Current Electricity

Electric Current
The electric charges in motion is called electric current and it forms the basis of current
electricity. Static electricity, or electrostatics, on the other hand involves charges at rest.
Electric current (I) is the rate of flow of charges (Q).
 SI unit: Ampere (A)
 Can be measured by an ammeter (must be connected in SERIES to the circuit)
𝑸
I=
𝒕
A current of one ampere is a flow of charge at the rate of one coulomb per second.
For electric current in a metal conductor (a solid), the charge carriers are electrons. For historical
reasons, the direction of the conventional current is always treated as the opposite direction in
which electron effectively moves.
 Current in gases and liquid generally consists of a flow of positive ions in one direction
together with a flow of negative ions in the opposite direction.
Electric current generates a magnetic field. The strength of the magnetic field depends on the
magnitude of the electric current.
Current electricity consists of any movement of electric charge carriers, such as subatomic
charged particles (e.g. electrons having negative charge, protons having positive charge), ions
(atoms that have lost or gained one or more electrons), or holes (electron deficiencies that may
be thought of as positive particles)
 If the direction of the current (charge flow) is fixed, it is known as a direct current. If the
motion of the electric charges is periodically reversed; it is called an alternating current.
Analogy to river:

In order to help you understand the concept of current better, you can think of a river. Current in
an electric circuit is similar to water flowing through the river.

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 Electromotive Force:
Electromotive Force (e.m.f.) of a source is the energy converted from non-electrical to
electrical form when one coulomb of positive charge passes through the source.
 SI unit: Volt (V)
𝑾
E=
𝑸

where E = e.m.f., W = work done by source, Q = amount of positive charges

Potential difference between two points is defined as the energy converted from electrical to
other forms when a coulomb of positive charge passes between the two points.

 SI unit: Volt (V)

𝑾
V=
𝑸

where V = potential difference, W = work done in driving the charge between the two points, Q
= amount of positive charges

IMPORTANT: There can be e.m.f. without a closed circuit. BUT there cannot be a potential
difference without a closed circuit.

Analogy to waterfalls:
In order to help you understand the concept of potential difference better, you can think of a
waterfall. In the case of a waterfall, the water flows due to a height difference. In electric
circuits, current flows between two points due to the existence of potential difference between
the two points. No potential difference = no current.

Sources In Series
When two or more sources are arranged so that the positive terminal of one is connected to the
negative terminal of the next, they are said to be in series and their e.m.f.s add up.
This arrangement gives increased e.m.f. because, the charge flowing round a circuit will pass
through more than one source and gains electrical potential energy from each of them.

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 Note:
Cells can also be arranged in parallel. In this, all the positive terminals are connected together
and all the negative terminals are connected together. The combined e.m.f. in parallel connection
will not increase like in the series connection. But the battery will last longer before going flat.
Potential Difference
When a torch bulb is connected to a battery, the torch bulb gets lit. The battery converts chemical
energy into electrical energy and is therefore a source of electrical energy. The torch bulb
converts electrical energy into heat and light and is therefore a sink of electrical energy.
 Dissipation of electrical energy between two points (e.g. across torch bulb) in an
electrical circuit causes potential difference (p.d.) between those two points.
The potential difference (p.d.) between two points in a closed circuit is defined as the energy
converted from electrical to other forms when a unit positive charge passes between the two
points.
 SI unit of p.d. is the volt (V). It is the same as that of e.m.f.. (Both are measures of
electrical potential energy, e.m.f. is gained electrical energy while potential difference is
lost electrical energy.)

𝑾
V=
𝑸

Resistance
By increasing p.d. across the ends of a conductor, current flow can be increased. But the increase
in the amount of current flow depends on the conducting ability of the conductor. Some
conductors offer some resistance to current flow than others.
Resistance (R) of a conductor is defined as the ratio of potential difference (V), across the
conductor to the current (I), flowing through it.
 SI unit of resistance is the ohm Ω.
 V = IR
Ohm’s law states that, the current flowing in a metallic conductor is directly proportional to the
potential difference applied across its ends, provided that all other physical conditions, such as
temperature, are constant. Comparing with V=IR, thus, R must be constant for a metallic
conductor under steady physical conditions.
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 Resistivity
Besides temperature, experimental results show that the resistance (R of a given conductor) also
depends on the composition and size.
Resistance, R is found to be:
 directly proportional to its length, L
 inversely proportional to its cross-sectional area
 dependent on the type of material
From experimental results, we can show that:

𝑳
R=ρ
𝑨

where

R = resistance in ohm (Ω)

A = cross-sectional area of conductor in metre2 (m2)
L = length of conductor in metre (m), and
ρ = resistivity of material in ohm-metre (Ωm)
For similar thickness and material,
Longer wires have higher resistance than shorter wires

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 Effective resistance of resistors
In many situations, several electrical devices are connected to the same power supply. There are
two basic methods of connecting resistors or other devices together. They are called series and
parallel connections.
The derivation of the formula for effective resistance for series and parallel resistors can be
found at the end of this post.

Effective Resistance Of Resistors

Resistors In Series

If individual resistors are connected from end to end, the resistors are said to be connected in
series. The effective resistance, R, of three resistors of resistances R1, R2; and R3 connected in
series (shown in the figure) is given by:
R=R1+R2+R3
In general, if there are n resistors in series, the effective resistance R is given by:

R=R1+R2+….+Rn
Note: In a series connection, the effective resistance, R, is always larger than the largest of the
individual resistances.

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 Resistors In Parallel

The effective resistance, R, of three resistors of resistances R1, R2 and R3 connected in parallel is
given by:
1 /R = 1/ R1+ 1/ R2 + 1 / R3
In general, if there are n resistors in parallel, the effective resistance R is given by:

1 / R=1 / R1+1/ R2+….+1 / Rn

Note: In a parallel connection, the effective resistance, R, is always smaller than the smallest of
the individual resistances.

Derivation of effective resistance for series and parallel resistors

Series Resistors

When the resistors are in series, the current through each resistor is the same. We shall denote
the current as I. Each resistor will have its own voltage. If the resistance of the resistors are
different (R1≠R2≠R3≠…), the voltage drop across each resistor will be different
(V1≠V2≠V3≠…).
We know that resistance is given by
𝑽
R=
𝑰
Hence the effective resistance of the whole stretch of resistor is given by:

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 𝑽𝒕𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍
Reff =
𝑰

When the resistors are in parallel, the voltage drop across each resistor is the same. We shall
denote the voltage as V. Each resistor will have its own voltage. If the resistance of the resistors
are different (R1≠R2≠R3≠…), the current through each resistor will be different (I1≠I2≠I3≠…).

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 We know that resistance is given by

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