MODULE 1

Introduction

Introduction to Instrumentation
Viewed
During most period the principal
effort was aimed at perfecting a Many instruments serve common
deflection type instrument with a scale purpose in supplying information about
and movable pointer. The term analog some variable quantity that is to be
instrument was coined to identify measured, the instrument sometimes
deflection type instruments and to furnishes permanent record. In addition,
distinguish this from totally different some instruments are utilized to control,
instruments which display in decimal manipulate a quantity. Therefore, we
(digital) form value of the quantity being can say that instruments serve three
measured. These newer instruments basic functions Indicating, Recording
are called digital instruments. and Controlling. Take note that a
particular instrument may serve any
one or all three functions
Electrical Units simultaneously.
Because electrical and electronic
instruments measure electrical
quantities. Below are common units
being measured:
Quantity Symbol Unit Unit Abbreviation Dimensions
Fundamental
Length l meter m l
Mass m kilogram kg m
Time t second s t
degree o
Temperature T K T
Kelvin
Luminous
candela cd
Intensity
Electric Current I ampere A i
Derived
Electromotive
V volt V 𝑙2 𝑚𝑡 −3 𝑖 −1
Force
Quantity of
Q coulomb C 𝑖𝑡
Change
Electrical
R ohm Ω 𝑚𝑙2 𝑡 −2 𝑖 −2
Resistance
Capacitance C farad F 𝑙−2 𝑚−1 𝑡 4 𝑖 2
Inductance L henry H 𝑙2 𝑚𝑡 −2 𝑖 −2

Six Fundamental and Some Derived Quantities of the SI System

The Importance of Good
Instrumentation 2. Data Acquisition Software (DAS)
The increased automation in the • The data is acquired by the
workplace has led to significant instrumentation system.
technological advances. And with this
changes and advancement in Instrument is a device capable of
automation has come an increased detecting change, physical or otherwise,
concern for worker safety. In the early in a particular process. It then converts
days of industry, machinery was these physical changes into some form
relatively simple and easy to operate. of information understandable by the
Over time, however, the process has user.
become much more complicated. This
is why instrumentation is so important.

Accurate instrumentation ensures

that all of the processes in workplace
are being monitored constantly and
consistently. Not only does this improve
worker safety but it improves the
consistency of your business as well by
ensuring that the processes are always
the same on any day of the year. That
way, your clients know that your
company is trustworthy, dependable,
and above all, safe.

Purpose of Instrumentation
1. To acquire data or information
(hence data acquisition) about
parameters, in terms of:
• Putting the numerical values
to the physical quantities
• Making measurements
otherwise inaccessible.
• Producing data agreeable to
analysis (mostly in electrical
form)
 SUBTOPIC 1 Definition and Principle of Instrumentation

Viewed
Terminologies in Instrumentation
Before we further proceed here are
some common terms that we may hear • Transmission - A method of
or use in connection with the sending data between various
instrumentation. instruments of a plant in a
standardized form.
• Instrumentation - Devices • Transmitter - A device which
used in measurement system. converts measurement value
• Physical quantity - variable into a standard signal.
such as pressure,
temperature, mass, length, • Process Variable - The
etc. process variable is the
• Data - Information obtained measured value of ongoing
from the part of a process being
instrumentation/measurement monitored or controlled.
system as a result of the • Set Point - The desired value
measurements made of the required by the operator of an
physical quantities. essential variable of a system.
• Accuracy - Accuracy is the
• Indication - This is the conformity of an indicated
simplest form of value to an accepted standard
measurement; it allows us to value or it is the limit of error
know the current state of the can be made by an instrument
variable. in normal operating
• Recorder - A device that can conditions.
store data allows us to • Span - Algebraic difference
observe the current state of between the possible upper
the variable and how it range value and lower range
behaved in the past. A value.
recorder provides us with the
history of the variable.
• Information - Data that has a Classification of Instrumentation
calibrated numeric There are different classifications for
relationship to the physical measurement instruments. We can
quantity.
classify them, for example, as in field
• Parameter - Physical quantity
within defined (numeric) limits. instruments or panel instruments. The
in field instrument is installed close to
• Calibration - Calibration is the the process or measuring point. It must
comparison of measurement
be physically robust if it will be exposed
values delivered by a device
under test with those of a to harsh environmental conditions.
calibration standard of known Panel instruments are in a controlled
accuracy. environment room (often a clean space
• Controller - A device in with air conditioning and controlled
control loop which regulates
the error signals to the zero or humidity).
devices which regulate the Another classification is pneumatic
behaviour of other devices or instruments vs electrical/electronic
process variable.
instruments.
Pneumatic Instruments Analog to Digital Converter
These are devices that are powered At the core of all data acquisition
by air. One of the advantages of these systems is an Analog to Digital
instruments is that they do not consume Converter (ADC). As the name implies,
electricity, so they can be used in areas this chip takes data from the
where it would be dangerous or environment and converts it to discrete
inconvenient to use electrical power. levels that can be interpreted by a
They work with a single variable, are processor. These discrete levels
imprecise instruments, are affected by correspond to the smallest detectable
vibrations and temperature changes, change in the signal being measured.
and have high maintenance The higher the number of “bits” of an
requirements. ADC (12 bit, 16 bit, 18 bit etc.), the
greater the number of discrete levels
What is Data Acquisition? that can represent an analog signal and
Data acquisition, or DAQ as it is the greater the resolution of the ADC.
often referred, is the process of The resolution of an ADC is essentially
digitizing data from the world around us analogous to the ticks on a measuring
so it can be displayed, analyzed, and stick. A measuring stick with mm tick
stored in a computer. A simple example marks has more resolution than a
is the process of measuring the measuring stick with only cm tick marks.
temperature in a room as a digital value Whether you need mm or cm tick marks
using a sensor such as a thermocouple. depends on what you are measuring
Modern data acquisition systems can the same is true for ADC resolution.
include the addition of data analysis
and reporting software, network Electrical / Electronic Instruments
connectivity, and remote control and Electronic instruments can be
monitoring options. divided into three general categories:
analog, smart analog, and digital.
Components of a Data Acquisition
System ANALOG:
All data acquisition systems consist • Output signal: 4 – 20 mA
of three essential elements - Sensor, • Transmission Distance: 1200
m (typical)
Signal Conditioning, and Analog to
• Data for one variable is
Digital Converter (ADC). transmitted
• Good Accuracy
• Easy Maintenance
DIGITAL:
• Multiple instruments can use a
single cable
• Transmission of multiple
values for each instrument
(process variables,
calibration, diagnostics,
range)
• Distance: approximately 1900
m without a repeater
• Data capacity is influenced by
the mode of transmission
(cable, fiber optic, wireless)
 SUBTOPIC 2 Instrumentation Equipment, Symbols, and Diagrams

Viewed may or may not be used for

Establishing Standards in normal or abnormal interlock,
Instrumentation start up, shutdown, actuation
of a pilot light or an alarm
The purpose of this standard is to
device, or the like. The first
establish a uniform means of device is properly designated
designating instruments and as a level switch, a flow
instrumentation systems used for switch, etc., because
"switching” is what the device
measurement and control. To this end,
does. The device may be
a designation system that includes designated as an alarm only if
symbols and an identification code is the device itself contains the
presented. This standards were alarm function.
• Assignable - A term applied
internationally used.
to a feature permitting the
channeling (or directing) of a
Purpose of Standard Symbol signal from one device to
another without the need for
The procedural needs of various switching, patching, or
users are different. The standard changes in wiring.
recognizes these needs, when they are • Auto Manual Station -
consistent with the objectives of the Synonym for control station
• Balloon - Synonym for bubble
standard, by providing alternative
• Behind the Panel - A term
symbolism methods. applied to a location that is
within an area that contains
(1) the instrument panel, (2) its
Definitions associated rack mounted
Aside from symbol it is also hardware, or (3) is enclosed
important for the purpose of within the panel Behind the
understanding this standard, the panel devices are not
accessible for the operator's
following definitions apply.
normal use, and are not
• Accessible - A term applied designated as local or front of
to a device or function that can panel mounted. In a very
be used or be seen by an broad sense, “behind the
operator for the purpose of panel" is equivalent to "not
performing control actions, e g normally accessible to the
set point changes, auto operator”.
manual transfer, or on off • Binary - A term applied to a
actions. signal or device that has only
• Alarm - A device or function two discrete positions or
that signals the existence of states. When used in its
an abnormal condition by simplest form, as in "binary
means of an audible or visible signal" (as opposed to "analog
discrete change, or both, signal"), the term denotes an
intended to attract attention. It "on off" or "high low" state, i.e.,
is not recommended that the one which does not represent
term alarm switch or alarm be continuously varying
used to designate a device quantities.
whose operation is simply to
close or open a circuit that
• Board - Synonym for panel
In addition, the operator
• Bubble - The circular symbol
interface of a distributed
used to denote and identify
control system may be
the purpose of an instrument
regarded as a control station.
or function It may contain a tag
number Synonym for balloon. • Control Valve - A device,
other than a common, hand
• Computing Device - A device
actuated ON-OFF valve or self
or function that performs one
actuated check valve, that
or more calculations or logic
directly manipulates the flow
operations, or both, and
of one or more fluid process
transmits one or more
streams. It is expected that
resultant output signals. A
use of the designation "hand
computing device is
control valve" will be limited to
sometimes called a computing
hand actuated valves that (1)
relay.
are used for process throttling,
• Configurable - A term applied
or (2) require identification as
to a device or system whose
an instrument.
functional characteristics can
• Converter - A device that
be selected or rearranged
receives information in one
through programming or other
form of an instrument signal
methods. The concept
and transmits an output signal
excludes rewiring as a means
in another form. An instrument
of altering the configuration.
which changes a sensor's
• Controller - A device having
output to a standard signal is
an output that varies to
properly designated as a
regulate a controlled variable
transmitter, not a converter.
in a specified manner. A
Typically, a Temperature
controller may be a self
Element (TE) may connect to
contained analog or digital
a Transmitter (TT) not to a
instrument, or it may be the
converter (TY). A converter is
equivalent of such an
also referred to as a
instrument in a shared control
transducer however,
system. An automatic
“transducer" is a completely
controller varies its output
general term, and its use
automatically in response to a
specifically for signal
direct or indirect input of a
conversion is not
measured process variable. A
recommended.
manual controller is a manual
• Digital - A term applied to a
loading station, and its output
signal or device that uses
is not dependent on a
binary digits to represent
measured process variable
continuous values or discrete
but can be varied only by
states.
manual adjustment. A
controller may be integral with • Distributed Control System
other functional elements of a - A system which, while being
control loop. functionally integrated,
consists of subsystems which
• Control Station - A manual
may be physically separate
loading station that also
and remotely located from one
provides switching between
another.
manual and automatic control
modes of a control loop. It is
also known as an auto manual
station.
• Final Control Element - The • Loop - A combination of two
device that directly controls or more instruments or control
the value of the manipulated functions arranged so that
variable of a control loop. signals pass from one to
Often the final control element another for the purpose of
is a control valve. measurement and/or control
Function: The purpose of, or of a process variable.
an action performed by, a • Manual Loading Station - A
device device or function having a
Identification: The sequence manually adjustable output
of letters or digits, or both, that is used to actuate one or
used to designate an more remote devices. The
individual instrument or loop. station does not provide
• Instrument - A device used switching between manual
directly or indirectly to and automatic control modes
measure and/or control a of a control loop (see
variable. The term includes controller and control station).
primary elements, final control The station may have integral
elements, computing devices, indicators, lights, or other
and electrical devices such as features It is also known as a
annunciators, switches, and manual station or a manual
pushbuttons. The term does loader.
not apply to parts (e.g. a • Monitor - A general term for
receiver bellows or a resistor) an instrument or instrument
that are internal components system used to measure or
of an instrument. sense the status or magnitude
• Instrumentation - A of one or more variables for
collection of instruments or the purpose of deriving useful
their application for the information. The term monitor
purpose of observation, is very unspecific sometimes
measurement, control, or any meaning analyzer, indicator,
combination of these. or alarm. Monitor can also be
• Local - The location of an used as a verb.
instrument that is neither in • Monitor Light - Synonym for
nor on a panel or console, nor pilot light.
is it mounted in a control room. • Panel - A structure that has a
Local instruments are group of instruments mounted
commonly in the vicinity of a on it, houses the operator
primary element or a final process interface, and is
control element. The word chosen to have a unique
"field” is often used designation. The panel may
synonymously with local. consist of one or more
• Local Panel - A panel that is sections, cubicles, consoles,
not a central or main panel or desks Synonym for board.
Local panels are commonly in • Panel-Mounted - A term
the vicinity of plant applied to an instrument that is
subsystems or sub areas. The mounted on a panel or
term "local panel instrument" console and is accessible for
should not be confused with an operator's normal use. A
"local instrument”. function that is normally
accessible to an operator in a
 shared display system is the intermittently. The function of
equivalent of a discrete panel a scanning device is often to
mounted device. ascertain the state or value of
• Pilot Light - A light that a variable. The device may be
indicates which of a number of associated with other
normal conditions of a system functions such as recording
or device exists. It is unlike an and alarming.
alarm light, which indicates an • Sensor - That part of a loop or
abnormal condition. The pilot instrument that first senses
light is also known as a the value of a process
monitor light. variable, and that assumes a
• Primary Element - Synonym corresponding,
for sensor predetermined, and intelligible
Process: Any operation or state or output. The sensor
sequence of operations may be separate from or
involving a change of energy, integral with another
state, composition, functional element of a loop.
dimension, or other properties The sensor is also known as a
that may be defined with detector or primary element.
respect to a datum. • Set Point - An input variable
• Process Variable - Any that sets the desired value of
variable property of a process. the controlled variable. The
The term process variable is set point may be manually set,
used in this standard to apply automatically set, or
to all variables other than programmed. Its value is
instrument signals. expressed in the same units
• Program - A repeatable as the controlled variable.
sequence of actions that • Shared Controller - A
defines the status of outputs controller, containing
as a fixed relationship to a set preprogrammed algorithms
of inputs. that are usually accessible,
• Programmable Logic configurable, and assignable.
Controller - A controller, It permits a number of process
usually with multiple inputs variables to be controlled by a
and outputs, that contains an single device.
alterable program. • Shared Display - The
• Relay - A device whose operator interface device
function is to pass on (usually a video screen) used
information in an unchanged to display process control
form or in some modified form information from a number of
Relay is often used to mean sources at the command of
computing device. The latter the operator.
term is preferred. The term • Switch - A device that
"relay” also is applied connects, disconnects,
specifically to an electric, selects, or transfers one or
pneumatic, or hydraulic switch more circuits and is not
that is actuated by a signal. designated as a controller, a
The term also is applied to relay, or a control valve. As a
functions performed by a relay verb, the term is also applied
• Scan - To sample, in a to the functions performed by
predetermined manner, each switches.
of a number of variables
 • Test Point - A process • Transmitter - A device that
connection to which no senses a process variable
instrument is permanently through the medium of a
connected, but which is sensor and has an output
intended for the temporary or whose steady state value
intermittent connection of an varies only as a
instrument. predetermined function of the
• Transducer - A general term process variable. The sensor
for a device that receives may or may not be integral
information in the form of one with the transmitter.
or more physical quantities,
modifies the information
and/or its form, if required, and
produces a resultant output
signal. Depending on the
application, the transducer
can be a primary element,
transmitter, relay, converter or
other device. Because the
term "transducer” is not
specific, its use for specific
applications is not
recommended.

Instrumentation Symbols
Line Types
Process / Instrument Line
Connections

Instrument Bubbles

Process Valve Types

Valve Actuator Types
Liquid Level Measurement Devices

Flow Measurement Devices (flowing

left to right)

‘
Process Equipment

Single Line Diagram Symbols

Fluid Power Diagram Symbols
Instrumentation Diagram
An instrument technician must often Process Flow Diagrams
switch between different diagrams To show a practical process
when troubleshooting a complex example, let’s examine three diagrams
control system. There is simply too for a compressor control system,
much detail for any one diagram to beginning with a Process Flow Diagram,
show everything. Even if the page were or PFD. In this fictitious process, water
large enough, a “show everything” is being evaporated from a process
diagram would be so turgid with details solution under partial vacuum (provided
that it would be difficult to focus on any by the compressor). The compressor
particular grouping of details you then transports the vapors to a
happened to be interested in. The “knockout drum” where they condense
narrowing of scope with the into liquid form. As a typical PFD, this
progression from PFD to loop diagram diagram shows the major
may be visualized as a process of interconnections of process vessels
“zooming in,” as though one were and equipment but omits details such
viewing a process through the lens of a as instrument signal lines and auxiliary
microscope at different powers. instruments.
Process and Instrument Diagrams
The next level of detail is the
Process and Instrument Diagram 1 or
P&ID. Here, we see a “zooming in” of
scope from the whole evaporator
process to the compressor as a unit.
The evaporator and knockout vessels
almost fade into the background, with
their associated instruments absent
from view2.
Loop Diagrams
Finally, we arrive at the loop
diagram (sometimes called a loop
sheet) below is an example of loop
diagram of compressor surge control
system.

Functional Diagrams
A unique form of technical diagram The general flow of a functional
for describing the abstract functions diagram is top to bottom, with the
comprising a control system (e.g. PID process sensing instrument (transmitter)
controllers, rate limiters, manual located at the top and the final control
loaders) is a functional diagram4. This element
form of document finds wide application (valve or
in the power generation industry to variable
document control strategies. Functional speed
diagrams focus on the flow of motor)
information within a control system located at
rather than on the process piping or the bottom.
instrument interconnections (wires,
tubes, etc.).
 MODULE 2

Introduction

What is Measurement?
Viewed
The process of associating numbers
with physical quantities and
phenomena. Measurement is
fundamental to the sciences; to
engineering, construction, and other
technical fields; and to almost all
everyday activities. For that reason the
elements, conditions, limitations, and
theoretical foundations of
measurement have been much studied.
 SUBTOPIC 1 Measurement Principles and Terminologies and Calculations

Viewed
Terminologies known as absolute measurements.
• Measurand - Physical Measurements can be performed over
quantity being measured. a wide range specified by the scale of
• Calibration - Implies that the measuring instrument, but there is
there is a numeric relationship
also the chance that the measurement
throughout the whole
instrumentation system and will be wrong due to erroneous
that it is directly related to an readings of the scale.
approved national or
international standard.
• Test instrumentation - It is a
branch of instrumentation and
most closely associated with
the task of gathering data
during various development
phases encountered in
engineering, e.g. flight test
instrumentation for testing and
approving aircraft.
• Transducer - A device that Indirect Measurements
converts one form of energy to With indirect measurements the
another. dimensions are measured using
• Electronic Transducer - It
measuring instruments such as dial
has an input or output that is
electrical in nature (e.g., gauges that look at the difference
voltage, current or resistance). between targets and reference devices
• Sensor - Electronic such as gauge blocks and ring gauges.
transducer that converts
These are also known as comparative
physical quantity into an
electrical signal. measurements due to the fact that a
• Actuator - Electronic comparison is performed using an
transducer that converts object with standard dimensions. The
electrical energy into more predetermined that the shape and
mechanical energy.
dimensions of a reference device are,
the easier the measurement becomes.
Types of Measurements However, this method also has the
There are two methods for
disadvantage of the measurement
performing dimensional measurements:
range being limited.
direct measurement and indirect
measurement:
Direct measurement
With direct measurements
measuring instruments such as Vernier
calipers, micrometers, and coordinate
measuring machines are used to
measure the dimensions of the target
directly. These measurements are also
Units of Measurements
A unit of measurement is a definite
magnitude of a quantity, defined and
adopted by convention or by law, that is
used as a standard for measurement of
the same kind of quantity.
Metric System
The metric system is an
internationally agreed decimal system
of measurement created in France in
1799. The International System of Units
(SI), the official system of measurement
in almost every country in the world, is
based upon the metric system.
English System
While the metric system was lawfully
accepted for use in the United States in
1866 the US has not adopted the metric
Conversion Ratio (or Unit Factor)
system as its "official” system of
While the Metric System simply
measurement. The US English System moves the decimal point to convert
of measurement grew out of the between its measurements' prefixes,
manner in which people secured the English System requires a
conversion ratio (or unit factor) to move
measurements using body parts and
between measurements. In the Metric
familiar objects. System, the prefix itself gives the
needed conversion ratio.

A conversion ratio (or unit factor) is

a ratio equal to one. This ratio carries
the names of the units to be used in the
conversion. It can be used for
conversions within the English and
Metric Systems, as well as for
conversions between the systems. The
conversion ratio is based upon the
concept of equivalent values.

Computing Measuremeent
Very large and very small numbers
written in standard form take up a large
amount of space. They are hard to read
and understand and are difficult to use
in mathematics. One way to write a very
large or very small number is to use a The negative nine power indicates the
different form of notation. Converting to decimal places moves to the left nine
a workable number is done using places.
scientific or engineering notation.
Engineering notation converts a
Introduction to Scientific Notation very large or very small number into a
Scientific notation displays a value between one and 1,000 using
number as a value between one and 10 powers of 10 in increments of three. So
but not including 10 multiplied by a the powers of 10 are only the values 3,
power of 10. A negative power 6, 9, 12 or -3, -6, -9, -12, etc. For
indicates a number smaller than one, instance, the number 34,284,000,000 is
whereas a positive power indicates a rewritten as 34.284 x 109. The 109
large number greater than 10. For indicates the decimal will move to the
instance, the number 34,284,000,000 is right nine places. For very small values,
rewritten as 3.4284 x 1010. The 1010 such as 0.0003, the value is rewritten
indicates that the decimal moves to the as 300 x 10-6. The negative six
right 10 places. If the number is very indicates the decimal will move to the
small, such as 0.000000003, it is left six places.
rewritten as 3.0 x 10-9.
What is Error in Measurement?
Measurement Error (also called and unpredictable changes in the
Observational Error) is the difference experiment. These changes may occur
between a measured quantity and its in the measuring instruments or in the
true value. It includes random error environmental conditions.
(naturally occurring errors that are to be
expected with any experiment) and Examples of causes of random
systematic error (caused by a mis errors are:
calibrated instrument that affects all • electronic noise in the circuit
measurements). of an electrical instrument,
• irregular changes in the heat
loss rate from a solar collector
Types of Error in Measurement System due to changes in the wind
Generally errors are classified into
three types: systematic errors, random Systematic Error
errors and blunders. Systematic error is one that results
from a persistent issue and leads to a
consistent error in your measurements.
Systematic errors in experimental
observations usually come from the
measuring instruments. They may
occur because
Types of Errors in Measurements • there is something wrong with
the instrument or its data
• Gross Errors
handling system, or
• Measurements Errors
• because the instrument is
o Systematic Errors
➢ Instrumental wrongly used by the
Errors experimenter
➢ Environmental
Errors
➢ Observational Two types of systematic error can
Errors
➢ Theoretical occur with instruments having a linear
Errors response:
o Random Errors
• Blunders 1. Offset or zero setting error in
which the instrument does not
read zero when the quantity to
Random Errors be measured is zero.
Random error describes errors that 2. Multiplier or scale factor
error in which the instrument
fluctuate due to the unpredictability or
consistently reads changes in
uncertainty inherent in your measuring the quantity to be measured
process, or the variation in the quantity greater or less than the actual
you’re trying to measure. changes.
Random errors in experimental
measurements are caused by unknown
Different Measure of Error
Absolute Error Defined as:
The amount of error in your (𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 − 𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒)
%𝐸𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 =
𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒
measurement. For example, if you step
on a scale and it says 150 pounds, but Relative Error
you know your true weight is 145
The ratio of the absolute error to the
pounds, then the scale has an absolute
accepted measurement. As a formula,
error of 150 lbs - 145 lbs = 5 lbs.
that’s:
𝐸𝑎𝑏𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒
Greatest Possible Error 𝐸𝑟𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 =
𝐸𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒𝑑
Defined as one half of the
measuring unit. For example, if you use
Example 1
a ruler that measures in whole yards (i.e.
Sam does an experiment to find how
without any fractions), then the greatest
long it takes an apple to drop 2 meters.
possible error is one half yard.
Solution:
The theoretical value
Instrument Error
(using physics formulas)
Error caused by an inaccurate is 0.64 seconds. But
instrument (like a scale that is off or a Sam measures 0.62
poorly worded questionnaire). seconds, which is an
approximate value.
Margin of Error |0.62 − 0.64| 0.2
𝑥100% = 𝑥100%
An amount above and below your |0.64| 0.64
measurement. For example, you might = 3% (to nearest 1%)
say that the average baby weighs 8
pounds with a margin of error of 2
So, Sam was only 3% off.
pounds (± 2 lbs).

Measurement Location Error

Precision
The precision of a measuring
Caused by an instrument being
instrument determined by the smallest
placed somewhere it shouldn’t, like a
unit to which it can measure.
thermometer left out in the full sun.
Precision is defined as the
closeness between two or more
Operator Error measured values to each other.
Human factors that cause error, like Suppose you weigh the same box five
reading a scale incorrectly. times and get close results like 3.1, 3.2,
3.22, 3.4, and 3.0 then your
Percent Error measurements are precise.
Another way of expressing
measurement error.
Accuracy
Accuracy is defined as the Histograms
closeness of measured value to a When you measure the same
standard value. Suppose you weigh a quantity many times, you do not always
box and noted 3.1 kg but its known get the same value (unless the
value is 9 kg, then your measurement precision is inadequate) If the errors are
is not accurate. purely random, the deviations should
follow definite statistical laws. In any
Accuracy and Precision case, it is informative to prepare a
histogram.

Significant Figures and Rounding Off Statistical Procedures to Assess

In a number, all of the digits are Measurement Errors
significant from the first non zero digit to The following methods assess
the last non zero digit. Leading zeroes “absolute reliability”:
are never significant, included zeroes Standard Error of Measurement
always are. The use of significant (SEM)
figures should always be consistent Estimates how repeated
with the precision of a reported measurements taken on the same
measurement. The following rules instrument are estimated around the
apply to the statement of a final result. true score.
During calculations, more digits may Coefficient of Variation (CV)
and should be retained 1 The error
A measure of the variability of a
should be rounded off to one, or at most
distribution of repeated scores or
two, significant digits 2. The last or least
measurements. Smaller values indicate
significant digit in the value must be in
a smaller variation and therefore values
the same decimal location as that in the
closer to the true score.
error.er significant, included zeroes
Limits of Agreement (LOA)
always are.
Gives an estimate of the interval
Example:
where a proportion of the differences lie
60,285 ± 5% = 60,285 ± 3,014.25
between measurement.
→ 60,285 ± 3,000
→ 60,000 ± 3,000
= (60 ± 3) 𝑥 103
= 6.0 𝑥 104 ± 5%
 SUBTOPIC 2 Different Applications of Various Measuring, Testing, and Calibration of Instruments

Viewed
Why Study Measurement Systems? Monitoring of Processes and Operation
Study of any subject matter in Here the measuring device is being
engineering should be motivated by an used to keep track of some quantity.
ap preciation of the uses to which the Certain applications of measuring
material might be put in the everyday instruments may be characterized as
practice of the profession. having essentially a monitoring function.
Measurement systems are used for Examples thermometers, barometers,
many detailed purposes in a wide speedometer and compass.
variety of application areas. Methods,
procedures and measuring techniques Control Processes and Operation
developed by physicists have become This is one of the most important
powerful tools for use in a great many classes of measurement application. In
interdisciplinary research areas, this type of application sensors are
studies of the environment being just used in feedback control system and
one of the many such important many measurement systems
examples of where progress can be themselves use the principle of
noted. feedback for their operation. Therefore
an instrument can serve as a
Application of Measurement component of a control system.
Instrumentation Remember that to control any variable
Every application of measurement in a feedback control system it is
can be put in three categories or necessary to measure it. Every
combination of these three: feedback control system will have at
• Monitoring of Processes and least one measuring device as a vital
Operation component.
• Control of Processes and A single control system may require
Operation
information(s) from multiple measuring
• Experimental engineering
analysis instruments. Example this are industrial
machine and process controllers,
aircraft control system and automotive
control systems.
Experimental Engineering Analysis
In solving engineering problems, Calibration of Instruments
two general methods are available Calibration is a comparison between a
these are theoretical and known measurement (the standard)
experimental. and the measurement using your
Theoretical Methods instrument. Typically, the accuracy of
These analysis often gives results the standard should be ten times the
that are of general use rather than for accuracy of the measuring device being
restricted application. The theoretical tested. However, accuracy ratio of 3:1
analysis predicted behavior is is acceptable by most standards
somewhat different from the real organizations. Calibration of your
behavior as a simplified measuring instruments has two
physical/mathematical model is studied objectives. It checks the accuracy of the
rather than the actual physical system. instrument and it determines the
Theoretical analysis also considers traceability of the measurement. In
ideal solution wherein the effect of practice, calibration also includes repair
environment is not considered. of the device if it is out of calibration. A
Experimental Methods report is provided by the calibration
Often this analysis gives result that expert, which shows the error in
apply only to the specific system being measurements with the measuring
tested. However, techniques such as device before and after the calibration.
dimensional analysis may allow some
generalization. This analysis does not
do not allow simplifying assumptions
necessary if test are run on an actual
system. In this analysis the true
behavior of the system is revealed.

Functional Element of an Instrument

Example of Need for Calibration
Due to different factors that affects Hidden costs and risks associated
the original condition of our measuring with the uncalibrated measuring device
instrument some functions were also could be much higher than the cost of
affected. These measuring instruments calibration. Therefore, it is
follows a theoretical principle wherein recommended that the measuring
the value from actual measurement instruments are calibrated regularly by
must be accurate to the theoretical a reputable company to ensure that
computation. To better understand how errors associated with the
these factors affects the let us watch measurements are in the acceptable
the video about calibration of range.
instruments.

Why Calibration is Important?

The accuracy of all measuring
devices degrade over time. This is
typically caused by normal wear and
tear. However, changes in accuracy
can also be caused by electric or
mechanical shock or a hazardous
manufacturing environment (e.x., oils,
metal chips etc.). Depending on the
type of the instrument and the
environment in which it is being used, it
may degrade very quickly or over a long
period of time. The bottom line is that,
calibration improves the accuracy of the
measuring device. Accurate measuring
devices improve product quality.

When Should You Calibrate Your

Measuring Device?
A measuring device should be
calibrated:
• According to recommendation
of the manufacturer
• After any mechanical or
electrical shock
• Periodically (annually,
quarterly, monthly)
 MODULE 3

Introduction

Non-Electrical Quantities
Viewed Classification of Electrical Transducers
Transducers may be classified
In Electrical Instrumentation part of
according to their structure, method of
what is being measured are non-
energy conversion and application. As
electrical quantities. Below are some of
a result transducers are classified:
this:
• As active and passive
• Temperature
transducer
• Pressure
• According to transduction
• Fluid Flow
principle
• Speed
• As analog and digital
• Etc transducer
• As primary and secondary
Hence, this quantities are required transducer
to be sense and needs to be converted • As transducer and inverse
into some other form because there is transducer
no direct parameters from this.
Therefore for this quantities to be Active Transducer
measured it must be converted into Characteristic of Active Transducers:
electrical quantities and it is done by the • Self Generating
device called Electrical Transducer. A • Develop an electrical
parameter (i.e. voltage or
transducer plays a very important role current) which is proportional
in any instrumentation system. to the quantity under
measurement.
• Do not require any external
Transducers source or power for their
A transducer is a device which operation.
convert energy or information from one
form to another. Transducer may be
mechanical, electrical, optical, chemical,
thermal or combination of these Below
shows the graphical representation of • Active Transducers
how transducer works. o Photovoltaic
o Thermoelectric
o Piezoelectric
o Electromagnetic
Passive Transducers Characteristics of Transducers
On the other hand, passive Accuracy
transducer is the opposite of active Transducer must be close with
transducer because: which the reading approaches an
• Passive transducers do not accepted standard value or ideal value
generate any electrical signal or true value, of the variable being
by themselves.
measured.
• Passive transducers need an
external source of power is
essential. Ruggedness
• Passive transducers depend The transducer should be
upon the change in an
electrical parameter (R, L, or mechanically rugged to withstand
C) overloads. It should have overload
• And it is also known as protection.
externally power-driven
transducers.
Linearity
The output of the transducer should
be linearly proportional to the input
quantity under measurement. It should
• Passive Transducers have linear input output characteristic.
o Variable Resistance
o Opto Electronic
Repeatability
o Variable Reactance
The output of the transducer must
be exactly the same, under same
Types of Transducers based on Quantity
environmental conditions, when the
to be Measured same quantity is applied at the input
• Temperature transducers
(e.g. a thermocouple) repeatedly.
• Pressure transducers (e.g. a
diaphragm) High output
• Displacement transducers
The transducer should give
(e.g. LVDT)
• Oscillator transducer reasonably high output signal so that it
• Flow transducers can be easily processed and measured.
• Inductive Transducer The output must be much larger than
noise. Now a days, digital output is
Types of Transducer based on the preferred in many applications.
Principle of Operation
• Photovoltaic (e.g. a solar cell) High Stability and Reliability
• Piezoelectric transducer The output of the transducer should
• Chemical
be highly stable.
• Mutual induction
• Electromagnetic
• Hall effect
• Photoconductors
Sensitivity
The sensitivity of the electrical
transducer is defined as the electrical
output obtained per unit change in the
physical parameter of the input quantity.
For example, for a transducer used for
temperature measurement, sensitivity
will be expressed in mV/’ C A high
sensitivity is always desirable for a
given transducer.

Dynamic Range
For a transducer, the operating
range should be wide, so that it can be
used over a wide range of
measurement conditions.

Speed of Response
It is the rapidity with which the
transducer responds to changes in the
measured quantity. The speed of
response of the transducer should be
as high as practicable.
 SUBTOPIC 1 Temperature and Pressure Measurement

Viewed
Temperature Measurement
Temperature measurement in
today’s industrial environment
encompasses a wide variety of needs
and applications. To meet this wide
array of needs the process controls
industry has developed a large number
of sensors and devices to handle this
demand. Different instruments were
develop such as ordinary thermometer
and temperature transducer.

Thermometers
Thermometers is the simplest and is Types of Thermometers
conventional method of measuring Clinical or Medical Thermometers
temperature. There are a wide variety A Medical thermometer is used to
of thermometers available on the measure body temperature Mostly
market today. Some highly precise thermometers made in the 20th century
measurements are still done with glass are mercury thermometers. They are
thermometers. Since the properties of sensitive and accurate, having a narrow
fluids, and in particular, mercury are place where the level of mercury rises
well known, the only limitation to very fast. A kink on the tube stops the
accuracy and resolution come in the mercury level from falling on its own It
form of how well you can manufacture is used to measure human body
a glass tube with a precision bore. temperature in the range of 35°C to
42°C.
Principle of Glass Thermometer
Liquid-in-glass thermometers are Laboratory Thermometers
based on the principle of thermal It is used to measure the room
expansion of substances. A liquid in a temperature of hot solids and liquids in
glass tube (called a capillary) expands experiments. It measures temperature
when heated and contracts when in the range of 5°C to 110°C and on
cooled. A calibrated scale can then be higher temperatures.
used to read off the respective
temperature that led to the Temperature Transducers
corresponding thermal expansion. A Temperature Transducer is a
device that converts the thermal
quantity into any physical quantity such
as mechanical energy, pressure and
electrical signals etc.
Main Features of Temperature
Transducers
• Input are thermal quantities.
• Able to convert the thermal
quantity into electrical
quantity.
• Used for the measurement of
the temperature and heat flow

Types of Temperature Transducers

Temperature transducer may vary
between Contact Temperature
Sensor Types and Non-Contact
Temperature Sensor Types and
below are the four most common
temperature transducer or temperature
sensors being used in Instrumentation
and Measurement:
• Thermistor Properties of Thermistors
• Resistance Thermometers or • It has Negative Thermal
RTD Coefficient i.e. resistance of
• Thermocouples the thermistor decreases with
• Integrated Circuit increase in temperature.
Temperature Transducers • It is made up of the
semiconductor materials
• It is more sensitive compared
Thermistor with RTD (Resistance
Thermistors, derived from the term Thermometers) and
thermally sensitive resistors, are a very Thermocouples
accurate and cost-effective sensor for • It’s resistance lies between
measuring temperature. Thermistors 0.5 Ω to 0.75 MΩ
• Generally used in applications
are available in two types those with where measurement range of
Negative Temperature Coefficients temperature -60°C to 15°C.
(NTC thermistors) and those with
Positive Temperature Coefficients How Does the Thermistor “read”
(PTC thermistors). NTC thermistors’ Temperature?
resistance decreases as their Thermistor does not actually “read”
temperature increases, while PTC anything, instead the resistance of a
thermistors’ resistance increases as thermistor changes with temperature.
their temperature increases. Only NTC How much the resistance changes
thermistors are commonly used in depends on the type of material used in
temperature measurement. the thermistor. The location of the line
and how much it changes is determined
by the construction of the thermistor. A When the two junctions are at different
typical thermistor graph looks like this: temperatures, a voltage is developed
across the junction which is used to
measure the temperature.

Applications of Thermistors
The properties of PTC thermistors
are useful for over current protection Properties of Thermocouples
because resistance causes the device • Extreme temperatures of
range between -200°C to over
itself to overheat. They are also used in
+2000°C can be measured
self-regulating heaters as time delay with thermocouples which is
switches and in motors to cut the an advantage over both RTD
ignition current once the motor is and Thermistor
running. • They are the Active
Transducers so they don’t
require any external source for
NTC thermistors, which can measuring of temperature as
accurately monitor temperature, have like RTD’s and Thermistors
• They are the cheaper than
more applications than PTC ones. They
both RTD’s and Thermistors
are components of many types of • These have small accuracy as
thermostats both in building and compared to RTD’s and
automobiles, and because they can Thermistors so generally they
are not used for high precision
also detect the presence of liquids by
work.
temperature characteristics, they are
used in well pump and other types of
switches. NTC thermistors are usually
Principle of Thermocouple
When the junctions of two metals
components of digital thermometers
such as copper and constantan are
and sensors that regulate power to a
connected together the potential
device based on temperature.
difference is produced is produced
between them. The phenomenon is
Thermocouple called the Seebeck effect as a
Thermocouples are temperature temperature gradient is generated
transducers that are basically consists along the conducting wires producing
of two junctions of dissimilar metals, an emf. Then the output voltage from a
such as copper and constantan that are thermocouple is a function of the
welded. One junction is kept at a temperature changes.
constant temperature called the
reference (cold) junction, while the
other the measuring (hot) junction.
 at the measurement junction alone.
Even for thermocouple types where
copper is not one of the dissimilar
metals, the combination of the two
metals joining the copper leads of the
measuring instrument forms a junction
equivalent to the measurement junction.
NOTE: Seebeck voltages are quite
small, in the tens of millivolts for most
temperature ranges.

Seebeck Effect
An interesting phenomenon applied
in the field of instrumentation is the
Seebeck effect, which is the production
of a small voltage across the length of Reference Junction
a wire due to a difference in The second junction is called the
temperature along that wire. This effect reference or cold junction, to distinguish
is most easily observed and applied it from the junction at the measuring
with a junction of two dissimilar metals end, and there is no way to avoid
in contact, each metal producing a having one in a thermocouple circuit. In
different Seebeck voltage along its some applications, a differential
length, which translates to a voltage temperature measurement between
between the two (unjoined) wire ends. two points is required, and this inherent
property of thermocouples can be
exploited to make a very simple
measurement system.

Measurement Junction
The iron/copper junction formed by Voltage and Current Thermocouple
the connection between the Compensation for the voltage
thermocouple and the meter on the top generated by the reference junction is
wire will produce a temperature typically performed by a special circuit
dependent voltage opposed in polarity designed to measure temperature there
to the voltage produced at the and produce a corresponding voltage to
measurement junction. This means that counter the reference junction’s effects.
the voltage between the voltmeter’s The voltage produced by thermocouple
copper leads will be a function of the junctions is strictly dependent upon
difference in temperature between the temperature. Any current in a
two junctions, and not the temperature thermocouple circuit is a function of
circuit resistance in opposition to this
voltage (I=E/R). In other words, the
relationship between temperature and
Seebeck voltage is fixed, while the
relationship between temperature and
current is variable, depending on the
total resistance of the circuit.

Application of Thermocouple
• Thermocouples can be used
for a wide variety of
applications in the food and
beverage industry including
Clean. In Place sensors,
Penetration Probes, Oven
Control, Food Chain
Monitoring, Hotplate Control
and Monitoring and Steam Principle of RTD
Kettle temperature control
• Thermocouples for Extruders - The variation of resistance of the
Extruders require high metal with the variation of the
temperature and high temperature is given as:
pressures. They also have a
unique threaded adapter in
order to position the sensor tip 𝑅𝑡 = 𝑅0 [1 + (𝑡 − 𝑡0 ) + 𝛽(𝑡 − 𝑡0 )2 + ⋯ ]
in the molten plastic under the
high pressure conditions
where, 𝑅𝑡 and 𝑅0 are the resistance
found there.
• Thermocouples for Molten values at 𝑡 ºC and 𝑡0 ºC temperatures
Metal 𝛼 and 𝛽 are the constants depends on
• Thermocouples for Furnaces the metals.

Resistance Temperature Detector The formula above is for huge range

Resistance Thermometer or of temperature while for short range
Resistance Temperature Detector is a recalling the relationship of resistance
device which used to determine the versus temperature:
temperature by measuring the
resistance of pure electrical wire. This
𝑅𝑡 = 𝑅0 [1 + (𝑡 − 𝑡0 )]
wire is referred to as a temperature
sensor RTD is capable to measure
In RTD devices, materials such as
temperature with high accuracy, RTD is
Copper, Nickel and Platinum are widely
the only one solution in industries. It has
used metals. These three metals are
good linear characteristics over a wide
having different resistance variations
range of temperature.
with respective to the temperature
variations.
 communicated over long
That is called resistance temperature distances by wire or radio
frequency (rf) to a data
characteristics Platinum has the acquisition or control system.
temperature range of 650ºC, and then • Unlike thermocouples,
the Copper and Nickel have 120 ºC and resistance temperature
300 ºC respectively. detectors operate in quite
small temperature domain.
Their temperature span
ranges from about -200 ºC to
a maximum temperature of
around 650 to 700 ºC.
• Although, Copper and Nickel
are the cheapest materials,
they are considered
unsuitable for construction of
RTDs because of non linearity
problems (in case of Nickel)
and wire oxidation problems
(in case of Copper).
• The most suitable material for
accurate temperature
• RTDs are basically active measurements is considered
devices which need an to be Platinum, since its
electrical signal to generate a temperature Coefficient of
voltage drop across the Resistance is nearly linear for
sensor. This voltage drop is its pure form.
then determined with the help
of a calibrated read out
device.
Types of RTD
• Due to lead wires which are RTD Element
usually employed to connect It is the most simple and commonly
the RTD to readout device, used form of RTD. It basically
errors can take place in
comprises of a core of ceramic or glass,
temperature measurement
results. Particularly in remote around which a piece of wire is wrapped.
temperature measurement Since RTD elements are very small and
locations where longer lead compact in size, they find their greatest
wires are used, chances of
use in areas where space is the major
errors are more frequent.
• As per requirement, three wire constraint. An exceptional type of RTD
and four wire circuit designs element called RTD surface element is
are available for constructed in such a thin size that it
compensation of lead wire offers brilliant contact for temperature
errors.
• Besides, the lead error can be measurement in case of flat surfaces.
limited by means of a
temperature transmitter which
is installed in proximity of the
RTD element. These
transmitters are competent
enough to transform
resistance measurement into
analog or digital signals.
These signals can then be
RTD Probe
An RTD probe consists of an Typically, these RTD’s are constructed
element which is protected against by applying a film of platinum on a
environmental effects by means of a substrate and then followed by
special type of metallic tube, popularly encapsulation of both film and
known as sheath. The RTD probe also substrate. RTDs constructed via this
includes lead wires which gets method happen to be small in size and
terminated or connected at the offer fast and accurate response.
measurement point It is the most
rugged and strong type of RTD. RTD Working Principle
Resistance Temperature Detectors
(RTD) operates on the principle that the
electrical resistance of a metal changes
predictably in an essentially linear and
repeatable manner with changes in
temperature RTD have a positive
temperature coefficient (resistance
Platinum RTD increases with temperature). The
These are the most widely used resistance of the element at a base
resistance temperature detectors. They temperature is proportional to the
meet the requirements of precision length of the element and the inverse of
thermometry in the best possible way. the cross sectional area.
They are also referred to as PRTs &
PRT 100s. These RTDs provide A typical electrical circuit designed
excellent linearity and stability. Besides, to measure temperature with RTDs
their repeatability and accuracy also actually measures a change in
happens to be best amongst all RTD’s. resistance of the RTD, which is then
Their response is very fast i e a fraction used to calculate a change in
of a second and almost linear over a temperature. The resistance of an RTD
broad span of temperatures. increases with increasing temperature,
just as the resistance of a strain gage
increases with increasing strain.

Bridge Circuit Construction

A basic bridge circuit which consists
Thin Film RTD of three known resistances, R1, R2 and
R3 (variable) an unknown variable
These types of RTDs are made up
resistor RX (RTD) a source of voltage,
of “a thin layer of a base metal
and a sensitive ammeter Resistors R1
embedded into a ceramic substrate and
and R2 are the ratio arms of the bridge.
trimmed to produce the desired
resistance value”.
They ratio the two variable resistances RTD is used in power electronics,
for current flow through the ammeter computer, consumer electronics, food
R3 is a variable resistor known as the handling and processing, industrial
standard arm that is adjusted to match electronics, medical electronics,
the unknown resistor. military, and aerospace.

IC (Integrated Circuit) Temperature

Transducers
These are the temperature
transducers which use the temperature
sensing element with monolithic
electronic circuits as a combination for
the measurement of temperature.
They have following type:
• LM 335 - It provides an output
Since the values of R1, R2, and R3
of 10 mV/ºK
are known values, the only unknown is • LM 34 - It provides an output
Rx. The value of Rx can be calculated of 10 mV/ºF
for the bridge during an ammeter zero • AD 592 - It provides a current
current condition. Knowing this output of 1 µA/ºK
resistance value provides a baseline
point for calibration of the instrument
attached to the bridge circuit. The
unknown resistance, Rx

𝑅2 𝑅3
𝑅𝑥 =
𝑅1

Working Principle
The IC temperature (ICT)
transducer is a two terminal monolithic
integrated circuit whose output is a
current or a voltage that is directly
proportional to temperature T/K. The
Application of RTD transduction mechanism utilized in this
RTD sensor is used in automotive to
transducer is the dependence of the
measure the engine temperature, an oil
base emitter voltage Vbe of a silicon
level sensor, intake air temperature
transistor, on the ambient temperature
sensors. In communication and
T/K.
instrumentation for sensing the over the
temperature of amplifiers, transistor
gain stabilizers, etc…
 If two well matched IC transistors Application of IC Temperature
are connected then the difference Transducer
between the Vbe’s of the transistors Q1 • Use to sense the temperature
and Q2 is proportional to T, if the ratio of a printed circuit board
of the respective emitter areas O is (PCB) or the ambient air
around it
constant. It is made constant by
• Use to measure the
designing the emitter areas of Q1 and temperature of PCs to
Q2 to be in a fixed ratio and operating temperature control systems,
them at equal collector currents When High performance personal
computers and servers use
the temperature being monitored
monolithic temperature
changes, the collector currents of Q1 sensors on their
and Q2 also change. The control circuit motherboards to monitor
forces the collector currents to equalize, system temperatures and alert
system failure.
and V0 is then proportional to the
• Simple Fan Controller senses
temperature being measured. The total the temperature and control
output current IOUT through Q1 and Q2 is the fan speed

𝐼𝑜𝑢𝑡 = (
𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
)𝑇
Pressure Measurement
𝑅0 Pressure is defined as force per unit
area that a fluid exerts on its
surroundings. A pressure
measurement can be described as
either static or dynamic. It can further
be described by the type of
measurement being performed. The
three methods for measuring pressure
are absolute, gauge, and differential.
Absolute pressure is referenced to the
pressure in a vacuum, whereas gauge
and differential pressures are
referenced to another pressure such as
the ambient atmospheric pressure or
pressure in an adjacent vessel.
Pressure can be measure using
pressure transducers.

Pressure Transducers
A pressure transducer is a
measuring device which converts an
applied pressure into a measurable
electrical signal. It consists of two main
parts, an elastic material which will response to the physical deformation of
deform when exposed to a pressurized a material caused by pressure. By
medium and a electrical device which wiring the strain gauges in a
detects the deformation. Wheatstone bridge arrangement, these
small changes in resistance can be
The most common method of exploited to give rise to a precise
utilising the elastic material is to form it electrical signal proportional to the
into a thin flexible membrane called a applied pressure.
diaphragm. The electrical device which
is combined with the diaphragm to Capacitance Pressure Transducers
create a pressure transducer can be Capacitive pressure transducer,
based on a resistive, capacitive or also called Capacitance pressure
inductive principle of operation. transmitter or a Capacitance pressure
sensor. The capacitive type pressure
Types of Pressure Transducers transmitter is a differential pressure
There are different types of pressure type sensor It is used for measuring the
transducers based on their design. displacement, pressure and other
These sensors can come in several physical quantities. It converts applied
shapes and sizes, but the technology pressure into a current signal, Like 4-20
inside can also differ. mA. A pressure transducer is a device
There 4 main types of pressure that measures the pressure of a fluid,
sensor based on this: indicating the force the fluid is exerting
1. Strain Gauge Pressure on surfaces in contact with it. Pressure
Transducers transducers are used in many control
2. Capacitance Pressure and monitoring applications, such as
Transducers flow, airspeed, level, pump systems or
3. Potentiometric Pressure
Transducers altitude.
4. Resonant Wire Pressure
Transducers
Resonant Wire Pressure Transducers
The resonant wire pressure
Strain Gauge Pressure Transducers transducer is a device that is generally
Strain gauge-based pressure used in industrial applications to
transducers are suitable for use in a measure pressure.
wide range of industries. Due to their
Advantages
extraordinary variety and flexibility of
o Good repeatability
design, they can handle the most o Less hysteresis
diverse and challenging applications. o Good accuracy
Strain gauge-based pressure o Strong output signal
transducers convert a pressure into a
measurable electrical signal. Their
function is based on the piezoresistive
effect the ability of the strain gauges to
change their resistance value in
Working Principle Working Principle
A wire is fixed at one end by a static The principle of the potentiometric
member in a resonant wire pressure pressure measurement is based on the
transducer and at the other end by a change in resistance of a potentiometer.
pressure sensing diaphragm (under The wiper of the potentiometer is
tension). mechanically connected to a pressure
High pressure and low-pressure sensitive element, such as a Bourdon
diaphragms on the right and left of the tube, a bellows, a capsule or a
unit detect the process pressures. The diaphragm. The deflection of the
wire is placed in a magnetic field and pressure sensitive element determines
permitted to oscillate. The oscillator the position of the wiper on the
circuit results in resonant frequency potentiometer. As a result, the
wire oscillation. resistance value changes between the
wiper and one end of the Potentiometer.
This resistance value is a measure of
the pressure applied to the sensing
element.

Potentiometric Pressure Transducers

It started with a Bourdon tube
attached to a potentiometer, creating
the first potentiometric pressure
transducer. A few years later followed
by the unbonded and bonded strain
gauges. Resistive transducers are
widely used in the industry today
because of their many advantages
such as reliability, simple construction,
mature design and production process,
adjustable resolution and maintenance
free properties.
 SUBTOPIC 2 Flow, Velocity, Acceleration, and Speed Measurement

Viewed Steam density at different

Introduction temperatures and pressures
Industrial flow measurements vary. Hence the measurement
include measuring of flow rate of solids, is converted into weight rate of
water which is used to
liquids and gases. There are two basic produce steam at the point of
ways of measuring flow one on measurement.
volumetric basis and the other on
weight basis. Solid materials are Flow of Measurement
measured in terms of either weight per Flow measurement is the
unit time or mass per unit time. Liquids quantification of bulk fluid movement.
are measured either in volume rate or Flow rate and the quantity is one of the
in weight rate. Gases are normally important process variable requiring
measured in volume rate. In this frequent measurements. Flow rate
chapter, the flow measurements of measurement plays an important role in
liquids and gases will be discussed in plant material balancing, quality control
detail rather than that of solids. and the operation of any continuous
process.
𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 = (𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦)(𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎)
𝑚 2 𝑚3 Types of Flow Measurement Devices
𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 = 𝑚 =
𝑠 𝑠 The physical measurement devices
come in a number of classifications.
𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑦 = (𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒)(𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒) While the following classifications do
𝑚3 not match any industry standards, they
𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑦 = 𝑠 = 𝑚3
𝑠 serve to break the transducers down
into some reasonably functional groups.
Units of Flow These are:
The units used to describe the flow 1. Obstruction flow meters
measured can be of several types 2. Velocity flow meters -
Including Moving Member
depending on how the specific process
meters
needs the information. 3. Positive Displacement meters
• Solids - Normally expressed 4. Variable area meters
in weight rate like 5. Electronic meters
Tonnes/hour, Kg/minute etc.
• Liquids - Expressed both in Obstruction Type Flow Meter
weight rate and in volume
rate. Examples: Tonnes/hour, • Obstruction or head type flow
Kg/minute, litres/hour, meters are of two types:
litres/minute, m3/hour etc. differential pressure type
• Gases - Expressed in volume and variable area type.
rate at NTP or STP like Std • Orifice meter, Venturimeter
m3/hour, Nm3/hour etc. Pitot tube fall under the first
• Steam. Expressed in weight category, while rotameter is of
rate like Tonnes/hour, the second category.
Kg/minutes etc.
 • In all the cases, an obstruction Positive Displacement Meters
is created in the flow passage Positive Displacement flow meters
and the pressure drop across
the obstruction is related with traps pockets of fluid between rotating
the flow rate. components housed within a high
precision chamber. This can be
Differential Pressure Flow Meters compared to repeatedly filling a beaker
Differential pressure meters work on with fluid and pouring the contents
the principle of partially obstructing the downstream while counting the number
flow in a pipe. This creates a difference of times the beaker is filled. The rotor’s
in the static pressure between the rotational velocity is directly
upstream and downstream side of the proportional to flow rate, since the flow
device. This difference in the static of fluid is causing the rotation. In
pressure (referred to as the differential electronic flow meters the rotating
pressure) is measured and used to components contain magnets that
determine the flow rate. activate various sensor options located
outside the fluid chamber. Mechanical
positive displacement flow sensors rely
on the rotation to drive either a
magnetic coupling or a direct gear train
connected to the mechanical counter.

Manometer tubes measure the

difference in static pressure upstream
and downstream of the restriction.
When a fluid flows through a restriction,
it accelerates to a higher velocity (i.e.
V2 > V1) to conserve the mass flow and,
as a consequence of this, its static
pressure drops. This differential
pressure (∆p) is then a measure of the
flow rate through the device. Take note
that the higher the Δp, the higher the
flow rate. The relationship between the Variable Area Flow Meters
differential pressure and flow rate is Also called rotameters are simple
derived from Bernoulli’s equation. flowmeters but effective for measuring
2
∆𝑝 ∝ 𝑄𝑚 the flow of liquids, gases or steam. This
type of flowmeters consists of a float
inside a conical tube.
The fluid flows up through the tapered This area corresponds to a particular
tube forcing the float to a position with flow rate that is shown by the equivalent
sufficient free area to enable the flow to scales directly engraved in the
pass. This free area is related to the measuring tube.
flow rate, the weight of the float and the
density and viscosity of the fluid. The
pressure drop across the flowmeter
remains constant over the entire flow
range, since it is related to the fluid
density and the float weight and
dimensions. Flow indication is achieved
since the area of flow increases as the
flow rate increases. Velocity Flow Meters
Velocity meters measure velocity of
the stream to calculate the volumetric
flow rate. These are less sensitive
when the Reynolds number of fluid is
higher than 10000 Velocity flow meters
include turbine, paddlewheel, vortex
shedding, electromagnetic and
sonic/ultrasonic flow meters.
where:
• 𝐴𝑓 – Float area
• 𝐴𝑐 – Float measuring
tube area
• 𝑃𝑓 – Float Weight
• 𝐸 – Fluid Thrust

Flow and Velocity

𝐹𝑟𝑒𝑒 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 = 𝐴𝑙 = 𝐴𝑐 − 𝐴𝑓 It was discussed in previous topic
that flow is a measure of air/liquid
Each position of the float output in terms of volume per unit of
corresponds to a flow rate indicated on time. While velocity refers to how fast
the scale printed on measuring tube. the air/liquid is moving in distance
per unit of time. The relationship
The area changes due to the conical
between flow, velocity, and pressure
shape of the measuring tube.
can be explained using Bernoulli’s
principle. Bernoulli’s equation states
Each float position represents an
mathematically that if a fluid is flowing
area between the float and the orifice.
through a tube and the tube diameter
decreases, then the velocity of the fluid
increases, the pressure decreases, and
the mass flow (and therefore volumetric Electromagnetic flow meters have
flow) remains constant so long as the no moving parts. They are selected for
air density is constant. their abilities to measure difficult and
corrosive liquids and slurries with a very
Velocity Meters low pressure drop parts and are ideal
Velocity flowmeters are popular for wastewater applications or any dirty
because they give a direct measure of liquid which is electrically conductive.
fluid velocity, the characteristic most
associated with flowrate. These Ultrasonic Flow Meters
flowmeters, however, are among the This velocity meter uses very high
most sensitive to process conditions. frequency sound waves to measure the
velocity of particles in the process fluid
Since velocity flowmeters operate or the time it takes for the sound waves
under the assumption of a constant to pass through the fluid.
velocity profile, they are inaccurate for
flows in the laminar regime. This The Doppler Effect Flow method
inaccuracy occurs because there is a requires that there are reflecting
large difference between the fluid particles in the fluid. This method is not
velocity at the wall and at the center of suitable for clear liquids. Since the
the pipe. This property makes velocity Doppler flow meters performance is so
flowmeters especially sensitive to highly dependent on the physical
piping geometry and Reynolds number. properties of the fluid, such as the sonic
conductivity, particle density, and flow
Magnetic Flow Meters profile, this method is only suitable for
Operate on Faraday’s law of applications that do not require a high
electromagnetic induction that states accuracy.
that a voltage is induced when a
conductor moves through a magnetic Turbine and Paddlewheel
field. The liquid serves as the conductor Turbine meters and paddlewheel
and the magnetic field is created by meters are among the most versatile
energized coils outside the flow tube. flowmeters. When fluid flows past a
Electromagnetic flow meters can only turbine meter, the meter's vaned rotor
be used for electrically conductive fluids, rotates. The same occurs in a
such as water. They cannot measure paddlewheel, except the paddlewheel's
De ionized water or most hydrocarbon blades are perpendicular to the
based liquids. The output voltage direction of flow. In both cases the
produced by the electromagnetic angular velocity of the rotor is
induction is directly proportional to the proportional to the velocity of the fluid.
flow rate. Electrodes mounted in the
pipe wall detect the voltage which is
measured by a secondary element.
 The main advantages of vortex meters
are their low sensitivity to variations in
process conditions and low wear
relative to orifices or turbine meters.

Speed and Acceleration Measuring

Instruments
Speed measuring instruments vary
Working Principle with the job. Whether measuring
A magnetic pickup coil is mounted traveling speed, wind speed,
outside the pipe. The turbine or acceleration or engine speed, there is a
paddlewheel blades are made of or proper instrument for calculating that
contain magnetic material. As the fluid form of speed Police use RADAR and
flows and each blade passes by the coil, LIDAR to measure traffic speed. Cars
the magnetic flux through the coil have speedometers for travel speed
changes, causing a voltage pulse. A and tachometers for engine speed.
sensor measures the pulse rate and Accelerometers are also used with car
from that determines the flowrate. To speed measurements. Meteorologists
obtain the constant velocity profile use anemometers and radar to create
necessary for an accurate their weather forecasts.
measurement, turbine and
paddlewheel meters require a straight Tachometers for Engine Speed
section of pipe upstream and Tachometers measure the engine
downstream of the flow meter. speed in revolutions per minute (rpm).
This instrument determines the
Vortex Flow Meters rotational speed (how fast it's spinning)
This of flow meter make use of a of a shaft or disk in the engine and
natural phenomenon that occurs when displays the reading on a calibrated
a liquid flows around a bluff object. analog dial display on the dashboard of
Eddies or vortices are shed alternately a car, aircraft or other vehicle.
downstream of the object. The
frequency of the vortex shedding is
directly proportional to the velocity of
the liquid flowing past the bluff object.
The three necessary components of a
vortex flow meter are a bluff body
mounted in the flow meter bore, a
sensor to detect the presence of the
vortex and generate an electrical
impulse, and a signal amplification
circuit.
Speedometers for Travelling Speed Accelerometers for Measuring
Speedometers measure the Acceleration and Deceleration
traveling speed of land vehicles. They Accelerometers measure the rates
are used to help drivers determine their of acceleration and deceleration of a
driving speed and maintain it at save vehicle to determine whether the drive
and realistic levels. These meters use train and braking systems are
magnets and a set of rotating cables functioning correctly.
connected to the transmission to
determine the rate of travel, which is
shown on an analog display on the
vehicle's dashboard.

Other Speed and Accelerator Measuring

Devices
Anemometer
Anemometers are wind speed
instruments used by meteorologists.
These devices have 3 or 4 cups
attached to a central spoke. As the cups
catch the movement of air, they spin on
the spoke, and the revolutions per
minute are converted to an air speed or
wind speed.

LIDAR for Determining Vehicle

Speed
LIDAR stands for Light Detection
and Ranging Police use LIDAR to
calculate car and truck speed much like
RADAR is used, only LIDAR uses light
instead of sound.