Courtyard Gardens Regulation Principles and Plant Selection in The Historical Process

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Murat Özyavuz (ed.)
Murat Özyavuz (ed.) Murat Özyavuz (ed.)
“Theories, Techniques,Strategies”
For Spatial Planners & Designers
“Theories, Techniques, Strategies”
Global warming and the resulting climate change affect our cities the most. In the
recent years, migration to cities from the rural areas has increased. With this, an
orderly structuring occurred in the cities, and as a result, the quality of the urban
Planning and Design

environment started to decrease. For this reason, planners and designers have
started to introduce different approaches to make cities more sustainable and liva-
ble. This book contains new theories, approaches and practices that scientists deal Planning, Design, Applications
with regarding physical planning and design.
The Editor
Murat Özyavuz is a professor at the Department of Landscape Architecture, Tekirdağ
Namık Kemal University (Turkey). He studied Landscape Architecture at Ankara
University and obtained a PhD from the Landscape Architecture Department of the
Institute of Natural and Applied Sciences. He is the author of many national and
international publications and has worked for many research projects.
9783631839225_cvr_eu.indd All Pages 10-Jul-21 18:58:51

Murat Özyavuz (ed.)

Planning, Design, Applications
Bibliographic Information published by the
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DOI 10.3726/b18405
© Peter Lang GmbH

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Contents
List of Contributors �� 11
Kağan GÜNÇE and Damla MISIRLISOY

Developing ‘Adaptive Reuse Strategies’ for Heritage Buildings: A Case
Study of Agios Panteleimon Monastery in Cyprus �� 21
Tuğba DÜZENLİ, Serap YILMAZ and Emine TARAKÇI EREN

Changes in Open Green Spaces in Post-Pandemic Era �� 41
Talia ÖZCAN AKTAN and Özge CORDAN

Designing for/with Syrian Migrants: Sultanbeyli Case �� 51
Canan CENGİZ and Aybüke Özge BOZ

Nature-Based Solutions for Urban Resilience as an Innovative
Ecosystem Approach in Sustainable Urbanization �� 71
Elif BAYRAMOĞLU and Seyhan SEYHAN

Drought Tolerant Landscape with Ecological Approach
in Sustainable Cities �� 83
Ertan VARLI
Parametric Design in Architecture Education �� 93
Elif AKPINAR KULEKCI and Feran ASUR

Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) and Garden �� 103
Sanem ÖZEN TURAN

Urban Transplantation: An Analogical Approach on Urban Conservation
Interventions �� 117
Ömer K. ÖRÜCÜ
Habitat Distribution Shifts of the Oriental Spruce (Picea Orientalis L.)
under Climate Change Scenarios �� 133
Duygu DOĞAN and Şükran ŞAHİN

Landscape Corridors: The Case of Malatya Province �� 153
6 Contents
Duygu Akyol, Doruk Görkem Özkan and Sinem Dedeoğlu Özkan

Urban Development in the Perspective of Ecological Sustainability on a
Metropolitan Scale �� 169
Volkan MÜFTÜOĞLU and Halim PERÇİN

An Implementation with Low Impact Development (LID) Techniques
within the Scope of Sustainable Stormwater Management: An Example
of Mass Housing Project �� 181
Ayşen ÇOBAN
Urban Agriculture within the Scope of Sustainable and Productive
Urban Strategies �� 201
Candan ŞAHİN, Büşra ONAY and Esra MİRZA

A Natural Sustainable Material for Urban Design: Wood �� 221
Gökçen BAYRAK
How to Integrate Green and Grey Infrustructure �� 235
M. Bihter BİNGÜL BULUT

Human Dimensions of Landscape Planning and Design �� 249
Gül YÜCEL
The Role of Disaster Museums for Disaster Awareness �� 257
Seda ÖZLÜ Sinem DEDEOĞLU ÖZKAN and Dilek BEYAZLI

Spatial Distribution of Human Capital: The Case of Turkey �� 277
Serap YILMAZ, Tuğba DÜZENLİ, Elif Merve ALPAK

Aesthetics in Landscape Design �� 295
Selin ARABULAN
Human Effect on Urban Identity �� 305
H. Selma ÇELİKYAY
Planning and Design Approaches for Liveable, Self-Sufficient
and Smart Neighbourhoods �� 317
Contents 7
Miray GÜR
The Analysis of Urban Health in Bursa Based on Resident Perceptions �� 333
Onur GÜNGÖR
The Examination of the Open and Green Areas of Iskenderun (Hatay) in
Terms of Urban Green Infrastructure Planning Principles �� 353
Mehmet KARACA, Elif KARACA and Gülseven U. TÖNÜK

Rainwater Sensitive Urban Planning – Hydrological Foundations
and Planning Principles �� 373
Serkan SINMAZ
Evaluation of Renewable Energy Sources in Spatial Decision Process in
Urban Planning, Case Study of Balikesir �� 385
İlke CİRİTCİ
Understanding Olivetti Factory as a Sustainable Industrial Heritage �� 405
Cenk CİHANGİR and Pınar KISA OVALI

Architects’ Opinions on Ecological Building Design and Application
Practice (Edirne/Turkey) �� 423
Ezgi ÜLKER BARIŞ

Negative Reflections of Political Decisions on Design in Public Spaces �� 439
Alper SAĞLIK, Busenur YAMAN, Fatma AKBULUT, Şura YILDIRIM,

Tuğçe ÖZDEMİR
Examining the Visual Quality in Environment Choices: The Sample of
Coastal Usage in Çanakkale (Between Donanma Tea House and Military
Base) �� 453
E. Seda ARSLAN
Vulnerability of Ecosystem Services under the Impacts of Climate
Change: A Literature Review �� 481
Ayşe DURUKAN KOPUZ

The Rise of Nationalist Tendencies in the 1940s; Second National
Architectural Movement �� 497
8 Contents
Aybike Ayfer KARADAĞ

An Example of Ecology-Based Analysis in Landscape: Landscape
Sensitivity Analysis �� 521
Demet A. DİNÇAY, Çağıl Y. TOKER, Elif B. ÖKSÜZ, Sena SEMİZOĞLU,

Özge CORDAN
A Transdisciplinary Student Design Workshop for an Inclusive In-door
Navigation App �� 551
Reva ŞERMET, Nehar BÜYÜKBAYRAKTAR, Fürüzan ASLAN

Nature-Based Approach in Ensuring Urban Sustainability: Green
Infrastructure Strategy �� 569
Feran AŞUR and Elif AKPINAR KULEKÇİ

Courtyard Gardens Regulation Principles and Plant Selection in the
Historical Process �� 583
Banu GÖKMEN ERDOĞAN

An Evaluation of Contemporary Additions to Refunctioned
Architectural Heritage �� 601
Gildis TACHIR and Hatice KIRAN ÇAKIR

Instantly Pandemic to Converted Metropolitan City Plan �� 617
Seyhan SEYHAN and Öner DEMİREL

Intra-Forest Recreation Areas as Protected Area Status in the World/
Their Legal Status and Current Status �� 633
Sultan Sevinç KURT KONAKOĞLU

Tourism Corridor Planning Approaches in Urban Areas �� 661
Sema Mumcu and Duygu Akyol

Dealing with the Problems of Urban Life in Residential Landscape
Design Studio �� 669
Alev P. GÜRBEY and Gülden KARABUDAK

Forest Bathing as an Eco-Wellness Tourism Activity �� 691
Feran AŞUR and Elif AKPINAR KULEKÇİ
Courtyard Gardens Regulation Principles and

Plant Selection in the Historical Process
Abstract: Culture, lifestyle, traditions, religious beliefs, protection, sense of privacy,

climate and history play an important role in shaping the historic courtyard buildings
and gardens. Courtyard gardens have been an element of these cultural activities. These
spaces also create a cool environment during the hot summer seasons. Wind, has been
an important factor affecting building design since ancient times. The effects of wind on
buildings and reduction of energy consumption in terms of is important to demonstrate
this effect through experiments. In this context, determining the location, orientation,
building height, courtyard area, used materials and courtyard type of the courtyards of
the buildings can create a new data for the designer and the implementer. The attention
paid to the reconstructing of historical building designs in order to carry historical values
into the future is the mainstay of this study. In this study the given information about
the general characteristics the courtyard gardens built in different periods. In addition,
within the content of the study, general information about too the preferred plant species
for each period in the design of courtyard gardens is included. Thus, the reflections of
past designs on modern designs of today were considered and evaluated from the point
of view of landscape architecture.
Keywords: Courtyard, garden, plant selection in courtyards, courtyard and landscape
design.
1 Introduction
Gathering is a common need in almost all civilizations that have existed in the
historical process. The way people share together for various purposes has led
societies to create spaces for these needs. The places that took their place in history
as the agoras of the Ancient Greek Period, the forums of the Old Roman Period
and the piazzas of the medieval cities are areas designed for similar functions. In
Çatalhöyük, which is regarded as the first regular settlement example in history,
Mellaart’s [1]‌drawings in 1970show the first examples of open spaces reserved
for common use. James Mellaart [1] mentions that the Çatalhöyük houses are
built together, the entrance to the houses is provided from the roofs and there
are narrow passages leading to the courtyards between the houses, and that these
courtyards are places that provide air and light and are also used as cult areas
(Fig. 1) [2, 3]. This settlement belonging to the Neolithic period has a history of
about 9,000 years and Çatalhöyük, which is located at a point that dominates the
Konya Plain in Çumra, is included in UNESCO World heritage sites [4].
584 AŞUR and AKPINAR KULEKÇİ
Fig. 1. Views from Çatalhöyük campus [3, 5].
Human beings, who are in constant contact with the environment they live in
throughout the historical process, have shaped and changed nature in line with
their own desires since the day they existed. This shaping first developed in the
form of protection and struggle and later became a continuous and organic form
with the discovery of the need for shelter. This situation is; it has caused people
to attribute new meanings to the outdoor. With the transition to social life, these
open spaces have gained more importance and this situation has led to the forma-
tion of different spatial constructions. The courtyard defined as a covered or open
area in the middle of the buildings; It has developed as a space that has certain
boundaries over time and is planned and organized according to certain purposes
by people [6]‌.
Courtyard Gardens Regulation Principles and Plant Selection 585
The attention paid to reconstructing historical building designs in order to

carry historical values into the future is the main basis of this study. In this study,
information is given about the general features of the courtyard gardens built in
different periods. In addition, within the scope of the study, general information
about the preferred plant species for each period in the design of courtyard gar-
dens is included. Thus, the reflections of past designs on today’s modern designs
have been handled from a landscape architecture perspective and evaluated.
2 The Historical Development Process of Courtyards

In the period from the first appearance of the courtyards to the present day, the
landscape planning of the courtyards shaped by the influence of Christianity, which
began to spread in the medieval period with the first courtyards, has changed with
Islamic culture. In particular, the issue of privacy manifests itself from courtyards
created by the influence of Islamic culture. In addition, Far Eastern culture also has
different scale courtyards, and it is possible to find different courtyard gardens in
the early and medieval periods [7, 8]. (Iron 2019; Lightning 2015).
Examples of the first courtyard (Mesopotamian, Egyptian, Iranian, Greek and
Roman courtyards), no matter what civilizations they belong to, are important for
landscape design, the arrangement is functional, suitable for ecological data, has
high aesthetic values, and the use of resources is economic [9]‌.
In ancient times, courtyard structures were first encountered in southern
Tunisia, and then encountered in North Africa, West Africa, South Africa and
Morocco [10]. Although elliptical forms were adopted as courtyards in the period
8000 -5500 BC, rectangular forms began to be used over time [11]. The use of
the courtyard during this period is for protection purposes. At that time, entering
houses through the roof is also one of the most important reasons for this. The fact
that the hearth, which was used in the Neolithic period, was located in the court-
yard indicates that actions such as eating and drinking took place [12].
Courtyards were built in rectangular or L-shaped form to gain volume, in the
Chalcolithic period 5500–3000 BC [13]. During this period, the courtyard was cre-
ated for defense purposes. The surroundings of the buildings are built with stones
like castles and all the structures in the courtyard open to a courtyard or courtyards
called life [1]‌. In the period of 3000–2000 BC, the circular form was preferred as
the courtyard form and although important developments were seen in terms of
economy, it did not reflect on the buildings as a class difference [14]. In the years
2000–1200 BC, eaves were built in the spaces around the courtyard to collect heat
in winters and to prevent harmful rays in summers [15]. Courtyard, it is seen in
the Roman and Greek civilizations in the Classical period between 480 -330 BC.
In the buildings with courtyards, they have made eaves that prevent both privacy
and harmful radiation to the buildings around the courtyard [15]. In the period of
476 AD the courtyard was used to provide privacy, above the rooms below ground
level used as cellars were also used as courtyards [16].
The four-column scheme in the square, which we come across in Seljuk archi-
tecture and especially in Anatolian closed courtyard examples, is a continuation
of the Asian architectural tradition. In the Seljuk architecture, it is seen that the
courtyards were built considering the privacy and climate conditions [8]‌.
Today, the courtyard is a system preferred to provide protection and privacy,
which is usually located in the middle of the buildings and sometimes on the front,
back and sides [17]. Many western studies have been made to dissemination the
use of courtyards in modern architecture.
The scope of this study, there are structures with courtyards built in different
periods throughout history and their general characteristics (Tab. 1).
Tab. 1. Courtyard Buildings Constructed in Different Periods in the Historical Process and Their General Features
The Period General features Views of the Courtyard

of the Structures of the Period
Courtyard
Garden
Mesopotamian Mesopotamia, located between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers, has been a home to rich
Courtyard civilizations throughout its history due to the soil quality and fertile vegetation. Sumerian,
Structures Akkadian and Assyrian civilizations are known as the civilizations established in this region
that enabled the region to develop in agriculture, science and technical sense. Small courtyards
created by Mesopotamian civilizations in the middle of residential buildings are the oldest
known examples of the courtyard dating back to 3000 BC. Mesopotamian dwellings are a type of
residence with a courtyard surrounded by deaf walls on four sides to protect from the negative Figure 2.A view of the
effects of the climate [18, 19, 20, 21]. Mesopotamian palace structure
and courtyard [21].
Ancient The Iranians interacted with the Egyptian and Mesopotamian civilizations. As a result of this
Iranian interaction, the courtyard system separated from each other by walls in a formal garden layout
Courtyard surrounded by high walls thus became the characteristic feature of the first Iranian Gardens.
Structures (Figure 3). The garden is a living space where water is an indispensable element for Iranians due
to the climate and soil conditions of the region. The fact that water and fountains are placed on
the most important axis of the courtyard reveals how valuable water is for Iranians. With the
influence of Egyptian and Mesopotamian cultures, trees were planted in a formal order to provide
the desired amount of shade, thus facilitating circulation in the courtyard [9, 22, 23, 24]. Figure 3. The Courtyard Garden
of the Old Persian Period
Architecture [25].
Courtyard Gardens Regulation Principles and Plant Selection
(continued )
587
Tab. 1. Continued 588

Courtyard
Garden
Ancient According to Egyptian beliefs, the living space gained importance after death. For this reason,
Egyptian they saw the houses they lived in as shelters. They did not pay attention to the permanent
Period construction materials. On the other hand, they carefully built the temples and tombs with a
Courtyard courtyard plan. (Figure 4). In civilization of Egyptian, the garden has been an indispensable
Structures complement of living spaces. The green space was accepted as the food of the soul, and gardens
were considered as a place where people would want to be in after death [26, 27]. The courtyard,
surrounded by walls in the Islamic period, is generally built to regulate the air temperature. By
balancing the temperature of the cold air leaking into the rooms in the evenings, the cold air Figure 4. A view of the ancient
remains stranded in the courtyard like a humidification tank until the late hours of the next Egyptian temple and courtyard
morning. [28]. Also the courtyard provides privacy. structure [27].
Ancient The outdoor space was very important for the ancient Greeks, in terms of both sports activities
Greek Period and public communication. As a result of cultural interactions, the origins of the gardens created
Courtyard by arranging rooms around a central courtyard are based on the Mesopotamian courtyard
Structures understanding [19].
Ancient Greek gardens have been shaped with ecological conditions in line with the social life
and religious beliefs of the people. Care has been taken to create courtyards that meet the need
to be outdoors in introverted residential life. The courtyard has become a part of the house in
AŞUR and AKPINAR KULEKÇİ
the form of a peristyle (portico with columns around the courtyard) where the daily life of the
household passes [29]. Aesthetic concerns gained importance as a result of the eastern expeditions
in the 4th century BC in the Greek gardens, where economic utilization was at the forefront in
the first examples. The Greeks, who thought that the gods were related to natural phenomena,
dedicated their gardens to the Gods. However, these gardens dedicated to the gods were replaced
by ornamental gardens in the Hellenistic civilization, with a fondness for luxury in the 1st century
BC [30]. In the pictures where living spaces are depicted in the Greeks, the courtyard, which has
a small area, is covered with mosaic or stone and is not arranged as a garden. By decorating the
walls with baskets in which plants are planted, the courtyard has become a garden. This basket or
flower pot, in which the Greeks grow plants to dry in the sun, is called Adonis gardens. Reminding
the “pronaos” of Greek temples, it is in the form of a forecourt/porch, and there are two wooden Figure 5. Ancient Greek
circular poles between its walls [31, 32, 33, 34,35, 36, 37], (Figure 5). architectural building and
courtyard ruins [36].
Courtyard
Garden
Roman Period Roman civilization has shaped the cultural accumulations of various civilizations according to
Courtyard their worldview requirements. In the identity of the heir of the Greek civilization; They devoted
Structures gardens to the Gods, however, they did not neglect to create gardens for pleasure [38]. In Roman
architecture, villas with inner courtyards in the city are of great importance. According to the
Romans, the courtyard is an inner garden, which is the center of family life, in which there are
service areas, the pool called the impluvium (rain pool) is placed to collect the rain water. Apart
from the residences, there are also courtyards of the baths, which are health complexes in Roman
architecture where social communication activities take place. Independently designed fountains
are fountains built at the focal point of a large square or in a courtyard. It was built in the Roman Figure 6. A view of the Roman
period, resembling the “U” shape of the narrow and long houses on three sides of the courtyard courtyard structure [43].
[39]. Also, 8–7 BC. It is stated that there are megaron-type houses in many Anatolian cities dated
to the 1st century. In the courtyards, an entrance is made through the outer door or directly
to the courtyard. Generally, in the north of the courtyard, there is a living space, namely oikos
(room, residence), which can also be two-storey [39]. There are storage areas, workshops or shops
on the other side of the courtyard [40, 41, 42, 43], (Figure 6).
Courtyard Courtyard Buildings Constructed in the Shape of a Monastery and a Castle in Europe the
Structures churches built to meet the needs of people to worship and the monasteries that are the center
Constructed in of religious teachings are structures with courtyards in the middle. These courtyards, which are
the Shape of located in religious buildings where worship are held and where travel and resting needs are met,
a Monastery are called “cloister” [30]. In the courtyard arrangements of the monasteries, which are of great
and Castle in importance as a source of life in medieval architecture, care was taken to be self-sufficient by
Europe serving all physical and spiritual needs (Figure 7) During this period, the soil was cultivated. In
addition to vegetables and fruits, medicinal plants were grown to cure diseases. Warehouses for
irrigation of plants, fountains or wells to meet drinking needs and ponds where fish are grown
Figure 7. A view from the

for food have become indispensable water elements of the courtyard. [17, 44, 45]. The courtyards, Courtyard structure Built in the
which feed the monasteries as a source of life, have become indispensable places in the middle of Shape of a Monastery and Castle
the buildings, where more thinking, walking and resting activities are carried out, aesthetic and in Europe [46].
functional concerns are prioritized, and vegetative design understanding is realized [32, 44, 17,
19, 46].
589
(continued )
Tab. 1. Continued
590

Courtyard
Garden
Byzantine Byzantine period archaeological excavations and surveys are very important in terms of
Courtyard uncovering and defining Byzantine settlements, whether urban or rural. As a matter of fact,
Structures rectangular planned buildings consisting of two, three or four rooms opening to a courtyard
constitute the typical rural living unit of the Byzantine period [47]. In particular, ground surveys
can provide information about the organization and resources of an entire region, as they can
scan much larger areas than an excavation area can cover. Byzantine civilization synthesized
the eastern and western garden cultures with the unique values. This means that Byzantine
courtyards should be considered separately from Medieval European courtyards. (Figure 8). Figure 8. A view of the Byzantine
Byzantines, under the influence of eastern culture, began to give a religious meaning to the tree. courtyard structure [48].
This approach has been effective on garden designs. Although Byzantine architecture derives its
source from villa architecture in Roman culture, it was also influenced by the use of courtyards in
eastern culture [45]. Byzantine palaces consist of complexes with multiple courtyards. Byzantines
gave importance to vegetative design in courtyards. Care has also been taken to use non-stagnant
waters. The water gushing from animal figures lined up around pools covered with precious
metals such as gold and silver is an indicator of eastern culture. The courtyards are adorned with
marble columns and statues due to the Roman culture. [44, 46, 47, 48].
Courtyard
Garden
Courtyard The fact that their cities are surrounded by four walls has enabled the formation of courtyards in
Structures Chinese architecture. According to Chinese belief, every part of nature such as mountains, rivers,
in Ancient seas and sky symbolizes the transformation of the soul into matter. For this reason, it is aimed
Chinese to create a place where people can find and develop the spiritual beauties of nature by keeping
Architecture them equated with nature parts in garden art [49]. Chinese culture dates back to ancient times
like the civilizations of Egypt and Mesopotamia, the widespread use of wood in architecture
prevented us from having an idea about the first garden examples. Privacy is very important
in Chinese culture. For him, the buildings are located in a large garden surrounded by walls. Figure 9. A view from the ancient
Unlike palaces and temples reaching the sky with their magnificent architectures, Chinese family Chinese architecture courtyard
residences consist of multi-angle courtyard complexes placed on a single-storey and slightly structure [51].
higher platform. The courtyards, which are the family’s private living spaces, are separated from
the surroundings by high walls covered with stone or plaster. in addition to the shadow play of
leaves and branches falling on the windows and walls and creating a background, the view that
opens in the form of a moon allows the garden to watch from a different perspective. With the
influence of Chinese culture, more pebbles, mosaics or stones were used instead of grass for the
floor covering. It is believed that the rocks are the skeleton of the earth and the rivers located in
large garden parts are also blood vessels [50]. In Chinese culture, water is expressed as a source of
life, which is proof that water is an indispensable design element in Chinese gardens. [8, 49, 51],
(Figure 9).
(continued )
591
Tab. 1. Continued
592

Courtyard
Garden
Courtyard In Japan, the garden has been an indicator of the people’s love and longing for nature. Its origin
Structures is BC III. Although dating back to the 19th century, the idea of landscaping has changed under
in Ancient the influence of Chinese Buddhist missionaries (Figure 10). Thanks to the information reached
Japanese today, the water, plants and rocks used in Chinese gardens, whose properties we know, have
Architecture been indispensable design elements of Japanese gardens. [47]. In Japanese home architecture,
care was taken to ensure that the garden, which is considered as an extension from interior
spaces to nature, is compatible with the building. Bridges integrated with the diversity of the
water elements in the garden, bird nests placed in different parts of the garden for the birds to
accommodate, tea houses where tea ceremonies are held have been the structures that decorate Figure 10. A view of the old
the garden. The distinctive features of Japanese gardens are as follows; It consists of rock gardens Japanese architecture courtyard
that are organized as small examples of wild nature, dry gardens symbolizing water by arranging structure [56].
sand, stones and gravel in different ways, and water gardens that can be large enough to create
islands in the middle. In Japanese culture, privacy is provided with regulations that realize the
idea of living in nature [52, 53, 54, 55, 47, 56].
Old Spanish As a result of Islam reaching Spain via North Africa; In Spain, where the summers are hot and
Period dry, the need for shade and coolness and the need to provide privacy with a certain introverted
Courtyard plan have become the most prominent features of the garden. In addition to the influence of the
Structures climate and social structure, the fact that it was settled on the ruins of Roman civilization was also
effective in the formation of Spanish gardens (Figure 11). As in the Roman atriums, the gardens
in Spain are formed from courtyard complexes surrounded by high and closed deaf walls, with
passages between them. Under the influence of Islam, the Spanish courtyards have become a kind
of open living room of the building, where the ideal of heaven on earth is tried to be realized, the Figure 11. A view of the old
coolness and music of the flowing water can relax and relax [57, 45]. Courtyards, thin columns Spanish courtyard structure [62].
and horseshoe-shaped arches, which are generally seen as outdoor spaces that take shelter in the
shadow of the building, and the decoration of structures with geometrical stone and tile reliefs
are indicators of Islamic decorative art. According to the traditional Islamic perception from the
history of Islam until today, it is known that the lands of Spain, Portugal and Southern France
(Iberian Peninsula or Iberia) still carry the Andalusian Islamic culture. [58, 57, 59, 60, 47, 61, 62].
Courtyard
Garden
Courtyard The most important examples of garden architecture shaped by the influence of Buddhism are
Structures in the monasteries called vihara, which means the place where time is pleasant. In Indian culture,
Ancient Indian the courtyard is a sacred place where the pool, which is considered to be sacred, is located,
Culture surrounded by chambers of dervishes and where rituals are performed. The fact that the front
of the rooms opening directly to the courtyard is surrounded by porches was preferred in order
to ease the circulation in the courtyard [63, 64, 19], (Figure 12). Hittite Tabet texts also mention
many temples. These temples are often called “the house of God” in the text. The abundance of Figure 12. A view of the
water in the region provided great opportunities in the use of water as a design element in the courtyard structure in ancient
arrangement of the courtyard surrounded by high walls. The sacred building called the baradari, Indian culture [67].
which is like a mausoleum in the center of the courtyard, has given the courtyard a sacred
identity with the influence of Islamic culture. It is thought that the inner courtyard and columned
hall in the center of the Great Temple may be the venues used for these festivals, and the Taj
Mahal, a common product of Turkish-Indian architecture, is a monumental tomb located in a
large courtyard. A monumental door enters the garden where the Taç Mahal is located, and it
is thought to be a veil that covers a woman’s face and needs to be gently opened [64, 65, 66, 19,
9, 67].
593
3 M
ost Used Plants in Courtyards Created in Different
Cultures
In the historical development process of the courtyards; Different cultures have
been formed depending on the living conditions required to the differences in
the geographical locations of the societies. In the light of these different cultural
values, the variety of plants used in living spaces has increased depending on the
climatic conditions and soil characteristics of the geographic region where the
societies live. The most used plants in courtyard landscaping in Egyptian, Greek,
Roman, Medieval European, Far East and Islamic cultures are classified below [9,
68, 69].
In Egyptian Culture;
 Origanum vulgare (thyme), Rosmarinus officinalis (rosemary), Anethum
graveolens (dill), Nymphaea spp. (Water lilies), Mandragora autumnalis (man-
drake), Centaurea turcica (cornflowers), Iris spp. (irises), Lilium spp. (lilies),
Chamaerops humilis (Palm trees), Ficus kariensis (ficus), Robinia pseudoacacia
(acacias), Platanus spp. (plane trees) were used.
In Greek Culture;
 Pyrus communis (pear), Malus communis (apple), Ficus carica (ficus), Punica
granatum (pomegranate), Olea euopea (olive tree), Cissus antartica (vine)
were used.
In Roman Culture;
 Platanus orientalis (oriental plane tree), Acer pseudoplatanus (sycamore leaf
Maple), Cupressus sempervirens (cypress), Laurus nobilis (bay), Citrus limonum
(lemon), Ficus carica (ficus), Pyrus communis (pear), Juglans regia (walnut), Olea
europea (olive), Myrtus communis (myrtle), Buxus spp. (boxwoods), Nerium ole-
ander (oleander), Punica granatum (pomegranate), Rosmarinus oficinalis (rose-
mary).
In the Monastery and Castle Courtyards in Europe;
 Palm trees, Lilium candidum (white lily), Rosa spp. (rose), Iris florentina (irises),
Buxus spp. (boxwood), Taxus baccata (yew), Laurus nobilis (laurel), Myrtus
communis (myrtle), Citrus limonum (lemon), Citsus sinensis (orange), Malus
communis (apple), Punica granatum (pomegranate), Pyrus communis (pear),
Syringa spp. (lilacs), hyacinths, Tulipa spp. (tulip), Jasminum spp. (jasmine),
Hibiscus spp. (marshmallow flower) is used.
In Far Eastern Culture;
 Magnolia spp. (magnolias), Prunus domestica (plum), Punica granatum (pome-
granate), Prunus persica (peach), Citrus sinensis (orange), Pinus spp. (pines),
Cedrus spp. (cedars), Juniperus spp. (junipers), Salix spp. (willows), Musa flexete
(banana), Bambusa (bamboos), Chrysanthemum spp. (chrysanthemums), Wis-
teria sinensis (purple panicle), Rosa spp. (hugging roses), Nymphaea spp. (water
lilies) are used.
In Islamic Culture;
 Platanus spp. (plane trees), Cupressus spp. (cypress), Populus spp. (poplars),
Ulmus spp. (elm), Aesculus spp. (ash), Quercus spp. (oaks), Salix spp. (willows),
Prunus domestica (plum), Prunus armeniaca (apricot), Prunus persica (peach),
Prunus dulcis (almond), Prunus avium (cherry), Malus communis (apple), Pyrus
communis (pear), Punica granatum (pomegranate), Ficus carica (ficus), Morus
spp. (berries), Citrus sinensis (orange), Citrus limonum (lemon), Rosa spp. (rose),
Narcissus spp. (narcissus), Dianthus spp. (carnations), Tulipa spp. (tulips),
Hibiscus spp. (marshmallows), hyacinths, lily of the valley, marigold flowers,
gillyflower, Jasminum spp. (jasmine), Viola spp. (violets), Nymphaea spp. (water
lilies) are used.
The courtyards created in Iran under the influence of Islamic culture are suitable
for Iranian ecology;
 Populus spp. (poplars), Acer pseudoplatanus (sycamore-leaved Maple), Ulmus
spp. (elm), Salix spp. (willows), Aesculus spp. (ash), gum trees were used.
Cypresses are used because they symbolize death, almonds because they sym-
bolize a life full of hope, pomegranate symbolizes abundance, dates symbolize life.
The prevalence of different climate and ecological conditions in Spain
distinguishes Spanish courtyards from other Islamic courtyards in plant use.
In Spain;
 Laurus nobilis (laurel), Myrtus communis (myrtle), Citrus sinensis (orange), Taxus
baccata (badger), Cupressus spp. (cypress), Cedrus spp. (cedars) and palm trees,
Diospyros spp. (dates), Punica granatum (pomegranate) and Jasminum spp. (jas-
mine), Iris spp. (irises), daffodils, Rosa spp. (roses) are Used.
4 Conclusion and Recommendations

The accumulation that various civilizations have designed and produced for centu-
ries and left to future generations after them is of great value to be able to under-
stand and make inferences from the lens of the past. The courtyard gardens, where
all these savings come to life, are the most important indicators of the superior cre-
ativity of societies with their fascinating looks, different shapes and forms. These
unique values, cultural and architectural heritages are the most important traces
left by the past to the future. Therefore, preserving these works and transferring
them to the future also means transferring the identity of societies to the future.
When the prehistoric courtyard gardens are examined, it is seen that tourism,
industry, migration, urbanization and uncontrolled population movements have

undergone many changes and developments in a rapid wear process as a result of
unplanned construction. However, these places with unique cultural values and
heritage values should be evaluated within the scope of interdisciplinary inte-
grated conservation strategies and kept alive in a balance of protection and use.
As can be seen in this study, if the courtyard architecture covering different
periods in the historical process is evaluated, it is seen that the form and spatial or-
ganizations of the courtyard gardens reflect certain periods. Theoretically, the basic
needs played a decisive role in the shaping of the courtyards: Storage, open air,
meeting areas, creating resting places. The courtyard structures with the building
masses and high walls formed in line with the needs of people coming together
to improve the living conditions of the people are living spaces that are sheltered
from the noise of the street, where privacy and climatic comfort conditions are
provided, and created by the influence of cultural, social and psychological values.
Visual energy, which means a clear perception of the space and easy selection of
design elements, is the most important factor in the arrangement of courtyards as
prestige spaces. It reveals the difference of historical building designs by taking
the examples of the buildings that have witnessed historical periods to the present
day, taking the buildings under protection and evaluating them as a whole with
their courtyards and performing their restorations. The courtyards, which meet
the need for sheltered outdoor living, create privacy conditions thanks to their
limited space, and provide natural lighting and ventilation of the building in which
they are located, should be considered as urban green areas within the building.
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Courtyard Gardens Regulation Principles and Plant Selection in the Historical

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Feran Aşur Elif Akpinar Külekçi

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List of Contributors ��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 11

Kağan GÜNÇE and Damla MISIRLISOY

Tuğba DÜZENLİ, Serap YILMAZ and Emine TARAKÇI EREN

Talia ÖZCAN AKTAN and Özge CORDAN

Canan CENGİZ and Aybüke Özge BOZ

Elif BAYRAMOĞLU and Seyhan SEYHAN

Elif AKPINAR KULEKCI and Feran ASUR

Sanem ÖZEN TURAN

Duygu DOĞAN and Şükran ŞAHİN

Duygu Akyol, Doruk Görkem Özkan and Sinem Dedeoğlu Özkan

Volkan MÜFTÜOĞLU and Halim PERÇİN

Candan ŞAHİN, Büşra ONAY and Esra MİRZA

M. Bihter BİNGÜL BULUT

Seda ÖZLÜ Sinem DEDEOĞLU ÖZKAN and Dilek BEYAZLI

Serap YILMAZ, Tuğba DÜZENLİ, Elif Merve ALPAK

Mehmet KARACA, Elif KARACA and Gülseven U. TÖNÜK

Cenk CİHANGİR and Pınar KISA OVALI

Ezgi ÜLKER BARIŞ

Alper SAĞLIK, Busenur YAMAN, Fatma AKBULUT, Şura YILDIRIM,

Ayşe DURUKAN KOPUZ

Aybike Ayfer KARADAĞ

Demet A. DİNÇAY, Çağıl Y. TOKER, Elif B. ÖKSÜZ, Sena SEMİZOĞLU,

Reva ŞERMET, Nehar BÜYÜKBAYRAKTAR, Fürüzan ASLAN

Feran AŞUR and Elif AKPINAR KULEKÇİ

Banu GÖKMEN ERDOĞAN

Gildis TACHIR and Hatice KIRAN ÇAKIR

Seyhan SEYHAN and Öner DEMİREL

Sultan Sevinç KURT KONAKOĞLU

Sema Mumcu and Duygu Akyol

Alev P. GÜRBEY and Gülden KARABUDAK

Courtyard Gardens Regulation Principles and

Abstract: Culture, lifestyle, traditions, religious beliefs, protection, sense of privacy,

Fig. 1. Views from Çatalhöyük campus [3, 5].

The attention paid to reconstructing historical building designs in order to

2 The Historical Development Process of Courtyards

The Period General features Views of the Courtyard

The Period General features Views of the Courtyard

Figure 7. A view from the

The Period General features Views of the Courtyard

The Period General features Views of the Courtyard

4 Conclusion and Recommendations

industry, migration, urbanization and uncontrolled population movements have

8. Şimşek, O. Büyük Selçuklu Mimarisinde Avlu Kimliği. FSM İlmî Araştırmalar

24. Çınar, H. S., ve Erdoğan, R. Geleneksel bahçe ve mimari üslubun ortaya

56. URL-​11,2021. https://​www.pexels.com/​photo/​view-​of-​building-​exterior-​

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List of Contributors �� 11

2 The Historical Development Process of Courtyards

4 Conclusion and Recommendations

56. URL-11,2021. https://www.pexels.com/photo/view-of-building-exterior-