Introduction

An instrument is a device for determining the value or magnitude of a quantity or variable.

As technology expands the demand for more accurate instruments increase and produces new
developments in instrument design and application. On the other hand, measurement is a
process by which one can convert physical parameters to meaningful number.
This chapter provides an introduction to different types of error in measurement and to the
methods generally used to express errors, in term of the most reliable value of the measured
variable.
Methods of Measurements
The methods of measurements may be classified according to following types:
1. Direct Methods. In the direct method of measurement, we compare the unknown quantity
directly with the primary or secondary standard. For example if we want to measure the length
of the bar, we will measure it with the help of the standard measuring tape or scale that acts as
the secondary standard. Here we compare the unknown quantity directly with the standard
scale. The scale is expressed as a numerical number and a unit.
The direct comparison method of measurement is not always accurate. In above example of
measuring the length, there is limited accuracy with which our eye can read the readings,
which can be about 0.01 inch. Here the error does not occur because of the error in the
standards, but because of the human limitations in taking the readings.
2. Indirect Methods. There are number of quantities that cannot be measured directly by using
some instrument. For instance we cannot measure the strain in the bar due to applied force
directly. In such cases indirect methods of measurements are used.
In this method the unknown quantity to be measured is converted into some other measurable
quantity. Then we measure the measureable quantity. For example the strain can be measured
in terms of the electrical resistance of the bar.
Classification of Instruments
The instruments may be classified according to the following types:
1. Electrical and Electronic Instruments. The measuring instrument that uses mechanical
movement of electromagnetic meter to measure voltage, current, power, etc. is called
electrical measuring instrument. These instruments use the d’Arsonval meter. While any
measurement system that uses d’Arsonval meter with amplifiers to increase the sensitivity of
measurements is called electronic instrument.
Mechanical instruments are the oldest used instruments. Though reliable for static and
stable conditions, they are not appropriate for dynamic and transient conditions. Also, they
are bulky and are a source of noise.
2. Analogue and Digital Instruments. An analogue instrument is the instrument that uses
analogue signal to display the magnitude of quantity under measurement. The digital
instrument uses digital signal to indicate the results of measurement in digital form.
3. Absolute and Secondary Instruments. In absolute instrument the measured value is given
in term of instrument constants and the deflection of one part of the instrument e.g. tangent
galvanometer. In these instruments no calibrated scale is necessary. While in secondary
instruments, the quantity of the measured values is obtained by observing the output indicated
by these instruments.

Block diagram of the measuring system

The generalized measuring system consists of three main functional elements.
They are,
1. Primary sensing element, which senses the quantity under measurement.
2. Variable conversion element, which modifies suitably the output of the primary sensing
element
3. Data presentation element that renders the indication on a calibrated scale.

Functional elements of measuring systems

1. Primary sensing element
The measurement first comes into contact with primary sensing element where the conversion
takes place. This is done by a transducer which converts the measurement (or) measured
quantity into a usable electrical output. The transduction may be from mechanical, electrical
(or) optical to any related form.
2. Variable Conversion Element
The output of the primary sensing element is in the electrical form suitable for control,
recording and display. For, the instrument to perform the desired function, it may be necessary
to convert this output to some other suitable for preserving the original information. This
function is performed by the variable conversion element. A system may require one (or) more
variable conversion suitable to it
a).Variable Manipulation Element
The signal gets manipulated here preserving the original nature of it. For example, an amplifier
accepts a small voltage signal as input and produces a voltage, of greater magnitude. The
output is the same voltage but of higher value, acting as a voltage amplifier. Here the voltage
amplifier acts as a variable manipulation element since it amplifies the voltage. The element
that follows the primary sensing element in a measurement system is called signal conditioning
element. Here the variable conversion element and variable manipulation element are
collectively called as Data conditioning element (or) signal conditioning element.
(b)Data Transmission Element
The transmission of data from one another is done by the data transmission element. In case of
space crafts, the control signals are sent from the control stations by using radio signals. The
stage that follows the signal conditioning element and data transmission element collectively is
called the intermediate stage.
(c).Data Presentation Element
The display (or) readout devices which display the required information about the
measurement, forms the data presentation element. Here the information of the measurand has
to be conveyed for, monitoring, Control (or) analysis purposes.(a). 1t case of data to be
monitored, visual display devices are needed like ammeters; voltmeters and so on are used.
(b)In case of data to be recorded, recorders like magnetic tapes, T.V equipment, and storage
type C.R T, printers and so on are used.
 Characteristics of Measurement Systems
The characteristics of measurement systems are classified in to the following two
types:
1. Static Characteristics
2. Dynamic Characteristics
1. Static Characteristics
The static characteristic of a measurement instrument is the characteristics of the
system when the input is either held constant or varying very slowly. The static
characteristics are of the following types:
1. Sensitivity. The sensitivity of measurement is a measure of the change in
instrument output that occurs when the quantity being measured changes by a
given amount
2. Linearity. It is normally desired that the output reading of the instrument is
linearly proportional to the quantity being measured. An instrument is considered
linear if the relationship between output and input can be fitted in a line if it is not
a straight line it should not be concluded that the instrument is inaccurate, it is a
misconception.
3. Reproducibility. In the measurement, the given value may be repeated or
measured assuming that environmental conditions are same for each
measurement. We say that the measuring instruments have a certain amount of
inherent uncertainty in their ability to reproduce the same output reading after
some time.
4. Range and Span. It defines the maximum and minimum values of the inputs
or the outputs for which the instrument is recommended to use. For example, for
a temperature measuring instrument the input range may be 100-500°C and the
output range may be
4-20 mA. Span is algebraic difference of the upper and lower limits of the range.
5. Static Error. This error shows the deviation of the true value from the desired
value.
6. Loading Effects. It’s the change of circuit parameter, characteristic, or
behavior due to instrument operation.
7. Accuracy is a closeness with which the instrument reading approaches the true
value of the variable under measurement. Accuracy is the degree to which
instrument reading match the true or accepted values. It indicates the ability of
instrument to indicate the true value of the quantity.
8. Precision is a measure of the reproducibility of the measurement i.e., its
measure of the degree to which successive measurements differ from one other.
It is the degree of agreement within a group of measurements or instruments.
9. Drift: Drift is an undesirable gradual departure of the instrument outward over
a period of time, unrelated to changes in the input. Causes of drift temperature
changes, wear and tear, mechanical vibrations etc.
10. Dead zone: The largest change of input quantity for which there is no output
of the instrument is termed as dead zone.
2. Dynamic Characteristics
The dynamic characteristics of a measurement instrument describe the behavior
of the instrument when the desired input is not constant but varies rapidly with
the time. It describes the ways in which an instrument or measurement system
responds to sudden changes to the input. In general, the dynamic response of the
measurement system is expressed in the form of a differential equation. For any
dynamic system, the order of the differential equation which describes the system
is called the Order of the System. (i) Zero-order System: It has an ideal dynamic
performance, because the output is proportional to the input for all frequencies
and there is no amplitude or phase distortion. A linear potentiometer is an
example of a zero-order element. (ii) First-order System: A first-order instrument
or system is characterized by a linear differential equation. The temperature
transducer is an example of first-order measuring devices, since this is
characterized by a single parameter, i.e., time constant, T.
 Following are the main types of dynamic characteristics:
1. Speed of Response. It is defined as a rapidity with which a measurement
system responds to a change in measured quantity. It gives information about how
fast the system reacts to the changes in the input.
2. Measuring lag. Every instrument takes some time to respond to the change in
the measured variable. This retardation or delay in the response of the instrument
is called measuring lag. The measuring lag is of the following two types:
(a) Retardation Lag. The response of measurement system begins immediately
after a change in measured quantity has occurred.
(b) Time Delay Lag. The measurement lags of this type are very small and are
of the order of a fraction of a second and hence can be ignored. In this case,
response begins after the application of input and is called after “dead time”. Such
a delay shifts the response along time axis and hence causes the dynamic error.
The largest change of input quantity for which there is no change in the measured
quantity is known as dead zone.
3. Fidelity. It is the ability of an instrument to produce a wave shape identical to
wave shape of input with respect to time. It also shows the change in quantity
without dynamic error.
4. Dynamic Error. It is the difference between the true value changing with time
& value indicated by measuring system without static errors.
Measurement Error
No measurement can be made with perfection and accuracy, but it is important to
find out what the accuracy actually is and how different errors have entered into
the measurement. Error occurs due to several sources like human carelessness in
taking reading, calculating and in using instrument etc. Some of the time error is
due to instrument and environment effects.
Errors come from different sources and are classified in three types:
1. Gross Error
2. Systematic Errors
3. Random Errors

1. Gross Error
The gross error occurs due to the human mistakes in reading or using the
instruments. These errors cover human mistakes like in reading, calculating and
recordings etc. It sometimes occurs due to incorrect adjustments of instruments.
The complete elimination of gross errors is impossible, but we can minimize them
by the following ways:
1. It can be avoided by taking care while reading and recording the measurement
data.
2. Taking more than one reading of same quantity. At least three or more reading
must be taken by different persons.

2. Systematic Errors
A systematic error is divided in three different categories: instrumental errors,
environmental errors and observational errors.

a. Instrumental Errors
The instrument error generate due to instrument itself. It is due to the inherent
shortcomings in the instruments, misuse of the instruments, loading effects of
instruments. For example in the D’ Arsonval movement friction in bearings of
various moving components may cause incorrect readings. There are so many
kinds of instrument errors, depending on the type of instrument used.
Instrumental errors may be avoided by
(a) Selecting a suitable instrument for the particular measurement
application
(b) Applying correction factors after determining the amount of
instrumental error
(c) Calibrating the instruments against a standard.

b. Environmental Errors
Environmental errors arise as a result of environmental effects on instrument. It
includes conditions in the area surrounding the instrument, such as the effects of
changes in temperature, humidity, barometric pressure or of magnetic or
electrostatic fields.
For example when making measurements with a steel rule, the temperature when
the measurement is made might not be the same as that for which the rule was
calibrated.
Environmental errors may be avoided by
(a) Using the proper correction factor and information supplied by the
manufacturer of the instrument.
(b) Using the arrangement which will keep the surrounding condition constant
like use of air condition, temperature controlled enclosures etc.
(c) Making the new calibration under the local conditions.

3. Observational Errors

These errors occur due to carelessness of operators while taking the reading.
There are many sources of observational errors such as parallax error while
reading a meter, wrong scale selection, the habits of individual observers etc.
To eliminate such observational errors, one should use the instruments with
mirrors, knife edged pointers, etc. Now a day’s digital display instruments are
available, which are much more versatile.

3. Random Errors

These errors are due to unknown causes and occur even when all systematic errors
have been accounted for. In some experiments some random errors usually occur,
but they become important in high-accuracy work.
These errors are due to friction in instrument movement, parallax errors between
pointer and scale, mechanical vibrations, hysteresis in elastic members etc.

4. Absolute Error

Measurement is the process of comparing an unknown quantity with an accepted

standard quantity .Absolute error may be defined as the difference between the
measured value of the variable and the true value of the variable.
δA = Am – A
Where
δA= absolute error

Am = expected value
A = measured value
5. Relative error

2. Basis of Statistical Analysis

The different types of error in the measurement system are shown in a concept
map in the Fig below... As seen from the map, it describes how the numerical
results of measurements differ from pure numbers, uncertainty that arise from
systematic and random errors. It also show what causes systematic error and
random error and so on.
Statistical analysis is about making sense of a set of data or a series of
observations. Most people whether they realize it or not, have conducted some
kind of statistical analysis, even something as basic as balancing a cheque book.
Statistical analysis can summarize and even illuminate a set of data, depending
on type of analysis performed. Techniques of analysis range from simple
measure, such as means and standard deviations, to more complex analysis as
regression.
Steps in Statistical Analysis. The major steps involved are statistical analysis
including data collection and entry, examination of the data, summarizing the data
and reporting finding.
Statistical Analysis
We have already discussed in the last article that statistical analysis is about
making sense of a set of data or a series of observations. The statistical analysis
of “measurement data” is important because it allows an analytical
determination of the uncertainty of the final test result. To make statistical
analysis meaningful, a large number of measurements are usually required. The
systematic and random errors are evaluated and studied by statistical
procedures. The systematic errors should be small as compared to random
errors, because statistical data cannot remove fixed bias contained in all the
measurements.
The mathematical analysis of the various measurements is called statistical
analysis of data.
For statistical analysis, the same reading is taken number of times by using
different instruments in different ways.
The analysis of data is done by different method as listed below:
1. Arithmetic Mean
2. Deviation from the Mean
3. Average Deviation
4. Standard Deviation
5. Variance
1. Arithmetic Mean
The arithmetic mean is, also called the average or average value, it is the quantity
obtained by summing two or more numbers or variables and then dividing by the
number of numbers or variables. The arithmetic mean is important in statistics.
The best approximation will be made when the number of readings of the same
quantity is very large. Theoretically, an infinite number of readings would give
the best, although in practice, only a finite number of measurements can be made.
The arithmetic mean is given by the following expression.

2. Deviation from the Mean

Deviation is the departure of a given reading from the arithmetic mean of the
group of readings. Let the deviation of the first reading, x1 be d1, and for the
second reading, x2 be d2 and so on. Then deviations from the mean can be
expressed as

The deviation from the mean may have a positive or a negative value and the
algebraic sum of all deviations must be zero.
3. Average Deviation
The average deviation is an indication of the precision of the instruments used in
making the measurements. The average deviation is the sum of the absolute
values of the deviations divided by the number of readings. The absolute value of
the deviation is the value without the sign.
Average deviation is expressed as
4. Standard Deviation
It shows how much variation there is from the average (mean) value. It also
knows as root mean– square deviation. The standard deviation s of an infinite
number of data is the square root of the sum of all the individual deviations
squared, divided by the number of readings. Standard deviation is expressed as

5. Variance or Mean Square Deviation

Example By using a “micrometer screw”, the following readings were

taken of a certain physical length: 1.34, 1.38, 1.56, 1.47, 1.42, 1.44, 1.53,
1.48, 1.40, and 1.59 mm. calculate the following:
(i) Arithmetic mean, (ii) Average deviation, (iii) Standard deviation, and
(iv)Variance
Signal, periodic, aperiodic standard test signals

Signal is a time varying physical phenomenon which is intended to convey

information
or
Signal is a function of one or more independent variables, which contain some
information.
Example: voice signal, video signal, signals on telephone wires etc.
A signal is said to be periodic if it satisfies the condition x (t) = x (t + T) or x(n)
= x(n + N). At all-time t (n) and for some positive constant T (N). The smallest
positive value of T that satisfies the periodicity condition, Eq., is referred to as
the fundamental period of x (t).otherwise it is Non-periodic or aperiodic signal
Where
T = fundamental time period,
1/T = f = fundamental frequency.
Examples of periodic signals include the sinusoidal signal and periodically
repeated non-sinusoidal signals, such as the rectangular pulse sequences.
Non-periodic signals include speech waveforms and random signals arising from
unpredictable disturbances of all kinds
 Fig .Examples of periodic (a, c , e) and aperiodic (b , d , e)with
Continuous and discontinuous

The dynamic behavior of measurement system is studied in two domain

1. Time domain
2. Frequency domain
When response of a dynamic system is expressed as a function of time it is called
time domain analysis. Similarly if function of frequency it is called frequency
domain analysis.
This analysis can only be applied when nature of input plus mathematical model
of the measurement system is known.

In time domain the dynamic behavior of a system is manipulated and judged

under the application and working of standard and typical test signals. The
characteristics of an input signal are constant acceleration, constant velocity, a
sudden change or a sudden shock.
Where in frequency domain analysis of system pertains to the study state response
of the system to a sinusoidal input.
There are four types of typical test signals: Impulse Step, Ramp, Parabolic and
another important signal is sinusoidal signal in frequency domain analysis.
Modulation

Modulation is the process of varying one or more parameters of a carrier signal

in accordance with the instantaneous values of the message signal.

The message signal is the signal which is being transmitted for communication
and the carrier signal is a high frequency signal which has no data, but is used for
long distance transmission.

Modulation is a technique in which message signal is transmitted to the receiver

with the help of carrier signal.
 Here in modulation, we combine both carrier signal and message signal.
You may get the doubt that what is the need of modulation. Just imagine that you
have a paper which contains the message and you would like to send it to your
friend standing 40 feet from your place. You can’t just through the paper to your
friend because paper will not travel that much distance but if you take small stone
and cover the paper with it and through it to your friend, it will definitely reach
the target. In the same way, we need a carrier signal to transmit our message.
Sometimes, message signal is also called as modulating signal. There are many
modulation techniques, which are classified according to the type of modulation
employed

In Continuous Wave modulation schemes some parameter of modulated wave

varies continuously with message.
Continuous-wave Modulation
In continuous-wave modulation, a high frequency sine wave is used as a carrier
wave. This is further divided into amplitude and angle modulation.
 If the amplitude of the high frequency carrier wave is varied in accordance
with the instantaneous amplitude of the modulating signal, then such a
technique is called as Amplitude Modulation.
 If the angle of the carrier wave is varied, in accordance with the
instantaneous value of the modulating signal, then such a technique is
called as Angle Modulation. Angle modulation is further divided into
frequency modulation and phase modulation.
o If the frequency of the carrier wave is varied, in accordance with the
instantaneous value of the modulating signal, then such a technique is
called as Frequency Modulation.
 o If the phase of the high frequency carrier wave is varied in accordance with
the instantaneous value of the modulating signal, then such a technique is
called as Phase Modulation

In Analog pulse modulation some parameter of each pulse is modulated by a

particular sample value of the message.
Pulse modulation of two types

1. Analog Pulse Modulation

• Pulse Amplitude Modulation (PAM)

• Pulse width Modulation (PWM)
• Pulse Position Modulation (PPM)

2. Digital Pulse Modulation

• Pulse code Modulation (PCM)

• Delta Modulation (DM)

1. Analog Pulse Modulation

Analog pulse modulation results when some attribute of a pulse varies continuously
in one-to-one correspondence with a sample value. In analog pulse modulation
systems, the amplitude, width, or position of a pulse can vary over a continuous
range in accordance with the message amplitude at the sampling instant, as shown
in Figure (a). These lead to the following
Three types of pulse modulation:

1. Pulse Amplitude Modulation (PAM)

2. Pulse Width Modulation (PWM)

3. Pulse Position Modulation (PPM)

PAM: In this scheme high frequency carrier (pulse) is varied in accordance with
sampled value of message signal.
PWM: In this width of carrier pulses are varied in accordance with sampled values
of message signal. Example: Speed control of DC Motors.
PPM: In this scheme position of high frequency carrier pulse is changed in
accordance with the sampled values of message signal.
Figure (a) Representation of Various Analog Pulse Modulations

Advantages of PAM

 Both Modulation and demodulation are simple.

 Easy construction of transmitter and receiver circuits.
Disadvantages of PAM

 Large bandwidth is required for transmission.

 More noise.
 Here the amplitude is varying. Therefore, the power required will be
more.
Applications of PAM

 Mainly used in Ethernet communication.

 Many microcontrollers use this technique in order to generate
control signals.
 It is used in Photo-biology.
 It acts as an electronic driver for LED circuits.
Advantages of PWM

 Low power consumption.

 It has an efficiency of about 90 per cent.
 Noise interference is less.
  High power handling capacity.
Disadvantages of PWM

 The circuit is more complex.

 Voltage spikes can be seen.
 The system is expensive as it uses semiconductor devices.
 Switching losses will be more due to high PWM frequency.

Applications of PWM

Used in encoding purposes in the telecommunication system.

 Used to control brightness in a smart lighting system.
 Helps to prevent overheating in LED’s while maintaining it’s
brightness.
 Used in audio and video amplifiers.
Advantages of PPM

As it has constant amplitude noise interference is less.

 We can easily separate signal from a noisy signal.
 Among all three types, it has the most power efficiency.
 Requires less power when compared to pulse amplitude modulation.

Disadvantages of PPM

The system is highly complex.

 The system requires more bandwidth.

Applications of PPM

 It is used in the air traffic control system and telecommunication

systems.
 Remote controlled cars, planes, trains use pulse code modulations.
 It is used to compress data and hence it is used for storage.

2. Digital Pulse Modulation

In systems utilizing digital pulse modulation, the transmitted samples take on only
discrete values. Two important types of digital pulse modulation are:
1. Delta Modulation (DM)
2. Pulse Code Modulation (PCM)
1. PULSE CODE MODULATION (PCM)
The message signal is the signal which is being transmitted for communication
and the carrier signal is a high frequency signal which has no data, but is used for
long distance transmission.
There are many modulation techniques, which are classified according to the type
of modulation employed. Of them all, the digital modulation technique used is
Pulse Code Modulation (PCM).
A signal is pulse code modulated to convert its analog information into a binary
sequence, i.e., 1s and 0s. The output of a PCM will resemble a binary sequence.
The following figure shows an example of PCM output with respect to
instantaneous values of a given sine wave.

Instead of a pulse train, PCM produces a series of numbers or digits, and hence
this process is called as digital. Each one of these digits, though in binary code,
represent the approximate amplitude of the signal sample at that instant.
In Pulse Code Modulation, the message signal is represented by a sequence of
coded pulses. This message signal is achieved by representing the signal in
discrete form in both time and amplitude.

Basic Elements of PCM

The transmitter section of a Pulse Code Modulator circuit consists of Sampling,

Quantizing and Encoding, which are performed in the analog-to-digital
converter section. The low pass filter prior to sampling prevents aliasing of the
message signal.
The basic operations in the receiver section are regeneration of impaired
signals, decoding, and reconstruction of the quantized pulse train. Following is
the block diagram of PCM which represents the basic elements of both the
transmitter and the receiver sections.
Low Pass Filter
This filter eliminates the high frequency components present in the input analog
signal which is greater than the highest frequency of the message signal, to avoid
aliasing of the message signal.
Sampler
This is the technique which helps to collect the sample data at instantaneous values
of message signal, so as to reconstruct the original signal. The sampling rate must
be greater than twice the highest frequency component W of the message signal, in
accordance with the sampling theorem.
Quantizer
Quantizing is a process of reducing the excessive bits and confining the data. The
sampled output when given to Quantizer reduces the redundant bits and compresses
the value.
Encoder
Encoder assigns code words to quantized sampled values. This coding techniques
uses bits 0 and
1. If number of quantized levels are 16 then each sample is assigned with 4 bit code
word.
Regenerative repeater:
The PCM has an ability to control the distortion and noise caused by the transmission
of bits along the channel. This ability is accomplished by several regenerative
repeaters located at sufficient placing along channel.
Regenerative repeaters have three functions.
1. Equalizing
2. Timing circuits
3. Decision making device
Equalizer shapes the received pulse so as to compensate amplitude and phase
distortion caused by the channel.
Timing circuits provides periodic pulse trains.
• Decision making device compares amplitude of equalized pulse plus noise to the
pre-defined threshold levels to make decisions whether the pulse is present or not.
• If the pulse is present (i.e. decision is yes), clean new pulse is generated and
transmitted through channel to next regenerative pulse. If the pulse is not present
(i.e. the decision is no), it generates clean base line to next regenerative repeater,
provided the noise too large caused bit error by taking the wrong decision
 Decoder
Decoder reboots all the received bits to make more words then it decodes as
quantized PAM signals.
Reconstruction Filter:
All coded words are passed through low pass filter so that analog signal can be
reconstructed from quantized PAM signal. The cut off frequency of low pass filter
is fm Hz which is equal to band width of message signal.
➢ Destination
It receives the signal from the reconstructive filter output is analog signal.

Fig. PCM waveform

Bit rate and bandwidth requirements of PCM:

➢ The bit rate of a PCM signal can be calculated form the number of bits per
sample × the sampling rate. Bit rate =𝑛𝑏×𝑓𝑠 .the bandwidth required to transmit
this signal depends on the type of line encoding used.
➢ A digitized signal will always need more bandwidth than the original analog
signal. Price we pay for robustness and other features of digital transmission.
Important Relations
• Quantization Noise (𝑁𝑞)=Δ2/2
• Signal to Noise ratio
(𝑆𝑄𝑁𝑅)=32.22𝑛 𝑜𝑟 𝑆𝑄𝑁𝑅 𝑖𝑛 𝑑𝐵=1.76+6.02𝑛≅(1.8+6𝑛)𝑑𝐵
• 𝐵𝑖𝑡 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒=𝑁𝑜.𝑜𝑓 𝑏𝑖𝑡𝑠 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒×𝑠𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒=𝑛𝑓𝑠
• Bandwidth for PCM signal =n.fm Where,
n – No. of bits in PCM code
Fm – signal bandwidth
fs – Sampling rate

Sampling is defined as, “The process of measuring the instantaneous values of

continuous-time signal in a discrete form.”
Sample is a piece of data taken from the whole data which is continuous in the time
domain.
When a source generates an analog signal and if that has to be digitized,
having 1s and 0s i.e., High or Low, the signal has to be discretized in time. This
discretization of analog signal is called as Sampling.
The following figure indicates a continuous-time signal x (t) and a sampled
signal xs (t). When x (t) is multiplied by a periodic impulse train, the sampled
signal xs (t) is obtained.

Sampling Rate
To discretize the signals, the gap between the samples should be fixed. That
gap can be termed as a sampling period Ts.
Sampling Frequency=1/Ts=fs
Where,
 Ts is the sampling time
 fs is the sampling frequency or the sampling rate
Sampling frequency is the reciprocal of the sampling period. This sampling
frequency, can be simply called as sampling rate. The sampling rate denotes
the number of samples taken per second, or for a finite set of values.
For an analog signal to be reconstructed from the digitized signal, the
sampling rate should be highly considered. The rate of sampling should be
such that the data in the message signal should neither be lost nor it should
get over-lapped. Hence, a rate was fixed for this, called as Nyquist rate.
Nyquist Rate
Suppose that a signal is band-limited with no frequency components higher
than W Hertz. That means, W is the highest frequency. For such a signal, for
effective reproduction of the original signal, the sampling rate should be
twice the highest frequency.
Which means,
fS=2W
Where,
 fS is the sampling rate
 W is the highest frequency
This rate of sampling is called as Nyquist rate.
A theorem called, Sampling Theorem, was stated on the theory of this
Nyquist rate

A continuous time signal can be represented in its samples and can be

recovered back when sampling frequency fs is greater than or equal to the
twice the highest frequency component of message signal. i.e.

fs≥2fm.
We can observe from the above pattern that the over-lapping of information
is done in under sampling, which leads to mixing up and loss of
information. This unwanted phenomenon of over-lapping is called as
Aliasing.
Aliasing can be referred to as ―the phenomenon of a high-frequency component
in the spectrum of a signal, taking on the identity of a low-frequency component
in the spectrum of its sampled version.
The corrective measures taken to reduce the effect of Aliasing are −
• In the transmitter section of PCM, a low pass anti-aliasing filter is
employed, before the sampler, to eliminate the high frequency components,
which are unwanted.
• The signal which is sampled after filtering, is sampled at a rate slightly
higher than the Nyquist rate.
This choice of having the sampling rate higher than Nyquist rate, also helps in the
easier design of the reconstruction filter at the receiver.

Scope of Fourier Transform

It is generally observed that, we seek the help of Fourier series and Fourier
transforms in analyzing the signals and also in proving theorems. It is because −
• The Fourier Transform is the extension of Fourier series for non-periodic
signals.
• Fourier transform is a powerful mathematical tool which helps to view the
signals in different domains and helps to analyze the signals easily.
• Any signal can be decomposed in terms of sum of sines and cosines using this
Fourier transform. The digitization of analog signals involves the rounding off of
the values which are approximately equal to the analog values. The method of
sampling chooses a few points on the analog signal and then these points are
joined to round off the value to a near stabilized value. Such a process is called
as Quantization.
Quantizing an Analog Signal
The analog-to-digital converters perform this type of function to create a series
of digital values out of the given analog signal. The following figure represents
an analog signal. This signal to get converted into digital has to undergo sampling
and quantizing

The quantizing of an analog signal is done by discretizing the signal with a

number of quantization levels.

Quantization is representing the sampled values of the amplitude by a finite set

of levels, which means converting a continuous-amplitude sample into a discrete-
time signal.

The following figure shows how an analog signal gets quantized. The blue line
represents analog signal while the brown one represents the quantized signal.
Both sampling and quantization result in the loss of information. The quality of a
Quantizer output depends upon the number of quantization levels used. The
discrete amplitudes of the quantized output are called as representation levels or
reconstruction levels. The spacing between the two adjacent representation levels
is called a quantum or step-size.

The following figure shows the resultant quantized signal which is the digital
form for the given analog signal.

This is also called as Stair-case waveform, in accordance with its shape.

Types of Quantization
There are two types of Quantization - Uniform Quantization and Non-uniform
Quantization.

1. The type of quantization in which the quantization levels are uniformly spaced
is termed as a Uniform Quantization.
2. The type of quantization in which the quantization levels are unequal and
mostly the relation between them is logarithmic, is termed as a Non-uniform
Quantization.
 There are two types of uniform quantization.
1. Mid-Rise type
2. Mid-Tread type.

The following figures represent the two types of uniform quantization

Figure 1 shows the mid-rise type and figure 2 shows the mid-tread type of uniform
quantization.

1. The Mid-Rise type is so called because the origin lies in the middle of a raising
part of the stair- case like graph. The quantization levels in this type are even in
number.
2. The Mid-tread type is so called because the origin lies in the middle of a tread
of the stair-case like graph. The quantization levels in this type are odd in
Number
Both the mid-rise and mid-tread type of uniform quantizer are symmetric about
the origin.
Δ= (𝑚𝑎𝑥−𝑚𝑖𝑛)
𝑛𝑏=𝑙𝑜𝑔2𝐿
Quantization Error

For any system, during its functioning, there is always a difference in the values
of its input and output.
The processing of the system results in an error, which is the difference of those
values.The difference between an input value and its quantized value is called a
Quantization Error.

A Quantizer is a logarithmic function that performs Quantization (rounding off

the value). An analog-to- digital converter (ADC) works as a quantizer.

The following figure illustrates an example for a quantization error, indicating the
difference between the original signal and the quantized signal.

Quantization Noise

It is a type of quantization error, which usually occurs in analog audio signal,

while quantizing it to digital. For example, in music, the signals keep changing
continuously, where a regularity is not found in errors.
Such errors create a wideband noise called as Quantization Noise.
➢ COMPANDING IN PCM SYSTEMS

The word Companding is a combination of Compressing and Expanding, which

means that it does both. This is a non-linear technique used in PCM which
compresses the data at the transmitter and expands the same data at the receiver.
The effects of noise and crosstalk are reduced by using this technique

Fig. Companding

Companding means it amplifies the low level signals as well as attenuate high
level at the transmitter side. At the receiver side reverse operation done. It
attenuates the low level signals and amplifies the high level signals you get the
original signal. Non-uniform quantization cannot be applied directly by using
companding technique.

Fig Companding curves for PCM

Companding is used to maintain constant Signal to Noise Ratio throughout
dynamic quantization ratio
 Fig. Non Uniform Quantization

There are two types of Companding techniques. They are –

1.A-law Companding Technique

i. Uniform quantization is achieved at A = 1, where the characteristic curve is
linear and no compression is done.
ii. A-law has mid-rise at the origin. Hence, it contains a non-zero value.
iii. A-law Companding is used for PCM telephone systems.

if A=1 we get uniform quantization

2.μ-law Companding Technique
i. Uniform quantization is achieved at μ = 0, where the characteristic curve is
linear and no compression is done.
ii. μ-law has mid-tread at the origin. Hence, it contains a zero value.
iii. μ-law companding is used for speech and music signals.
Y= ±ln(1+μ│x│) ;│x│≤1 ln(1+μ)
Practically μ value is 256
For the samples that are highly correlated, when encoded by PCM technique,
leave redundant information behind. To process this redundant information and
to have a better output, it is a wise decision to take a predicted sampled value,
assumed from its previous output and summarize them with the quantized values.
Such a process is called as Differential PCM (DPCM) technique.
The sampling rate of a signal should be higher than the Nyquist rate, to
achieve better sampling. If this sampling interval in a Differential PCM (DPCM)
is reduced considerably, the sample-to-sample amplitude difference is very small,
as if the difference is 1-bit quantization, then the step-size is very small
i.e., Δ (delta). Such a modulation is termed as delta modulation, the signal
correlation will be higher.
Delta Modulator
The Delta Modulator comprises of a 1-bit quantizer and a delay circuit along with
two summer circuits. Following is the block diagram of a delta modulator.

A stair-case approximated waveform will be the output of the delta

modulator with the step-size as delta (Δ). The output quality of the
waveform is moderate.
Delta Demodulator
The delta demodulator comprises of a low pass filter, a summer, and a delay
circuit. The predictor circuit is eliminated here and hence no assumed input is
given to the demodulator.
Following is the block diagram for delta demodulator.
Low pass filter is used for many reasons, but the prominent one is noise
elimination for out-of-band signals. The step-size error that may occur at
the transmitter is called granular noise, which is eliminated here. If there
is no noise present, then the modulator output equals the demodulator
input.
Advantages of DM over DPCM

 1-bit quantizer
 Very easy design of modulator & demodulator
However, there exists some noise in DM and following are the types of
noise.

 Slope Over load distortion (when Δ is small)

 Granular noise (when Δ is large)