

Table 16. Verbal span: Digits backward

NSSA Education (years)

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Table 17. Visuospatial span forward: Last item

Letter – Number Sequencing

Table 18. Visuospatial Span Forward: Raw score

NSSA Education (years)

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Table 19. Visuospatial span backward: Last item

Trail Making Test

Table 20. Visuospatial Span Backward: Raw score

NSSA Education (years)

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Table 21. Letter–number sequencing: Last item

Table 22. Letter–number sequencing raw score

NSSA Education (years)

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Table 23. Trail making test: Part A

Symbol Digit Modalities Test

Table 24. Trail making test: Part B

NSSA Education (years)

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Table 25. Symbol-digit modalities test total score

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Members of the NEURONORMA.ES Study Team

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NSSA&E ¼ NSSA ðb ½Educ 12Þ: