Session: 2023-2024

Project name: Fatty material of different soap samples

Class: XII

Roll No.: 22MB082P

K. BHARAT CHANDRA RUPSA SARANGI

Submitted to Submitted by

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 INDEX

 Certificate

 Acknowledgement

 Contents

 Conclusion

 Bibliography

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 CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that Rupsa Sarangi, student of Class XII, Jupiter

Public School has completed the project titled “FATTY MATERIAL OF
DIFFERENT SOAP SAMPLES” during the academic year 2023-2024
towards partial fulfillment of credit for the Chemistry practical
evaluation of CBSE and submitted a satisfactory report, as compiled
in the following pages, under my supervision.

Mr. K. Bharat Chandra

Department of Chemistry
Jupiter Public School

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 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

"There are times when silence speaks so much more loudly

than words of praise to only as good as belittle a person,
whose words do not express, but only put a veneer over true
feelings, which areof gratitude at this point of time."
I would like to express my sincere gratitude to my
chemistry mentor Mr. K. Bharat Chandra, for his vital
support, guidance, and encouragement - without which
this project would not have come forth. I would also
like to express my gratitude to the staff of the
Department of Chemistry at Jupiter Public School for
their support during the making of this project.

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 CONTENTS.

SR. NO TITLE PAGE NO.

1. Introduction 5

2. Micelle 6

3. History 7

4. The making of soap. 8

To prepare a sample of soap and to
5. 10
examine its properties.
6. Properties 12

7. The universe of soaps. 14

Biodegradable & nonbiodegradable

8. 19
soaps.
Difference between Soap and
9. 21
Detergents.

10. Experiment. 23

11. Conclusion. 25

12. Bibliography. 26

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 INTRODUCTION.

In chemistry, soap is a salt of a fatty acid. Soap is mainly used as

surfactant for washing, bathing, and cleaning.
Fats and oils are composed of triglycerides; three molecules of fatty
acids are attached to a single molecule of glycerol. The alkaline
solution, which is often called lye, brings about a chemical reaction
such as saponification.
They have a polar end which is hydrophilic (water-loving) and a
long non-polar chain which is hydrophobic (water-hating). As a
consequence, they can form emulsions by suspending oil in water.

Fatty end of water-soluble end

Soaps are useful for cleaning because soap molecules have both a
hydrophilic end, which dissolves in water, as well as a hydrophobic
end, which can dissolve non-polar grease molecules.

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MICELLE.

Micelle is an aggregate of surfactant molecules dispersed in a liquid

colloid.
In an aqueous solution, molecules having polar or charged groups
and non-polar regions (amphiphilic molecules) form an aggregate
called a micelle. In a micelle, polar or ionic heads form an outer shell
in contact with water, while non-polar tails are sequestered in the
interior.

Hence, the core of micelle, being formed of long non-polar tails,

resembles an oil or gasoline drop. The number of amphiphilic
molecules forming the aggregate is called aggregation number; it is a
way to describe the size of the micelle.

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HISTORY OF CLEANING SOAP.

EARLY HISTORY
The earliest recorded evidence of the production of soap like
materials dates back to around 2800 BC in ancient Babylon. A
formula for soap consisting of water, alkali, and cassia oil was
written on a Babylonian clay tablet around 2200 BC.
The Ebbers papyrus (Egypt, 1550 BC) indicates the ancient Egyptians
bathed regularly and combined animal and vegetable oils with
alkaline salts to create a soap-like substance. Egyptian documents
mention a soap-like substance was used in the preparation of wool
for weaving.

In the reign of Nab nidus (556-539 BC), a soap recipe consisted of

uhulu [ashes], cypress [oil], and sesame [seed oil] "for washing the
stones for the servant girls".

ANCIENT ROME
The word soap, Latin for soap, first appears in Pliny the elder's
Historia naturalis, which discusses the manufacture of soap from
tallow and ashes, but the only use is it is as a pomade for hair.
A popular belief claims soap takes its name from a supposed Mount
Sapo, where animal sacrifices were supposed to have taken place.

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THE MAKING OF SOAP.

There are three main ingredients in plain soap, they are oil/fat, lye/
alkali, and water. Other ingredients may be added to give the soap a
pleasant odor or color or to improve its skin-softening qualities.
Some soap is better made using soft water, and for these, it is
necessary to either use rainwater or to add borax to tap water.

CAUTION
Lyes are extremely caustic. They cause burns if splashed on the skin
and can cause blindness if splashed in the eyes. If drunk, they can
be fatal. Care is needed while handling lyes and 'green' (uncured)
soap.

There are two types of soap: -

Soft & Hard soap.

Soft soap can be made using either a cold process or a hot process,
but hard soap can only be made using hot process.
To make any soap it is necessary to dilute the lye, mix it with the fat
or oil, and stir the mixture until saponification takes place.
The cold process may require several days or even months,
depending upon the strength and purity of the ingredients, whereas
the hot process takes place within a few minutes to a few hours.
Dispose of soap-making wastes carefully outdoors, do not put them
in the drain.

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Several things may cause problem with the normal action of soap
molecules.
One of these is the presence of left-over starting materials. Extra fat
will make the soap feel greasy.
Positively-charged ions tend to bond with negative end of the soap
molecules, either precipitating the molecules completely, or
interfering with the ion-dipole interactions between the soap
molecules and the water.

•1.4 million deaths can be prevented each year by handwashing

with soap.
•Children under 5 who wash with soap can reduce their risk of
pneumonia by 46%
•1/3 of the worlds soap is used by the U.S.
•10 Billion pounds of soap are produced each year.
•The average person encounters 100 chemicals before breakfast.
•The largest soap bubble was created on October 9th, 2005 and
measured105.4 cubic feet. If you could fill it with baseballs it would
hold 13.627 of them.
•October 15th is Global Hand washing Day.

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TO PREPARE A SAMPLE OF SOAP
AND TO EXAMINE ITS
PROPERTIES.

EQUIPMENTS:

 250ml beaker.
 Sodium hydroxide (20% solution)
 100ml beaker
 Ethanol
 Wire gauge
 A saturated solution of sodium chloride
 Laboratory burner
 Calcium chloride (5% solution)
 Glass stirring rod
 Magnesium chloride (5% solution)
 Test tube and ferric chloride (5% solution) Filter flask
and Buchner funnel
 Kerosene and filter paper
 Phenolphthalein indicator solution
 Cooking oil and graduated cylinder
 Watch glass to extinguish possible ethanol flames

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 PROCEDURE:
I. Measure 20g of cooking oil into a 250ml beaker. Add 20ml of
ethanol and 25ml of 20% sodium hydroxide solution. Stir the
mixture in the beaker. Place the beaker on wire gauze on a
ring stand and heat gently.

CAUTION
Heat this solution gently, and keep the flame away from the
top of the beaker to prevent the alcohol from catching on fire.

II. Heat until the odor disappears.

III. Turn off the burner and allow the beaker to cool down.
IV. Move it safely to bench top.
V. Add 100ml of saturated sodium chloride to your
soap preparation and stir the mixture thoroughly.
VI. It is used to remove the soap from water, glycerol, and
any excess sodium hydroxide present.
VII. Filter off the soap with a vacuum filtration apparatus and
wash once with ice water.
VIII. Weigh your dried soap and record the weight.
IX. Record your observations.

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Properties:

WASHING PROPERTIES.
Take a small amount of soap and try to wash your hands with it. It
should lather rather easily if soft water or use deionized water.
Record your observations.

EMULSIFICATION.
Put 5-10 drops of kerosene in a test tube containing 10ml water and
shake to mix. Emulsion or suspension of tiny oil droplets in water
will be formed. Let this stand for a few minutes
Prepare another test tube with the same ingredients and also add a
small portion(1/2g or so) of your soap. Shake to mix. Compare the
relative stability of the two emulsions.

HARD WATER REACTION.

Take 1g of your soap and warm it with 150ml of water in a 100ml
beaker.
When you have obtained a reasonably clear solution, pour about
15ml into each of the three test tubes.
Test one of the three tubes with 10 drops of 5% CaCl2 solution, one
with 10 drops of 5% MgCl2 solution, and one with 10 drops of 5%
FeCl3 solution.
Let these solutions stand, then make your observations.
Basicity: - Soap with free alkali can be very damaging to skin, silk, or
wool.

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IT'S TEST :

Dissolve a small piece of your soap in 15ml of ethanol and

then add two drops of phenolphthalein. If the indicators turn
red; the presence of free alkali is indicated.

 Fats and oils are hydrolyzed(split) with a high

pressure to yield crude fatty acids and glycerol.
 The fatty acids are then purified by distillation and
neutralized with an alkali to produce soap and
water (neat soap in a liquid form).
 Fatty acid + NaOH —> glycerol + sodium soap.
 Sodium soaps are "hard" soaps.

 The more saturated the oil (tropical vegetable oils

such as coconut oil), the harder the soap.
 Fatty acid + KOH —> glycerol + potassium soap.
 Potassium soaps are softer and are found in some liquid
hand soaps and shaving creams.

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THE UNIVERSE OF DIFFERENT TYPES
OF SOAP.

KITCHEN SOAPS
They are further categorized into two: cleansers and detergents.
Cleansers
Cleansers are often made with mild abrasives and they are
formulated to eliminate heavy oil or solid particles and hard-to
remove stains. The cleansers come in many different types
depending on the type of abrasives they contain.
Detergents
Dish detergents are made to remove tough grease and release the
solid dirt particles in the foam that is produced by the detergent.
There are two types of dish detergents: machine dishwasher
detergents and hand dishwashing detergents.

LAUNDRY SOAPS
Laundry soaps are formulated to eliminate grease, solid particles
and organic compounds from clothes. They can be found in liquid,
powder, and gel forms.

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CLEANING SOAPS
Cleaning soaps have different formulations to clean grease and soil.
The difference between cleansers and cleaning soaps is that cleaning
soaps don't contain harsh abrasives.

PERSONAL SOAPS
This kind of soap is made in many forms and special formulations for
specific personal hygiene needs. One type of personal soap is the
antibacterial soap that is made to prevent bacteria and viruses from
spreading. There are also body and hair soaps that have a mix of
ingredients that cleans both the skin and hair.

NOVELTY SOAPS
Novelty soaps are especially manufactured for the kids and include
the soaps in the shapes of various items, such as a rubber ducky or
the soap-on-the-rope. There are made not only to clean dirt and
grime, but for amusement and enjoyment as well.

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PERFUMED SOAPS
Perfumed soaps are produced by adding a few additional ingredients
and perfume.

GUEST SOAPS
Guest soaps are miniature soaps that are made and shaped into
attractive shapes and they are basically designed for the use by
guests either in the main bathroom or separate guest bathroom.
Popular and commonly used shapes are flowers, sea shells and
rounds.

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BEAUTY SOAPS
Beauty soaps are produced to feature attractive fragrances, and
ingredients for a variety of skin types. They can feature glycerin, or
special oil blends.

MEDICATED SOAPS
Medicated soaps and original soap are very similar. Unlike original
soap, medicated soap has the addition of antiseptics and
disinfectants.

GLYCERIN SOAPS
Glycerin is a normally produced during the process of soap
production. Soaps which include glycerin in them tend to make
your skin feel moister.

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TRANSPARENT SOAP
Transparent soap uses slightly different ingredients and usually some
form of alcohol to alter the process which is also conducted at higher
temperatures. Not all transparent soaps are glycerin soaps.

LIQUID SOAPS
Liquid soaps are actually very difficult to produce and many of the
commercial liquid soaps are just in fact detergents.

 2.6 million bars of soap are discarded daily by the hotel industry in the
U.S. alone
 Lack of access to WASH contributes to two of the three leading killers
of children under the age of five in the world - pneumonia, which can
be prevented by good hand washing and better hygiene; and diarrhea,
which comes from drinking unsafe water and lack of sanitation. With
good quality water, sanitation, and hygiene, children's lives can be
saved.
 Hand washing by birth attendants before delivery reduces mortality
rates by 19%.
 Liquid soap was patented by the American William Sheppard in 1865.

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BIODEGRADABLE & NON-
BIODEGRADABLE SOAP.

BIODEGRADABLE SOAP: -
A biodegradable soap is a cleaning agent that can decompose naturally over
time. These soaps can help reduce environmental impact when hikers,
backpackers, and campers need to bathe or clean their belongings.
Depending on the formulation of soap that is purchased, it can be used on the
body, face, hair, hands, and objects such as dishes and clothes.

Non-toxic soaps can be made with organic oils so as to remain environmentally

friendly. Oils can be used in soap formulations not only to provide a nice
fragrance, but also as part of a therapeutic bathing experience. For example,
lavender and peppermint oils can help relax a tense hiker. Tree oil, eucalyptus
and pumice ingredients can help soothe aching feet. Jojoba, castor and almond
oils are other common oils used in soap formulations.

It is important for individuals to realize that using a biodegradable soap does

not necessarily mean that the soap is safe to use around all water sources.
These soaps degrade over time, but they require contact with soil to do so. If it
isn't used at least 200 feet (60.96 m) from water sources, it can pollute them
and make them unsuitable for other uses.

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NON - BIODEGRADABLE SOAP: -

Non-biodegradable soaps are cleaning agents which cannot decompose

naturally over time. This kind of soap can be a threat to the earth, it can
cause soil, water, and other types of pollution.

This kind of soap feels good while using but it can cause some kind of side
effects on the applied surface(skin). Normally professional and instant beauty
soaps are made with toxic(nonbiodegradable) material.

Its formulation depends upon the kind of area in which they are going to be
used. Soaps with a strong smell and constant exposure to them can even
cause nervous breakdown, asthma, and migraines. The three harmful
ingredients present in these toxic soaps are parabens, sulfates, and triclosan.

Let me explain what triclosan/ triclocarban can do with us.

The chemicals react with chlorine in tap water to produce dioxins. Dioxins are
neurotoxins that can cause cancer, nerve disorders, and immune system
disorders. The chemicals are endocrine disrupters, blocking thyroid hormone
metabolism and attaching to hormone receptors to block hormones.
According to the EPA, the chemicals can cause developmental and
reproductive toxicity. They are carcinogens. They contribute to antibiotic
resistance in bacteria that causes infection in humans. According to the
Natural Resources Defense Council (NDRC), in surveys of the American
population between the ages of 6 and 65, 75 percent have residues of
triclosan in their systems.

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DIFFERENCE BETWEEN SOAP AND
DETERGENT.

SOAP: -
There are a variety of soaps. A soap is the metal salt of a fatty acid.

The metal may be an alkali metal such sodium (Na) or potassium (K). These
metals are found in the first column of the periodic table of the elements. Or,
the metal can be an alkaline earth metal, such as calcium (Ca) or magnesium
(Mg). These metals are found in the second column of the periodic table of the
elements. A fatty acid is an organic compound most often of animal or plant
origin. A fatty acid contains a long-chain aliphatic carbon skeleton (with or
without branches) with a carboxylic acid group (-COOH) at its end.

An example of a soap is potassium palmitate:

DETERGENT: -

Detergents have some similarities. But are often of synthetic origin. They are
not made insoluble by mineralized(or hard) water. Also, instead of a carboxylic
acid group, a detergent contains a more highly ionic group. It may have a
sulphonate group (-OS(O)2-OH).
In addition, detergents can include one or more aromatic rings. Detergents
offer added properties. They can be used as surfactants and foaming agents.
There are even detergents that dissolve in solvents other than water, such as
gasoline. These often include nitrogen in their formulation. The nitrogen

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compound often includes a ring as part of its structure. Such compounds are
not only detergents but dispersants.

An example of a detergent is sodium lauryl sulfate:

SOAP AND DETERGENT PROPERTIES IN HARD WATER.

The most important difference between soap and detergent is their
behavior in water. A big drawback of washing with soap is that it forms a
scum in hard water, which is not easy to clean and is known to turn laundry
into a hue.
Soaps form a scum in hard water, which is not easy to rinse away and is known
to turn laundry, a grayish hue. The insoluble film that soap leaves can leave a
residue on the laundry same as would see in a shower stall where hard water is
present. On the other hand, detergents react less to minerals in water and
hence do not leave this residue. In case you are living in an area, where the
water is soft, a soap will work satisfactorily, but even then a gradual build-up of
calcium and magnesium ions (also called 'curd') will be left on the fabric.

Another important difference between soaps and detergents is the sensitivity

of soaps to acidic conditions. On putting a soap into an acidic (pH<4.5), it
protonates the carboxylate group.

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EXPERIMENT.

OBJECTIVE: -

To compare the foaming capacity of various soaps.

REQUIREMENTS: -

1. Five 100ml conical flasks

2. Five test tubes & stand
3. 100ml measuring cylinder
4. Weighing machine and stop watch
5. Five different soap samples
6. Distilled water & tap water

PROCEDURE: -

I. Take five 100ml conical flasks and number them 1,2,3,4 & 5. Put 16ml
of water in each flask and add 8g of soap.
II. Warm the contents to get a solution.
III. Take five test tubes add 1ml of soap Solution to 3ml of water.
IV. Repeat the process for each soap solution in different test tube.
V. Close the mouth of the test tube and shake vigorously for a minute.
Do the same for all test tube and with equal force.
VI. Start the timer immediately and notice the repeat of disappearance
of 2mm of forth.

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OBSERVATIONS: -
The following outcomes were noticed at the end of the experiment.

Observation Table

Time taken for

Vol. of soap Vol. of water
Test tube no. disappearance of 2mm of
solution. added.
forth.
1. Dettol 8ml 16ml 11'42"
2. Lux 8ml 16ml 3'28"
3. Tetmosol 8ml 16ml 5'10"
4. Savlon 8ml 16ml 15'32"
5. Cinthol 8ml 16ml 9'40"

RESULT: -

The cleaning capacity of the soap taken is in the order:

Savlon > Dettol > Cinthol > Tetmosol > Lux

Savlon is the winner...

From this experiment, we can infer that Savlon has the

highest forming capacity, in other words, the highest cleaning
capacity.

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CONCLUSION.
In conclusion, soap is a substance, water soluble sodium salts of fatty
acid, that is used to remove dirt and grimes from a surface. Its
molecules have a long hydrocarbon chain that has a negative charged
head. Its
non-polar hydrocarbon chain doesn't interact with water molecules that
form micelles. The soap micelles repeal each other and stay dispersed in
water. New micelles form that having soiling molecules in the center.
The dirt gets attached to them and can be rinsed away.

From this project we concluded that, since soap is started to consume

it has changed our lives drastically.

We should say thanks' to soap's ... because without

soaps this world would literally would not be exist.

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BIBLIOGRAPHY.

This project would be nearly incomplete if I have not

used the information given in the following websites.
My special thanks for the uploader of information on
these websites. If considered, I have used everything that
google shows me ...
Everything encircles here

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