ELECTROMECHANICAL

ENERGY CONVERSION
Online Lecture-1
Nedim TUTKUN, PhD, MIEEE
ntutkun@ticaret.edu.tr

Istanbul Ticaret University

Department of Electrical & Electronics Engineering
Maltepe, Istanbul-Turkey
1
Course Objectives

This course is designed to equip students

with knowledge about basic concepts on
electromechanical energy conversion, the
operation characteristics of electrical
machines and transformers, and their
performance analysis based on steady-
state equivalent circuit models.

1
Learning Outcomes-1

A student who successfully completes the course

will be able to
-Know basic concepts on magnetic circuits such
as magnetization, energy storage, hysteresis and
eddy current losses.
-Know basic operation principles of power
transformers.
-Learn basic concepts on electromechanical
energy conversion.
1
Learning Outcomes-2

A student who successfully completes the course

will be able to
-Be aware of basic operation principles of rotating
machines.
-Apply the techniques learned in the class to DC
machine applications.
-Apply steady-state equivalent circuit modeling
techniques for performance calculation of
transformers and some electrical machines.
1
Course Content

1. Basic Concepts of Magnetic Circuits

2. Single-Phase Transformers
3. Three-Phase Transformers
4. Electromechanical Energy Conversion
5. Principles of Rotating Machines
6. DC Machines
7. Speed Control

1
Reference Textbooks
S. Chapman, Electric Machinery A. E. Fitzgerald, Electric
Fundamentals, 2011 Machinery, McGraw-Hill, 2002

6
Reference Textbooks
Gordon R Slemon, Electric Syed A. Nasar, Electromechanics
Machines, 1980. and Electric Machines, Schaum's
Outline Series, 1981.

7
Course Outline Weekly

01-Basic concepts of magnetic circuits, magnetization, energy

storage
02-Hysteresis and eddy current losses
03-Transformer operation principles, equivalent circuit model
04-Transformer open circuit and short circuit tests
05-Voltage regulation and efficiency in transformers, examples
06-Three-phase transformers: connection types, per-phase
equivalent-circuit model, and analyses
1
Course Outline Weekly

07-Electromechanical energy conversion: field energy, co-

energy, electromagnetic force and torque in singly-excited
systems
08-Doubly-excited electromechanical energy conversion
systems, examples
09-Midterm Exam
10-Principles of rotating machines: armature mmf, induced emf
11-DC machines: emf and torque production, magnetization
1
characteristic
Course Outline Weekly

12-Methods of excitation
13-DC generator analysis, terminal voltage characteristics
14-DC motor analysis, ratings and efficiency, speed control
15-Final Exam

1
Assesment Methods

Course activities Number Percentage

Assignment 2 15
Midterm exam 1 25
Quiz 2 10
Final exam 1 50
Total 6 100
1
Basic Concepts of Magnetic Circuits

 An electromechanical device can convert either

mechanical energy to electrical energy or electrical
energy to mechanical energy. Almost all practical motors
and generators, namely electrical machines, convert
energy from one form to another through the action of a
magnetic field.
 A generator is used to convert mechanical power to
electrical power.
 A motor is used to convert electrical power to mechanical
power.
12
Basic Concepts of Magnetic Circuits

A Typical Electric Motor

A Typical Electric Generator

13
Magnetic Field

Magnetic fields are the

fundamental mechanism by
which energy is converted
from one form to another in
motors, generators, and
transformers. Four basic
principles describe how
magnetic fields are used in
these devices:
A current-carrying wire
1. A current-carrying wire
produces a magnetic field in
the area around it.

14
Magnetic Field

2. A time-varying magnetic field

induces a voltage in a coil of
wire if it passes through that
coil.

3. A current-carrying wire in the

presence of a magnetic field
has a force induced on it.

4. A moving wire in the

presence of a magnetic field
has a voltage induced in it.

15
Magnetic Field

Production of a Magnetic Field

The basic law governing the
production of a magnetic field
by a current is Ampere’s law:

ර 𝑯 ⋅ 𝑑𝒍 = 𝐼𝑛𝑒𝑡 (1)
In SI units, I is measured in
where H is the magnetic field amperes and H is measured
intensity produced by the in ampere-turns per meter.
current Inet, and dl is a To better understand the
meaning of this equation, it is
differential length along the
helpful to apply it to the
path of integration. simple example in Figure 1.
16
Magnetic Field

Figure 1 shows a rectangular

core with a winding of N turns
of wire wrapped about one leg
of the core. If the core is made
of iron or similar metals, all the
magnetic field produced by the
current will mostly remain
inside the core, so the path of
integration in Ampere’s law is
the mean path length of the
core 𝑙𝑐 .
Figure 1 A simple magnetic core.

17
Magnetic Field

The current passing within

the path of integration Inet is
then Ni, since the coil of wire
cuts the path of integration N
times while carrying current i.
Ampere’s law thus becomes

𝐻𝑙𝑐 = 𝑁𝑖 (2)

where H is the magnitude of

the magnetic field intensity
vector H.
Figure 1 A simple magnetic core.

18
Magnetic Field

Therefore, the magnitude of

the magnetic field intensity in
the core due to the applied
current is
𝐇 = 𝐻 = 𝑁𝑖/𝑙𝑐 3
The magnetic field intensity H
is, in a sense, a measure of
the “effort” that a current
establishes a magnetic field.
The strength of the magnetic
field produced in the core also Figure 1 A simple magnetic core.
depends on the material of the
core.
19
Magnetic Field

The relationship between the magnetic field intensity H

and the resulting magnetic flux density B produced within
a material is given by
𝐁 = 𝜇𝐇 (4)
where μ is the magnetic permeability of a material, B is
resulting magnetic flux density produced.
The actual magnetic flux density produced in a piece of
material is given by a product of two terms.

1) H is the effort exerted by the current to establish a

magnetic field.
2) μ is the magnetic permeability in a given material.

20
Magnetic Field

The units of magnetic field intensity are ampere-turns per

meter, the units of permeability are henrys per meter, and
the units of the resulting flux density are webers per
square meter, known as teslas (T).

The permeability of free space is called μ0, and its value is

μ0 = 4𝜋 × 10−7 𝐻/𝑚 (5)

The permeability of any other material compared to the

permeability of free space is called its relative
permeability:
μ𝑟 = μ/μ0 (6)

21
Magnetic Field

Relative permeability is a convenient way to compare the

magnetizability of materials. For example, the steels used
in modern machines have relative permeabilities of 2000
to 6000 or even more.
This means that, for a given amount of current, 2000 to
6000 times more flux is established in a piece of steel than
in a corresponding area of air. The permeability of air is
essentially the same as the permeability of free space.
Obviously, the metals in a transformer or motor core play
an extremely important role in increasing and
concentrating the magnetic flux in the device.

22
Magnetic Field

Also, because the permeability of

iron is so much higher than that of
air, the great majority of the flux in
an iron core like that in Figure 1
remains inside the core instead of
traveling through the surrounding
air, which has much lower
permeability.
The small leakage flux that does
leave the iron core is very important
in determining the flux linkages
between coils and the self-
inductances of coils in transformers
and motors.
23
Magnetic Field

In a core such as the one shown in Figure 1, the

magnitude of the flux density is given by

𝜇𝑁𝑖
𝐁 = 𝜇𝐇 = (7)
𝑙𝑐

Now the total flux in a given area is given by

Φ = න 𝐁 ∙ 𝐝𝐀 (8𝑎)
𝐴

where 𝐝𝐀 is the differential area that flux passes.

24
Magnetic Field

If the flux density vector is perpendicular to a plane of area

A, and if the flux density is constant throughout the area,
then this equation reduces to

Φ = 𝐵𝐴 (8𝑏)
Thus, the total flux in the core in Figure 1 due to the
current 𝑖 in the winding is

𝜇𝑁𝑖𝐴
Φ = 𝐵𝐴 = (9)
𝑙𝑐

where 𝐴 is the cross-sectional area of the core.

25
Magnetic Circuits

In Equation (9) the current in a coil of wire wrapped around

a core produces a magnetic flux in the core. This is in
some sense analogous to a voltage in an electric circuit
producing a current flow. It is possible to define a
“magnetic circuit” whose behavior is governed by
equations analogous to those for an electric circuit.

The magnetic circuit model of magnetic behavior is often

used in the design of electric machines and transformers
to simplify the otherwise quite complex design process.
In a simple electric circuit such as the one shown in Figure
2a, the voltage source V drives a current I around the
circuit through a resistance R.

26
Magnetic Circuits

The relationship between these quantities is given by

Ohm’s law:
𝑉 = 𝐼𝑅
In the electric circuit, it is the voltage or electromotive force
that drives the current flow. By analogy, the corresponding
quantity in the magnetic circuit is called the
magnetomotive force (mmf). The magnetomotive force of
the magnetic circuit is equal to the effective current flow
applied to the core, or
ℱ= 𝑁𝑖 (10)

where ℱ is the symbol for magnetomotive force, measured

in ampere-turns.
27
Magnetic Circuits

Magnetic flux

Magnetomotive Magnetic
Force Reluctance

(a) (b)

Figure 2
(a) A simple electric circuit.
(b) The magnetic circuit analog to a transformer core.

28
Magnetic Circuits

Like the voltage source in the electric circuit, the

magnetomotive force in the magnetic circuit has a polarity
associated with it. The positive end of the mmf source is
the end from which the flux exits, and the negative end of
the mmf source is the end at which the flux reenters.

The polarity of the mmf from a coil of wire can be

determined from a modification of the right-hand rule: If the
fingers of the right hand curl in the direction of the current
flow in a coil of wire, then the thumb will point in the
direction of the positive mmf.

29
Magnetic Circuits

In an electric circuit, the applied voltage causes a current I

to flow. Similarly, in a magnetic circuit, the applied
magnetomotive force causes flux Φ to be produced. The
relationship between voltage and current in an electric
circuit is Ohm’s law (𝑉 = 𝐼𝑅); similarly, the relationship
between magnetomotive force and flux is
ℱ= Φℛ (11)
where
ℱ is magnetomotive force of circuit, Φ is flux of circuit, ℛ is
reluctance of circuit. The reluctance of a magnetic circuit is
the counterpart of electrical resistance, and its units are
ampere-turns per weber.

30
Magnetic Circuits

Figure 3
Determining the polarity of a magnetomotive force source in a magnetic circuit.

31
Magnetic Circuits

There is also a magnetic analog of conductance. Just as

the conductance of an electric circuit is the reciprocal of its
resistance, the permeance P of a magnetic circuit is the
reciprocal of its reluctance:
𝒫= 1/ℛ (12)
The relationship between magnetomotive force and flux
can thus be expressed as

Φ= ℱ𝒫 (13)

Under some circumstances, it is easier to work with the

permeance of a magnetic circuit than with its reluctance.

32
Magnetic Circuits

What is the reluctance of the core in Figure 1? The

resulting flux in this core is given by Equation (9):

𝜇𝑁𝑖𝐴
Φ = 𝐵𝐴 = (9)
𝑙𝑐

𝜇𝐴
Φ = 𝑁𝑖
𝑙𝑐

𝜇𝐴
Φ=ℱ (14)
𝑙𝑐

33
Magnetic Circuits

By comparing Equation relevant equations, we see that

the reluctance of the core is
𝑙𝑐
ℛ= (15)
𝜇𝐴

Reluctances in a magnetic circuit obey the same rules as

resistances in an electric circuit. The equivalent
reluctance of a number of reluctances in series is just the
sum of the individual reluctances:

ℛ𝑒𝑞 = ℛ1 + ℛ2 + ℛ3 + ⋯ ℛ𝑛 16

34
Magnetic Circuits

Similarly, reluctances in parallel combine according to the

equation

1/ℛ𝑒𝑞 = 1/ℛ1 + 1/ℛ2 + 1/ℛ3 + ⋯ 1/ℛ𝑛 17

Permeances in series and parallel obey the same rules as

electrical conductances. Calculations of the flux in a core
performed by using the magnetic circuit concepts are
always approximations—at best, they are almost accurate
within 5 percent of the real answer.

35
Magnetic Circuits

There are a number of reasons for this inherent

inaccuracy:
1. The magnetic circuit concept assumes that all flux is
confined within a magnetic core. Unfortunately, this is not
quite true. The permeability of a ferromagnetic core is
2000 to 6000 times that of air, but a small fraction of the
flux escapes from the core into the surrounding low-
permeability air. This flux outside the core is called
leakage flux, and it plays a very important role in electric
machine design.
2. The calculation of reluctance assumes a certain mean
path length and cross-sectional area for the core. These
assumptions are not really very good, especially at
corners.
36
Magnetic Circuits

3. In ferromagnetic materials, the permeability varies with

the amount of flux already in the material. This nonlinear
effect is described in detail. It adds yet another source of
error to magnetic circuit analysis, since the reluctances
used in magnetic circuit calculations depend on the
permeability of the material.

4. If there are air gaps in the flux path in a core, the

effective cross-sectional area of the air gap will be larger
than the cross-sectional area of the iron core on either
side. The extra effective area is caused by the “fringing
effect” of the magnetic field at the air gap (Figure 4).

37
Magnetic Circuits

fringing effect

Figure 4
The fringing effect of a magnetic field at an air gap. Note the increased cross-
sectional area of the air gap compared with the cross-sectional area of the metal.
38
Magnetic Circuits

It is possible to partially offset these inherent sources of

error by using a “corrected” or “effective” mean path length
and cross-sectional area instead of the actual physical
length and area in the calculations.
There are many inherent limitations to the concept of a
magnetic circuit, but it is still the easiest design tool
available for calculating fluxes in practical machinery
design. Exact calculations using Maxwell’s equations are
just too difficult, and they are not needed anyway, since
satisfactory results may be achieved with this approximate
method.
The following examples illustrate basic magnetic circuit
calculations. Note that in these examples the answers are
given to three significant digits.
39
Example-1: Finding total flux
in a typical core

40
Magnetic Circuits

Example 1: A ferromagnetic core is shown in Figure 5a.

Three sides of this core are of uniform width, while the
fourth side is somewhat thinner. The depth of the core (into
the page) is 10 cm, and the other dimensions are shown in
the figure. There is a 200- turn coil wrapped around the left
side of the core. Assuming relative permeability μr is 2500,
how much flux will be produced by a 1-A input current?

41
 (b)

(a)

Figure 5 (a) The ferromagnetic core of Example 1.

(b) The magnetic circuit corresponding to (a). 42
Magnetic Circuits

Solution:

Three sides of the core have the same cross-sectional

areas, while the fourth side has a different area. Thus, the
core can be divided into two regions: (1) the single thinner
side and (2) the other three sides taken together. The
magnetic circuit corresponding to this core is shown in
Figure 5b.

The mean path length of region 1 is 45 cm, and the cross-

sectional area is 10×10 cm=100 cm2.

43
Magnetic Circuits

Therefore, the reluctance in the first region is

𝑙1 𝑙1 0.45
ℛ1 = = =
𝜇1 𝐴1 𝜇0 𝜇𝑟 𝐴1 2500 4𝜋 × 10−7 0.01

ℛ1 = 14.3 𝐴 ∙ 𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑛𝑠/𝑊𝑏

Therefore, the total reluctance in the core is

ℛ𝑒𝑞 = ℛ1 + ℛ2 = 14.3 + 27.6 = 41.9 𝐴 ∙ 𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑛𝑠/𝑊𝑏

The total magnetomotive force is

ℱ= 𝑁𝑖 = 200 𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑛𝑠 1 𝐴 = 200 𝐴 ∙ 𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑛𝑠

44
Magnetic Circuits

The total flux in the core is given by

ℱ 200 𝐴 ∙ 𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑛𝑠
Φ= = = 0.0048 𝑊𝑏 = 4.8 𝑚𝑊𝑏
ℛ 41.9 𝐴 ∙ 𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑛𝑠/𝑊𝑏

This calculation can be performed by using a MATLAB

script file, if desired. A simple script to calculate the flux in
the core is shown below.

45
Magnetic Circuits

This calculation can be performed by using a MATLAB

script file, if desired. A simple script to calculate the flux in
the core is shown below.

% M-file: ex1.m
% M-file to calculate the flux in Example 1.
l1= 0.45; % Length of region 1
l2=1.3; % Length of region 2
a1=0.01; % Area of region 1
a2=0.015; % Area of region 2
ur=2500; % Relative permeability

46
Magnetic Circuits

u0= 4*pi*1E-7; % Permeability of free space

n=200; % Number of turns on core
i=1; % Current in amps
% Calculate the first reluctance
r1=l1 / (ur * u0 * a1);
disp ([‘r1 ‘ num2str(r1)]);
% Calculate the second reluctance
r2= l2 / (ur * u0 * a2);
disp ([‘r2 ‘ num2str(r2)]);
% Calculate the total reluctance
rtot= r1+r2;
% Calculate the mmf
mmf= n * i;

47
Magnetic Circuits

% Finally, get the flux in the core

flux mmf / rtot;
% Display result
disp ([‘Flux ‘ num2str(flux)]);

When this program is executed, the results are:

» ex1
r1= 14323.9449
r2= 27586.8568
Flux= 0.004772
This program produces the same answer as our hand
calculations to the number of significant digits in the
problem.

48
Example-2: Finding magnetic
circuit parameters in a core

49
Magnetic Circuits

Example 2: Figure 6a shows a ferromagnetic core whose

mean path length is 40 cm. There is a small gap of 0.05
cm in the structure of the core. The cross-sectional area of
the core is 12 cm2, the relative permeability of the core is
4000, and the coil of wire on the core has 400 turns.
Assume that fringing in the air gap increases the effective
cross-sectional area of the air gap by 5 percent. Given this
information, find
(a) the total reluctance of the flux path (iron plus air gap)
and
(b) the current required to produce a flux density of 0.5 T in
the air gap.

50
Magnetic Circuits

Figure 6 (a) The ferromagnetic core of Example 2. (b) The magnetic circuit corresponding
to (a).
51
Magnetic Circuits

Solution:
The magnetic circuit corresponding to this core is shown in
Figure 6b.

(a) The reluctance of the core is

𝑙𝑐 𝑙𝑐
ℛ= = (18)
𝜇𝐴𝑐 𝜇𝑟 𝜇0 𝐴𝑐

0.4
ℛ= −7
= 66315 𝐴 ∙ 𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑛𝑠/𝑊𝑏
(4000)(4𝜋10 )(0.0012)

52
Magnetic Circuits

The effective area of the air gap is 1.05×12 cm2 = 12.6 cm2,
so the reluctance of the air gap is

𝑙𝑎 𝑙𝑎
ℛ𝑎 = = (19)
𝜇𝐴𝑎 𝜇𝑟 𝜇0 𝐴𝑎

0.0005
ℛ𝑎 = −7
= 316000 𝐴 ∙ 𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑛𝑠/𝑊𝑏
(1)(4𝜋10 )(0.00126)

Therefore, the total reluctance of the flux path is

ℛ𝑒𝑞 = ℛ𝑐 + ℛ𝑎 = 66300 + 316000 = 382300 𝐴 ∙ 𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑛𝑠/𝑊𝑏

53
Magnetic Circuits

Note that the air gap contributes most of the reluctance

even though it is 800 times shorter than the core.

(b) Equation (20) states that

ℱ = Φℛ (20)

Since the flux Φ = 𝐵𝐴 and ℱ = 𝑁𝑖, this equation becomes

𝑁𝑖 = 𝐵𝐴ℛ so 𝑖 = 𝐵𝐴ℛ/𝑁

0.5 𝑇 0.00126 𝑚2 383200 𝐴 ∙ 𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑛𝑠/𝑊𝑏

𝑖= = 0.602 𝐴
400 𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑛𝑠
Notice that, since the air-gap flux was required, the
effective air-gap area was used in the above equation.
54
Example-3: Finding magnetic
circuit parameters

55
Magnetic Circuits

Example 3: Figure 7a shows a simplified rotor and stator

for a dc motor. The mean path length of the stator is 50
cm, and its cross-sectional area is 12 cm2. The mean path
length of the rotor is 5 cm, and its cross-sectional area
also may be assumed to be 12 cm2. Each air gap between
the rotor and the stator is 0.05 cm wide, and the cross-
sectional area of each air gap (including fringing) is 14
cm2. The iron of the core has a relative permeability of
2000, and there are 200 turns of wire on the core. If the
current in the wire is adjusted to be 1 A, what will the
resulting flux density in the air gaps be?

56
Magnetic Circuits

Figure 7 (a) Asimplified diagram of a rotor and stator for a dc motor. (b) The magnetic
circuit corresponding to (a).
57
Magnetic Circuits

Solution:
The magnetic circuit corresponding to this machine is
shown in Figure 7b. The total reluctance of the flux path is
thus
ℛ𝑒𝑞 = ℛ𝑠 + ℛ𝑎1 + ℛ𝑟 + ℛ𝑎2

ℛ𝑒𝑞 = 1000(166 + 284 + 16.6 + 284) 𝐴 ∙ 𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑛𝑠/𝑊𝑏

ℛ𝑒𝑞 = 751000 𝐴 ∙ 𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑛𝑠/𝑊𝑏

The net magnetomotive force applied to the core is

ℱ = 𝑁𝑖 = 200 𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑛𝑠 × 1 𝐴 = 200 𝐴 ∙ 𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑛𝑠
58
Magnetic Circuits

The net magnetomotive force applied to the core is

ℱ 200 𝐴 ∙ 𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑛𝑠
Φ= = = 0.00266 𝑊𝑏
ℛ 751000 𝐴 ∙ 𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑛𝑠/𝑊𝑏

Finally, the magnetic flux density in the motor’s air gap is

Φ 0.000266 𝑊𝑏
𝐵= = 2
= 0.19 𝑇
𝐴 0.0014 𝑚

59
Assignment Suggested by
the Instructor

60
Magnetic Circuits

Assignment: Figure 8 shows a simple wound toroidal

core. The inner and outer diameters of the core are 20 and
30 cm respectively, and the height of the core is 10 cm.
The iron of the core has a relative permeability of 5000,
and there are 100 turns of wire on the core. If the current
in the wire is adjusted to be 5 A,

a) What will the total reluctance of the core be?

b) What will the resulting flux in the core be?
c) What will the resulting flux density in the core be?
d) What will the resulting field intensity in the core be?

61
Magnetic Circuits

Solid copper wire

r2
10 cm
r1

N=100 turns

Figure 8 A simple wound toroidal core.

62