Sustainability 15 11301

sustainability
Review
Contributions of the 5G Network with Respect to Poverty
(SDG1), Systematic Literature Review
Michael Cabanillas-Carbonell 1 , Jorge Pérez-Martínez 1 and Joselyn Zapata-Paulini 2, *
1 Escuela Técnica Superior de Ingenieros de Telecomunicación, Universidad Politécnica de Madrid,

28040 Madrid, Spain; ma.cabanillas@alumnos.upm.es (M.C.-C.); jorge.perez.martinez@upm.es (J.P.-M.)
2 Escuela de Posgrado, Universidad Continental, Lima 15311, Peru
* Correspondence: 70994337@continental.edu.pe
Abstract: Poverty is one of the biggest problems in the world caused by the lack of resources
necessary to meet the basic needs of human survival. Ending global poverty is one of the main tasks
of large organizations around the world, as well as the United Nations has established 17 Sustainable
Development Goals (SDGs), the first goal being the “eradication of poverty”. On the other hand, 5G
technology has been considered one of the most important revolutions in the digital era and has been
highlighted for its ability to improve people’s quality of life. As this technology expands around the
world, it is important to understand how it could contribute to poverty reduction, a major global
challenge. To carry out this literature review work, various sources of information were used, with a
total of 329 articles from which 49 relevant articles were obtained. It was identified that the sectors
with the greatest contribution to poverty reduction are Government, Society, and Agriculture. It was
also found that the most relevant 5G technology that influences poverty reduction on a larger scale is
the Internet of Things and Artificial Intelligence. Being applied mainly in precision agriculture and
Smart Cities. This review provides a reference point for the analysis of the use of 5G technologies
in different sectors, with the aim of promoting equality and economic inclusion in rural areas and
future research on the various factors that affect poverty reduction.
Keywords: 5G; poverty; technology; hunger; sustainability
Citation: Cabanillas-Carbonell, M.;

Pérez-Martínez, J.; Zapata-Paulini, J.
Contributions of the 5G Network 1. Introduction
with Respect to Poverty (SDG1), Poverty is one of the major problems worldwide, which is caused by the lack of
Systematic Literature Review. resources necessary to satisfy the basic survival needs of human beings [1]. According to
Sustainability 2023, 15, 11301. https:// the United Nations [2], poverty is more than a problem of lack of resources or income, it
doi.org/10.3390/su151411301 has become a human rights issue. Ending global poverty is one of the major goals of major
Academic Editor: Claudio Sassanelli organizations around the world, such as the UN, which has set 17 Sustainable Development
Goals (SDGs) [3].
Received: 12 June 2023 The goal “End Poverty” is positioned as the first of the 17 goals in the list, being named
Revised: 11 July 2023
SDG1 [4]. Therefore, the goals set by global organizations have been gradually achieved to
Accepted: 13 July 2023
combat poverty over time. The World Bank in 2018 [5] indicated that poverty levels have made
Published: 20 July 2023
steady progress; however, they have been decreasing at a slower pace, and the figure before the
pandemic was that the number of people living in poverty decreased by as much as 10%.
Over the last few years, poverty levels have been steadily declining in the region [6];
Copyright: © 2023 by the authors.
however, the arrival of the COVID-19 pandemic provoked a worldwide economic crisis,
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. which has caused great irreversible damage to the entire population [7], even interrupted
This article is an open access article and damaged the progress achieved by the SDGs, with SDG1 being one of the most affected,
distributed under the terms and as the world economy suffered the worst recession in the last 90 years, with people in the
conditions of the Creative Commons most vulnerable sectors being the hardest hit [8]. The World Bank [9] indicated that poverty
Attribution (CC BY) license (https:// levels increased disproportionately over the last 20 years.
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ According to the investigation of [10], as a result of the pandemic, the most affected
4.0/). countries in the world have been the developing countries in regions such as the Caribbean
Sustainability 2023, 15, 11301. https://doi.org/10.3390/su151411301 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/sustainability

Sustainability 2023, 15, 11301 2 of 25
and Latin America, which have been among the worst affected, with a poverty level of
13.6% for the entire population of the region.
In 2020, the United Nations stated [11] that millions of people in Latin America and
the Caribbean would fall into extreme poverty due to the impact of the pandemic, affecting
food security and social welfare, which is why institutions such as the Food and Agriculture
Organization of the United Nations (FAO) and the Economic Commission for Latin America
and the Caribbean (ECLAC) have been working on it, seeking solutions that can counteract
this damage and avoid a food crisis and reduce the levels of extreme poverty [12].
The United Nations Development Program (UNDP) has decided to implement intel-
ligent robots against epidemics in Kenya [13], using technology as a fundamental tool to
combat and solve the damage caused by the pandemic. However, the existing digital divide
had a greater impact in times of the pandemic [14] because this led to high unemployment,
loss of job opportunities, and lack of accessibility to education and public services due to the
lack of technological resources and Internet, which increased poverty rates [15]. As a result,
UNDP began to implement technology-driven projects [16], promoting online learning,
creating virtual learning spaces, creating work-from-home jobs, etc. The incorporation
of mobile technologies has provided a number of economic, social, and environmental
advantages [17], enabling the achievement of the 17 SDGs. This is why the implementation
of measures with innovative approaches will allow progress in achieving the SDGs [18].
The combination of various technological enablers (AI, 5G, IoT, Blockchain) makes
up “smart connectivity” [19], which is considered the most impactful technology to help
achieve the SDGs [20]. Mobile technologies make a major contribution to SDG1 [21]
because they provide humanitarian assistance and boost sustainable economic growth, as
well as enable the expansion of businesses and thus produce more jobs [22]. Among these
technologies is the 5G network, which plays a key role in global sustainability [23].
5G technology refers to the fifth generation of wireless mobile networks, which rep-
resents a significant advance compared to previous generations (2G, 3G, and 4G). It is
characterized by offering much faster connection speeds, higher capacity, lower latency,
and the ability to connect a large number of devices simultaneously [24].
5G technology will have the capacity to create social value in eleven SDGs [25]. Accord-
ing to the article [26], the 5G network will make a major contribution to the achievement
of SDG1 by 2035, as it will provide greater Internet connectivity, generating an economic
output of USD 3.6 trillion and creating 22.3 million jobs [27]. The enhanced capacity of
5G enables the connection of a large number of devices simultaneously, which is essential
for the development of the Internet of Things (IoT) [28]. With 5G, billions of devices are
expected to be connected, enabling the automation and interconnection of various sectors,
such as industry, agriculture, healthcare, and the Smart City [29].
This research focuses on analyzing the impact of the use of 5G network-based technolo-
gies and their contribution to poverty alleviation, in order to promote equality and generate
sustainable jobs. This review aims to highlight the importance of using 5G network-based
technologies to combat poverty by improving access to basic services, boosting economic
development [30], fostering digital inclusion, and improving efficiency in key sectors. By
providing disadvantaged communities with the necessary tools and opportunities, 5G
network-based technologies have the potential to transform lives and contribute to poverty
reduction around the world.
The study consists of five parts. Section 1 corresponds to the introduction, which
contains background information and the importance of the study. Section 2 provides an
overview of the literature review, which includes previous and related studies on the im-
pact of 5G technology on poverty alleviation. Section 3 contains the research methodology,
which contains the scope of the study, the use of bibliometric tools, and the process of data
collection and analysis. Section 4 shows the results corresponding to the bibliometric analy-
sis, which allows answering the research questions, and finally, Section 5 shows the findings
and discussion of how 5G network-based technology applications reduce/contribute to
poverty, and Section 6 provides the conclusion of the study along with main findings and
leads to future research.
2. Literature Review
2.1. Previous Definitions
According to the United Nations World Economic Situation and Prospect (WESP),
countries worldwide are divided into three categories based on their economy: developed
economies, economies in transition, and developing economies [31]. Most countries in
Europe, North America, and Australia are classified as developed countries, while countries
in Africa, Asia, and Latin America are considered developing or transition countries or
“global south”. While countries in the global north are leaders in the development of
technology and have high standards of living.
Current evidence shows that technology can play an important role in achieving many
Sustainable Development Goals, and its proper application can help close the gap between
countries in the North and South as well as the impact on national agricultural markets [32,33].
2.2. Previous Studies on Poverty Reduction and Access to 5G Technology

The relationship between 5G technology and poverty reduction has been the sub-
ject of debate and discussion in the academic literature and in reports by international
organizations. Some relevant background and previous definitions are presented below.
The United Nations Economic Commission for Africa (UNECA) report on the digital
revolution in Africa [34] highlights the potential of 5G technology to boost digital inclusion
and reduce the digital divide between countries and regions. It also notes that 5G technol-
ogy can have a significant impact on sectors such as agriculture, health, and education,
which can contribute to reducing poverty and inequality in Africa.
A study conducted by the World Bank on the impact of 5G technology on development [35]
concludes that 5G technology can be an engine of economic growth and social development
and can help improve the quality of life of people, including the poorest communities.
The article [36] analyzes the role of 5G technology in reducing poverty and inequality
in Latin America. It highlights that 5G technology can contribute to job creation and
economic development in rural and remote areas, which can improve people’s quality of
life and reduce poverty.
In general, it is recognized that 5G technology has the potential to contribute to the
reduction of poverty and inequality around the world, especially in the most marginalized
regions with the least access to digital technologies. However, it is also emphasized that the
adoption of 5G technology must be accompanied by appropriate policies and strategies to
ensure its accessibility and benefits for all people, including the poorest and most vulnerable.
2.3. Asymmetric Advances of the Technological Frontier (Digital Divide)

The digital divide, also defined as the inequality in access to technology and the ability
to use it [37], has become an increasingly important issue in the global development agenda.
This gap can have multiple negative consequences, such as social exclusion, discrimination,
and limited access to educational, employment, and personal development opportunities. The
following is a general and specific overview of the digital divide and technological advances.
Overview: According to the Individuals Using the Internet (ITU) report [38], globally,
66% of the world’s population uses the Internet, equivalent to around 5.3 billion people (see
Figure 1). However, significant inequalities still persist in terms of Internet access, especially
in less developed countries and rural areas. According to ECLAC, Internet access in Latin
America has increased significantly in recent years [39], but there are still significant digital
divides in terms of access to and use of information and communication technologies
(ICTs). In developed countries, such as the United States, Internet access is relatively
high, but there are still significant inequalities in terms of access to high-speed broadband,
especially in rural areas. According to the Federal Communications Commission of the
(see Figure 1). However, significant inequalities still persist in terms of Internet access,
especially in less developed countries and rural areas. According to ECLAC, Internet ac-
cess in Latin America has increased significantly in recent years [39], but there are still
significant digital divides in terms of access to and use of information and communication
technologies (ICTs). In developed countries, such as the United States, Internet access is
relatively high, but there are still significant inequalities in terms of access to high-speed
broadband, especially in rural areas. According to the Federal Communications Commis-
sion of the United States [40], in 2020, 80% of the population had access to high-speed
United States
broadband, [40],
but onlyin 46%
2020,of80% of areas
rural the population had access to high-speed broadband, but
had this service.
only 46% of rural areas had this service.
Figure 1.
Figure Individualsusing
1. Individuals usingthe
theInternet
Internet [38].
[38].
Specific overview:
Specific overview:TheTheCOVID-19
COVID-19pandemic
pandemichas hasaccentuated
accentuatedexisting
existingdigital
digitaldivides,
divides,
especially in terms of access to online education and virtual health care.
especially in terms of access to online education and virtual health care. According to According to
UNESCO [41], during school closures due to the pandemic, around
UNESCO [41], during school closures due to the pandemic, around 60% of students 60% of students
worldwide did
worldwide did not
not have
have access
access to
to online
online education.
education. 5G 5Gtechnology
technologyisisseen
seenasas aa potential
potential
solution to bridge the digital divide and improve access to ICT in
solution to bridge the digital divide and improve access to ICT in rural areas and rural areas and less
less
developed countries [42,43]. According to the GSMA, the global association
developed countries [42,43]. According to the GSMA, the global association of mobile op- of mobile
operators,
erators, 5G technology
5G technology couldcould
reachreach
moremore
than onethan one billion
billion people people
in ruralin rural
areas and areas and
achieve
achieve the goal of connecting all the world’s citizens [44]. The report also highlights
the goal of connecting all the world’s citizens [44]. The report also highlights that the de-
that the deployment of 5G networks in rural areas can improve the quality of life for
ployment of 5G networks in rural areas can improve the quality of life for residents and
residents and help drive economic growth. 5G technology is expected to offer opportunities
help drive economic growth. 5G technology is expected to offer opportunities for a wide
for a wide range of applications, including smart agriculture, remote healthcare [45,46],
range of applications, including smart agriculture, remote healthcare [45,46], and online
and online education [47,48]. However, the report also notes that there are significant
education [47,48]. However, the report also notes that there are significant challenges to
challenges to the deployment of 5G networks in rural areas, including the lack of network
the deployment of 5G networks in rural areas, including the lack of network infrastructure
infrastructure and the scarcity of radio spectrum.
and the scarcity of radio spectrum.
In this context, various initiatives have been developed to bridge the digital divide and
In this context, various initiatives have been developed to bridge the digital divide
promote access to and use of ICTs worldwide. These initiatives include public policies, ed-
and promote access to and use of ICTs worldwide. These initiatives include public poli-
ucation and training programs, partnerships between companies and social organizations,
cies, education and training programs, partnerships between companies and social organ-
and the development of technologies and applications tailored to the needs of vulnerable
izations, and the development
and marginalized of technologies
groups. The technological and applications
advances tailored to
that are contributing to the needs of
the reduction
of the digital divide are the following:
(a) High-speed Internet access [38], according to data from the International Telecom-
munication Union (ITU), in 2020, around 51% of the world’s population had access
to high-speed Internet, a significant increase over previous years. However, the
availability of and access to high-speed Internet varies by region, country, and social
group [49]. According to ITU data, in 2020, high-speed Internet access was higher in
high-income countries (82.2% of the population) than in low-income countries (19.9%
of the population).
(b) Mobile connectivity has become a key element for access to the Internet and digital
services worldwide. According to data from the GSMA (global association of mobile
operators) in 2020, the number of subscriptions to mobile services in the world
reached 8000 million, equivalent to a penetration rate of 107% [44]. However, as with
high-speed Internet access, mobile connectivity also presents inequalities in terms of
access and quality of service. According to the GSMA, in 2020, 41% of the world’s
population did not have access to mobile broadband services, and disparities were
more pronounced in rural areas and low-income countries.
(c) Artificial Intelligence (AI). In recent years, AI has undergone rapid development [50]
and has generated great expectations in terms of its potential to improve the efficiency,
quality, and accessibility of various services and applications. However, it also poses
significant challenges in terms of ethics [51], privacy [52], and safety [53], as well
as in terms of possible impacts on employment and social inequalities [54,55]. To
address these challenges and take advantage of the opportunities offered by AI,
various initiatives and regulatory frameworks have been developed around the world.
Among the main initiatives are the European Union’s Artificial Intelligence Strategy
(AI Strategy) [56], the U.S. National Artificial Intelligence Plan [57], and the National
Artificial Intelligence Development Plan of China [58].
(d) Virtual and augmented reality. Virtual reality (VR) and augmented reality (AR) are
technologies that make it possible to create immersive and enriched experiences for
users [59]. VR involves creating a computer-generated virtual environment in which
users can interact using devices such as VR goggles or headsets, while AR overlays
digital information on top of the real world using devices such as smartphones or
tablets [60]. These technologies have great potential for a wide variety of applications,
including training and learning [61–64], entertainment [65,66], advertising [67] and
marketing [68], simulation of dangerous situations [69], and aid in the treatment of
diseases [70–73]. Currently, VR and AR are experiencing rapid growth and expan-
sion [74], driven by the development of ever more advanced technologies and the
popularity of video games [65,66] and mobile applications [75,76].
(e) 5G technology. This technology is expected to have a significant impact on a wide
range of applications, from autonomous driving [77] to telemedicine [78–80] and
industrial automation [81–83]. The 5G network uses advanced technologies, such as
active array antennas, carrier aggregation technology, and advanced signal modula-
tion techniques [84], to improve network efficiency and capacity. In addition, the 5G
network also uses network virtualization techniques, allowing for greater flexibility
and customization in network design. Despite its potential, the implementation of
the 5G network also poses significant challenges, including the need to deploy new
infrastructure, radio spectrum allocation, and regulatory challenges [85]. In addition,
5G network adoption may also create digital inequalities in areas where network
infrastructure is insufficient or where network access costs are prohibitive.
These technologies offer new possibilities for communication, access to information,
services and opportunities, and can improve people’s quality of life and well-being in
different areas, such as education, health, work, and leisure. However, it is important to
note that access to and use of these technologies does not automatically guarantee the
reduction of the digital divide, since there are multiple social, economic, and cultural factors
that influence the ability of individuals and groups to take full advantage of them.
2.4. Magnitude and Trends

According to the World Bank, in 2020, approximately 9.2% of the world’s population
lived on less than $1.90 a day [86], which is considered the extreme poverty line. In South
Asia, extreme poverty affected 13.6% of the population, and in Sub-Saharan Africa, 41%
of the population was living in extreme poverty in 2020. On the other hand, in Latin
America [87], poverty affected 32.1% of the population in 2021, according to the Economic
Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean (ECLAC). It is important to keep in mind
that these figures are only a sample of poverty rates in different regions of the world and
that there are multiple factors that influence the measurement and analysis of poverty [88].
According to a report by the GSM Association (GSMA) in 2021, 5G technology is
expected to have a faster adoption rate than any other previous mobile technology [89]. It
is projected that by 2025, there will be more than 1.8 billion 5G connections worldwide. In
terms of 5G technology deployment, China is the global leader with more than 1 million 5G
base stations by the end of 2020, followed by South Korea, the United States, and Japan [90].
Globally, 5G technology is expected to have a significant impact on the economy and society
at large [91]. According to a 2020 report from research firm IDC, 5G technology is expected
to generate a global economic impact of $8 trillion by 2030.
In summary, 5G technology is experiencing rapid adoption and deployment world-
wide and is expected to have a significant impact on the global economy and contribute to
different sectors in order to reduce poverty.
2.5. Research Purpose and Questions

Based on the literature review, this study will analyze the impact of the use of 5G
technologies on poverty reduction and the ways in which these technologies are integrated
in different sectors to contribute directly and indirectly to poverty alleviation. The research
questions are as follows:
RQ1. Which sectors have the greatest impact on poverty reduction by making use of
5G technology?
RQ2. Which 5G network-based technologies contribute to poverty reduction?
RQ3. What are the applications technologies based on 5G networks with the greatest
contribution to poverty reduction?
3. Methods
This section describes in detail the search for articles that allow us to address studies
on the contribution of the 5G network to poverty; the type of study is a systematic literature
review. The literature found allows us to compare the results using the PRISMA method-
ology [92] to select the relevant articles by means of the different inclusion and exclusion
criteria, in order to carry out a better analysis of the results.
Complementary sources have been used as part of the review process of the articles
collected and focused on the proposed literature review topic. The results are shown in Table 1.
Table 1. Classification of sources.
Database Source Number of Related Items Predominant Language

Scopus 8 English
IEEE Xplore 10 English
ScienceDirect 15 English
Dialnet 3 English
EBSCO Host 7 English
Others 6 English
This section is structured as follows: (1) Type of study, (2) Search strategy, and (3) In-
clusion and exclusion criteria.
3.1. Type of Study

In order to prepare this article, a systematic literature review (SLR) was conducted as a
research strategy that allows access to relevant information and synthesis of literature [93].
3.2. Search Strategy

The data collection method is based on the search of reliable sources, for which a review
of articles was carried out, and among which the following databases stand out: IEEE Xplore,
a research strategy that allows access to relevant information and synthesis of literature
[93].
3.2. Search Strategy
Sustainability 2023, 15, 11301

The data collection method is based on the search of reliable sources, for which7 ofa 25
review of articles was carried out, and among which the following databases stand out:
IEEE Xplore, Scopus, ScienceDirect, and EBSCOHost, among others. From these sources,
it is possible to show the search terms and literary resources that will be used in the re-
Scopus,
search ScienceDirect, and EBSCOHost, among others. From these sources, it is possible to
[94,95].
show the search terms
The structure for theand literary
search resources
of articles that
was willon
based be the
used in the research
following [94,95].
keywords: 5G AND
The structure for the search of articles was based on the following keywords: 5G AND
(Hunger OR Income OR poverty OR rural), 5G AND poverty AND technology. The words
(Hunger OR Income OR poverty OR rural), 5G AND poverty AND technology. The words
and phrases used yielded 329 articles of which 49 were evaluated on the basis of different
and phrases used yielded 329 articles of which 49 were evaluated on the basis of different
criteria (Figure 2).
criteria (Figure 2).
Figure
Figure 2. Item
2. Item Inclusion
Inclusion Chart.
Chart.
3.3. Inclusion and Exclusion Criteria
3.3. Inclusion and Exclusion Criteria
The search was carried out using the possible combinations within the following
The “Article
fields: search wastitle,carried outKeywords”
Abstract, using the possible combinations
of the different within
databases the following
selected. A series of
fields:
filters were applied in order to select the most relevant articles contributing toAthe
“Article title, Abstract, Keywords” of the different databases selected. series of
research
filters were applied in
conducted (see Table 2). order to select the most relevant articles contributing to the research
conducted (see Table 2).
Table 2. Search strategy deployed.
Table 2. Search strategy deployed.
Filter Description
Filter Description
Article title 5G AND (Hunger OR Income OR poverty OR rural)
Article title
Keywords
5G AND (Hunger OR Income OR poverty OR rural)
5G AND poverty AND technology poverty reduction, sustainability
Document Type 5G AND poverty
Journal AND
Articletechnology
Keywords
Language poverty reduction, sustainability
English, Spanish
Inclusion criteria:
• Poverty-related technology items;
• Articles that have implications with the main digital technologies and their relation to
a sustainable economy;
• Articles related to the subject, mainly on the contribution of the use of 5G technology
and its relationship with the reduction of poverty;
• We search for articles mainly related to the selected language, except for the titles that
have to comply with the most important and pre-established keyword.
Exclusion or discard criteria:
• Items unrelated to technology and poverty;
• Articles that do not provide input on the use of digital technologies and the reduction
of poverty;
• Articles that do not answer the research questions.
• Items unrelated to technology and poverty;
• Articles that do not provide input on the use of digital technologies and the reduction
of poverty;
• Articles that do not answer the research questions.
4. Results
This chapter shows the results, analysis, and synthesis of the data extracted from the
selected articles, of which, based on the different inclusion and exclusion criteria, 49 arti-
4. Results
cles were finally
This usedshows
chapter for analysis and systematization.
the results, Figure of
analysis, and synthesis 3 shows theextracted
the data selectionfrom
pro-the
cedure.
selected articles, of which, based on the different inclusion and exclusion criteria, 49 articles
were finally used for analysis and systematization. Figure 3 shows the selection procedure.
Figure 3. PRISMA diagram methodology.

Figure 3. PRISMA diagram methodology.
The following graph (Figure 4) shows the number of articles published by year
and database.
The analysis of the articles shows that the researches are pilot projects or future projects,
compared to 26 researches implemented with the 5G network. Figure 5 shows the number
of articles, 49, by implementation, broken down by continent. Research conducted in
Europe comprises 11 articles, followed by Asia and the Americas, and showed higher
implementation rates.
The methodology, or bibliometric analysis, allows us to extract the literature through the
analysis and grouping of co-occurring words, thereby allowing us to identify patterns that
correspond to the works of different authors [96]. Bibliometrics makes it possible to measure
different aspects of scientific activity, such as the number of publications, citations received,
collaboration between authors, institutional productivity, and research dissemination [97]. It
is also used to identify trends and patterns in the development of a particular field of study.
VOSviewer is a visualization tool used in bibliometrics to analyze and visualize co-authorship
networks, citation networks, and other types of scientific networks [98].
From the following charts, you can get a more complete and objective view of the
existing literature. This makes it possible to identify areas with knowledge gaps and to
better understand the state of research in a specific field. It also helps to identify the Scopus
and word cloud used in order to highlight relevant articles in the present research. It allows
the structure of the relationships between authors, institutions, keywords, and scientific
database.
15, x FOR PEER REVIEW 9 of 27
The following graph (Figure 4) shows the number of articles published by year and
documents to be graphically represented. From this, visualization maps were made as
database.
shown in Figures 6–8.
Figure 4. Articles by year and database.
The analysis of the articles shows that the researches are pilot projects or future pro-
jects, compared to 26 researches implemented with the 5G network. Figure 5 shows the
number of articles, 49, by implementation, broken down by continent. Research con-
ducted in Europe comprises 11 articles, followed by Asia and the Americas, and showed
higher implementation rates.
Figure 4. Articles byFigure 4. Articles
year and by year and database.
database.
The analysis of the articles shows that the researches are pilot projects or future pro-
jects, compared to 26 researches implemented with the 5G network. Figure 5 shows the
number of articles, 49, by implementation, broken down by continent. Research con-
ducted in Europe comprises 11 articles, followed by Asia and the Americas, and showed
higher implementation rates.
Figure
Figure 5. Distribution Distribution
of 5.articles of articles by
by continent continent to
according according to their implementation.
their implementation.
better understand the state of research in a specific field. It also helps to identify the Scopus
and word cloud used in order to highlight relevant articles in the present research. It al-
lows the structure of the relationships between authors, institutions, keywords, and sci-
entific documents to be graphically represented. From this, visualization maps were
made
as shown in Figures 6–8.
, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW

Figure 6. Network visualization
Figure of OSNFIM
6. Network visualization documents
of OSNFIM available
documents availablein
in the Scopus
the Scopus database
database based based
on on
bibliometric analysis.
bibliometric analysis.
Figure 7 allows us to reflect the word cloud from the systematized articles, from
which we can highlight: 5G, poverty, agriculture, green finance, and blue economy.
Figure 7. Overlay visualization of OSNFIM documents available in the Scopus database: Word cloud.
Figure 7. Overlay visualization of OSNFIM documents available in the Scopus databas
cloud.
Figure 8 shows the Treemap based on a bibliometric analysis including the p

ages of keywords with the highest recurrence.
Sustainability
Sustainability 2023,
2023, 15,
15, x11301
FOR PEER REVIEW 1211ofof27
25
Figure 8.
Figure Visualization of
8. Visualization of the
the documents
documents based
based on
on bibliometric
bibliometric analysis:
analysis: TreeMap.
TreeMap.
Figure and
5. Findings 7 allows us to reflect the word cloud from the systematized articles, from which
Discussion
we can highlight: 5G, poverty, agriculture, green finance, and blue economy.
The review was carried out with the main objective of showing the impact of the use
Figure 8 shows the Treemap based on a bibliometric analysis including the percentages
of 5G technologies on poverty reduction and their relationship in different fields. The re-
of keywords with the highest recurrence.
sults obtained can be used to answer the study’s questions.
5. Findings and Discussion
RQ1. Which sectors have the greatest impact on poverty reduction through the use of 5G
The review was carried out with the main objective of showing the impact of the use of
technology?
5G technologies on poverty reduction and their relationship in different fields. The results
obtained can be used to answer the study’s questions.
The deployment of 5G technology has the potential to have a significant impact on
various sectorssectors
RQ1. Which to reduce
havepoverty. The following
the greatest impact on arepoverty
some examples:
reduction through the use of
Agriculture: Access to 5G connectivity can provide farmers in rural areas with real-
5G technology?
time weather information [99], prices of agricultural products [100], pest management,
and other agricultural of
The deployment practices [101,102],
5G technology hasallowing them to
the potential tohave
makea more informed
significant deci-
impact on
various sectors to reduce poverty. The following are some examples:
Agriculture: Access to 5G connectivity can provide farmers in rural areas with real-
time weather information [99], prices of agricultural products [100], pest management,
and other agricultural practices [101,102], allowing them to make more informed decisions
Sustainability 2023, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW
and increase the efficiency of their crops [103]. In addition, 5G13 technology of 27
can facilitate
agricultural automation and the use of smart irrigation systems [104], which can improve
productivity and reduce costs [105].
sions and Health:
increase the 5Gefficiency
technology can
of their improve
crops [103]. Inaccess
addition, to5G healthcare
technology in canremote
facil- or underserved ar-
itateeas
agricultural automation
[106], enabling and the use of[107,108]
telemedicine smart irrigation systems [104],
and telehealth whichRemote
[109]. can im- health services [110],
prove productivity and reduce costs [105].
such as remote medical consultations [111], patient monitoring [112], and online medical
Health: 5G technology can improve access to healthcare in remote or underserved
areastraining [113],telemedicine
[106], enabling can be more effective
[107,108] and affordable
and telehealth [109]. Remote with fastservices
health and reliable 5G connectiv-
itysuch
[110], [114]. This may
as remote allow
medical for better[111],
consultations diagnosis
patient and treatment
monitoring [112],of diseases
and online [115,116], especially
in communities
medical training [113], can with limited
be more access
effective andto health with
affordable services.
fast and reliable 5G con-
nectivity [114]. This may5G
Education: allow for better diagnosis
connectivity can make and online
treatment of diseaseseasier
education [115,116],[117,118] and access to
especially in communities with limited access to health services.
educational resources for disadvantaged communities [119,120]. Online classes, distance
Education: 5G connectivity can make online education easier [117,118] and access to
learning,
educational and access
resources to digital communities
for disadvantaged educational[119,120].
contentOnline can provide learning opportunities for
classes, distance
people
learning, andin rural
access to areas
digital [121] or with
educational limited
content accesslearning
can provide to conventional
opportunitieseducational
for institutions.
people
This in rural
can helpareas [121]
close or the
with educational
limited access togapconventional
[122] and educational
improve institutions.
employment and economic
This can help close the educational gap [122] and improve employment and economic
development prospects.
development prospects.
It is important
It is important to keep in tomind
keepthatin mind that
these are justthese
a few are just aoffew
examples howexamples
5G technol-of how 5G technology
could influence poverty reduction, and that there
ogy could influence poverty reduction, and that there are many other areas whereare many other areas5G where 5G technology
technology
could also couldhave
also have a significant
a significant impact.InInaddition,
impact. addition, careful
carefuland andstrategic plan-
strategic planning is required to
ningensure
is required to ensure that 5G technology is used effectively to reduce poverty
that 5G technology is used effectively to reduce poverty and improve people’s lives. and
improve people’s lives.
Figure 9 shows the grouping of articles and their analysis by sector according to the
Figure 9 shows the grouping of articles and their analysis by sector according to the
contribution
contribution that thethat the
use of 5Guse of 5G technology
technology has on povertyhas on poverty
reduction, of which reduction,
it can be of which it can be
highlighted
highlighted that thethat the government/society,
sectors: sectors: government/society, agriculture, economy/employment,
agriculture, economy/employment, and and
health have the
health have greatest impact with
the greatest 27%, 25%,
impact with 16% and 25%,
27%, 14% of16%articles,
andrespectively.
14% of articles, respectively.
Figure
Figure 9. Articles
9. Articles by sector.by sector.
TableTable 3 shows
3 shows in detailin
thedetail the
articles’ articles’
analysis analysis
of how of how can
5G technology 5Ginfluence
technology
pov- can influence poverty
ertyreduction
reduction in different sectors through the use of innovation and technology plat-
in different sectors through the use of innovation and technology platforms.
forms.
In summary, the deployment of the 5G network can have a positive impact on different
sectors and contribute to poverty reduction. By improving access to information, promoting
entrepreneurship and employment, boosting agricultural productivity, and facilitating
access to basic services, the 5G network can help bridge the digital divide and generate
economic development opportunities for the most disadvantaged communities.
Sustainability 2023, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW 14 of 27

Table 3. 5G technology, with significant impact on poverty reduction.
Sector Quantity Articles

Health
Table 3. 5G technology, 7
with significant impact [123–129]
on poverty reduction.
Education 5 [130–134]
SectorAgriculture 12 Quantity [135–146] Articles
Finance 3 [147–149]
Health
Economy/employment 8 7 [119,150–156] [123–129]
Education
Government/society 13 5 [157–169] [130–134]
Agriculture 12 [135–146]
Finance
In summary, the deployment of the35G network can have a positive impact
[147–149]
on differ-
Economy/employment 8
ent sectors and contribute to poverty reduction. By improving access to[119,150–156]
information, pro-
Government/society
moting entrepreneurship and employment, 13 boosting agricultural productivity,
[157–169]
and facil-
itating access to basic services, the 5G network can help bridge the digital divide and gen-
erate economic development opportunities for the most disadvantaged communities.
Below are some
Below of
arethe
somekey contributions
of the of the
key contributions 5G
of the 5Gnetwork
network andand
itsits relationship
relationship with with
poverty reduction
poverty in different
reduction sectorssectors
in different (see Figure 10 10
(see Figure and
andTable 4).
Table 4).
Figure 10. Articles

Figure by contribution.
10. Articles by contribution.
Table 4. Contributions of 5G network-based technologies to poverty reduction in different sectors.
Contribution Sector Description Articles

The 5G network can drive job creation and
entrepreneurship by enabling innovation in different
industries. The low latency and high speed of the 5G
network facilitate the adoption of advanced
technologies such as virtual, augmented, and mixed
Entrepreneurship and economy,
reality, the Internet of Things (IoT), and Artificial [119,150–169]
employment government
Intelligence. These technologies can drive the
development of new products and services, generate
employment opportunities in emerging sectors, and
foster the creation of new businesses, which in turn
helps to reduce poverty.
Agriculture is a crucial sector for combating poverty,
especially in rural areas. The 5G network can improve
agricultural efficiency and productivity by enabling the
use of advanced technologies such as connected sensors,
Agriculture and
agriculture smart irrigation systems, and remote crop monitoring. [135–146]
food security
These solutions can help farmers optimize resource use,
improve yields, and reduce production costs, which in
turn can increase incomes and improve food security for
vulnerable communities.
Table 4. Cont.
Contribution Sector Description Articles

The 5G network can improve access to basic services
such as energy, drinking water, and medical care in
remote or hard-to-reach areas. The fast and reliable
health, connectivity of the 5G network enables the deployment
Access to
education, of smart solutions for energy distribution, water supply [123–133,147–149]
basic services
finance monitoring, and telemedicine. These solutions can
improve the quality of life of disadvantaged
communities by providing essential services more
efficiently and affordably.
Access to information and education is fundamental to
overcoming poverty. The 5G network offers faster and
more reliable connectivity, facilitating access to online
Access to information education, educational courses, learning platforms, and digital [130,130–133,157–
and education society content. This provides training and education 159,168–170]
opportunities for people in rural or low-income areas,
which can improve their employment prospects and
generate greater economic development.
RQ2. Which 5G network-based technologies contribute to poverty reduction?
5G network-based technologies have the potential to have a significant impact on

global poverty reduction [35,171], although not directly. First, 5G network-based tech-
nologies can improve access to information and knowledge for people living in rural and
remote areas [49], where high-speed Internet access is limited. The availability of online
information can help people obtain a more complete education and improve their skills,
which in turn can lead to greater employability and higher incomes [172].
In addition, 5G network-based technologies can also improve efficiency and produc-
tivity in agriculture [103,141] and other economic sectors, which can create employment
opportunities and increase incomes in rural areas [54]. Improved connectivity can also
enable small businesses to reach new markets and increase sales, which can help improve
incomes and reduce poverty.
However, it is also important to keep in mind that the adoption of 5G network-based
technologies may require significant investment [173], which may limit its availability to the
poorest people. Therefore, a careful approach is needed to ensure that 5G network-based
technologies are accessible and beneficial to all people, including the most vulnerable.
Figure 11 shows the most relevant articles based on 5G network-based technologies,
of which it can be highlighted that the digital technology that has the greatest impact is
the Internet of Things with eight articles, followed by Artificial Intelligence (6), mobile
application (5), Blockchain (5), Machine learning, Big data, E-learning, and Telemedicine
with four articles.
It is important to keep in mind that these are just a few examples of how 5G network-
based technologies could influence poverty reduction, and that there are many other fields
where 5G technology could also have a significant impact. In addition, careful and strategic
planning is required to ensure that 5G network-based technologies are used effectively to
reduce poverty and improve people’s lives.
Table 5 shows the items grouped by 5G network-based technologies that have a
significant impact on poverty reduction.
Figure 12 and Table 6 show the items based on 5G network-based technologies and
their contribution to poverty reduction.
application (5), Blockchain (5), Machine learning, Big data, E-learning, and Telemedicine
with four articles.
It is important to keep in mind that these are just a few examples of how 5G network-
based technologies could influence poverty reduction, and that there are many other fields
where 5G technology could also have a significant impact. In addition, careful and strate-
gic planning is required to ensure that 5G network-based technologies are used effectively
to reduce poverty and improve people’s lives.
Sustainability 2023, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW 17 of 27
Telemedicine 4 [123–125,127]
E-learning 4 [130,130,131,133]
Machine learning 4 [146,157,160,167]
E-commerce 3 [139,150,154]
Deep learning 2 [151,163]
Figure 12 and Table 6 show the items based on 5G network-based technologies and
their
Figurecontribution
Figure 11. Articles
11. Articlesontodigital
on poverty
digital reduction.
technologies
technologies based
based onon
thethe
5G5G network,
network, classified
classified by sector.
by sector.
Table 5 shows the items grouped by 5G network-based technologies that have a sig-
nificant impact on poverty reduction.
Table 5. 5G network-based technologies, with significant impact on poverty reduction.
5G Network-Based
Quantity Articles
Technologies
Internet of things 8 [126,135,141,143,144,152,155,168]
Artificial Intelligence 6 [128,129,140,145,148,149]
Mobile application 5 [132,136,147,153,169]
Blockchain 5 [137,142,156,158,162]
Big data 4 [138,159,161,164]
Figure
Figure 12. Articles on digital
Articles on digitaltechnology
technologyand
andtheir
their contribution.
contribution.
Table 6. 5G network-based technologies and its contribution, with significant impact on poverty
reduction.
Contribution 5G Technology Articles

Big data [159,161,164]
Table 5. 5G network-based technologies, with significant impact on poverty reduction.
5G Network-Based Technologies Quantity Articles

Internet of things 8 [126,135,141,143,144,152,155,168]
Artificial Intelligence 6 [128,129,140,145,148,149]
Mobile application 5 [132,136,147,153,169]
Blockchain 5 [137,142,156,158,162]
Big data 4 [138,159,161,164]
Telemedicine 4 [123–125,127]
E-learning 4 [130,130,131,133]
Machine learning 4 [146,157,160,167]
E-commerce 3 [139,150,154]
Deep learning 2 [151,163]
Table 6. 5G network-based technologies and its contribution, with significant impact on poverty reduction.
Contribution 5G Technology Articles

Big data [159,161,164]
Blockchain [156,158,162]
Deep learning [151,163]
Entrepreneurship
E-commerce [150,154]
and employment
Internet of things [152,155,168]
Machine learning [157,160,167]
Mobile application [153,169]
Artificial Intelligence [140,145]
Big data [138]
Blockchain [137,142]
Agriculture and
E-commerce [139]
food security
Internet of things [135,141,143,144]
Machine learning [146]
Mobile application [136]
Telemedicine [123–125,127]
Artificial Intelligence [128,129,148,149]
Access to basic services
Internet of things [126]
E-learning [130,131,133]
Access to information
Image processing [170]
and education
RQ3. What are the applications technologies based on 5G networks with the greatest
contribution to poverty reduction?
According to the analysis carried out and as shown in Figure 13, the technological
application with the greatest implication and contribution to poverty reduction is Precision
agriculture (8), whose pillar is the monitoring of crops and soils to improve productivity.
In second place, we have Digital/Internet banking and Smart City with four articles and
Precision Medicine and Online Education with three and Telesurgery with two articles.
Table 7 allows us to show the items with the technological applications that have the
greatest significant impact on poverty reduction by making use of the 5G network.
It is important to keep in mind that these are just a few examples of technological
applications that could have a significant impact on poverty reduction by making use of
the 5G network and that there are many other possible uses of this technology. In addition,
careful and strategic planning is required to ensure that 5G network-based technologies
are used effectively to reduce poverty and improve people’s lives. Figure 14 shows the
technological applications analyzed for their contribution to poverty reduction through
the use of the 5G network-based technologies. The subject of the Sustainable Development
Goals (SDGs) is widely discussed in the literature, and their importance has experienced
Internet of things [126]
E-learning [130,131,133]
Access to information
Image processing [170]
and education
Sustainability 2023, 15, 11301 Mobile application [132] 17 of 25
RQ3. What are the applications technologies based on 5G networks with the greatest con-
tribution to poverty reduction?
a clear increase in recent years. This trend is evident in the reports published by the
publisher [174], to
According which show a notable
the analysis carriedincrease
out andinasthe number
shown in of articles
Figure 13,related to the SDGs.
the technological
Over the last
application four
with and
the a half years,
greatest approximately
implication 27,910 articles
and contribution havereduction
to poverty been published on
is Preci-
this topic. Specifically, it is observed that 7510 articles were published in the year
sion agriculture (8), whose pillar is the monitoring of crops and soils to improve produc- 2021, 8114
Sustainability 2023, 15, x FOR PEERtivity.
REVIEW
in theIn
year 2022,place,
second and the
we figure continues to increase
have Digital/Internet banking in and
the current yearwith
Smart City 2023. 19 articles
of 27data
These
four
and Precision Medicine and Online Education with three and Telesurgery with twoas
are based on the publisher’s reports, which compile information from sources such the
arti-
Web of Science (WoS). In the studies conducted, specific keywords such as "Sustainable
cles.
Development Goals" and "SDGs" werethe
Improve used to identifyand
effectiveness relevant
safetyarticles
of related to this topic.
Precision medicine treatments, as well as reduce long-term [126–128]
health care costs.
It is important to keep in mind that these are just a few examples of technological
applications that could have a significant impact on poverty reduction by making use of
the 5G network and that there are many other possible uses of this technology. In addition,
careful and strategic planning is required to ensure that 5G network-based technologies
are used effectively to reduce poverty and improve people’s lives. Figure 14 shows the
technological applications analyzed for their contribution to poverty reduction through
the use of the 5G network-based technologies. The subject of the Sustainable Development
Goals (SDGs) is widely discussed in the literature, and their importance has experienced
a clear increase in recent years. This trend is evident in the reports published by the pub-
lisher [174], which show a notable increase in the number of articles related to the SDGs.
Over the last four and a half years, approximately 27,910 articles have been published on
this topic. Specifically, it is observed that 7510 articles were published in the year 2021,
8114 in the year 2022, and the figure continues to increase in the current year 2023. These
data are based on the publisher’s reports, which compile information from sources such
as the Web of Science (WoS). In the studies conducted, specific keywords such as ʺSus-
tainable Development Goalsʺ and ʺSDGsʺ were used to identify relevant articles related to
Figure
Figure 13.
13.Articles
Articlesby
bytechnological
technologicalapplication.
application.
this topic.
Table 7 allows us to show the items with the technological applications that have the
greatest significant impact on poverty reduction by making use of the 5G network.
Table 7. Technology applications with significant impact on poverty reduction.
Technological
Area of Application Articles
Application
Crop and soil monitoring for improved [135–137,143–
Precision agriculture
productivity. 146,167]
Online education Access to online education in remote areas. [130,131,133]
Digital banking/internet Access to financial and banking services in
[134,147–149]
banking remote areas.
Manage the proper functioning of public
Smart City [129,162,168,169]
and private transportation systems.
Figure 14. Articles by technological application and their contribution to poverty reduction.
Figure 14. Articles by technological application and their contribution to poverty reduction.
6. Conclusions
The deployment of 5G network-based technologies has the potential to bridge the
digital divide and reduce inequality by providing high-speed Internet access in under-
served rural and urban areas. It can improve productivity and efficiency in key sectors to
reduce poverty. Being the most relevant in the government/society, agriculture, econ-
omy/employment, and health sectors, which mainly allows providing access to real-time
information and enables automation.
Table 7. Technology applications with significant impact on poverty reduction.
Technological Application Area of Application Articles

Precision agriculture Crop and soil monitoring for improved productivity. [135–137,143–146,167]
Online education Access to online education in remote areas. [130,131,133]
Digital banking/internet banking Access to financial and banking services in remote areas. [134,147–149]
Manage the proper functioning of public and private
Smart City [129,162,168,169]
transportation systems.
Improve the effectiveness and safety of treatments, as well as
Precision medicine [126–128]
reduce long-term health care costs.
6. Conclusions
The deployment of 5G network-based technologies has the potential to bridge the
digital divide and reduce inequality by providing high-speed Internet access in under-
served rural and urban areas. It can improve productivity and efficiency in key sectors
to reduce poverty. Being the most relevant in the government/society, agriculture, econ-
omy/employment, and health sectors, which mainly allows providing access to real-time
information and enables automation.
5G connectivity allows improving access to basic services, such as health care and
education, in marginalized communities, which contributes to improving the quality of life
and economic opportunities by making use of different technologies, of which those that
mainly stand out are the Internet of Things and Artificial Intelligence.
Likewise, the applications enabled by the 5G network-based technologies that consid-
erably influence poverty reduction and have the greatest impact are Precision agriculture,
Digital/Internet banking, and Smart City.
It is important to note that the actual impact of 5G on poverty reduction may vary
depending on the context and policies implemented. The digital divide is a major barrier
to poverty reduction. The deployment of the 5G network can bridge this gap by providing
high-speed connectivity and Internet access in areas where communications infrastructure
is limited. This enables disadvantaged communities to access educational opportunities,
financial services, remote employment, and other digital resources that can improve their
lives. The successful implementation of the 5G network is expected to have a positive
impact on poverty reduction by improving access to basic services, fostering economic
development, and bridging the digital divide in disadvantaged areas. However, that
positive impact will only be achieved if the 5G network implementation is successful.
Although the 5G network has the potential to contribute to poverty alleviation, it also
has some limitations that should be taken into account:
Limited infrastructure. Because it requires robust and expensive infrastructure, includ-
ing base stations, antennas, and fiber optics. In rural and low-resource areas, there may be
limitations in the availability and deployment of the necessary infrastructure, making it
difficult for poorer communities to access the benefits of the 5G network.
High costs. Access to services and devices compatible with the 5G network can be
costly, which can limit adoption and mainly benefit those with greater economic resources.
This can widen the digital divide and hinder access to opportunities for poor communities.
Existing digital divide. The implementation of the 5G network may accentuate the
existing digital divide between urban and rural areas, as well as between different socioe-
conomic groups. If these inequalities in access are not addressed, poorer communities may
be left behind and may not fully benefit from the opportunities provided by 5G technology.
The results of this review allow for future research on the different factors that directly
or indirectly influence poverty reduction, as well as provide a reference for the study
and analysis of the use of 5G network-based technologies in different fields in order to
contribute to the equity and inclusion of the economy in rural areas.
Author Contributions: Conceptualization, M.C.-C.; methodology, J.Z.-P.; validation, J.P.-M.; formal

analysis, M.C.-C.; investigation, J.P.-M.; data curation, J.Z.-P.; writing–original draft preparation,
M.C.-C.; writing–review and editing, M.C.-C. and J.P.-M.; visualization, J.Z.-P. All authors have read
and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This research received no external funding.
Institutional Review Board Statement: Not applicable.
Informed Consent Statement: Not applicable.
Data Availability Statement: Not applicable.
Acknowledgments: Authors thank the doctoral program of the Escuela Técnica Superior de Inge-
nieros de Telecomunicación, Universidad Politécnica de Madrid, Madrid, Spain.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.
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1 Escuela Técnica Superior de Ingenieros de Telecomunicación, Universidad Politécnica de Madrid,

Keywords: 5G; poverty; technology; hunger; sustainability

Citation: Cabanillas-Carbonell, M.;

Sustainability 2023, 15, 11301. https://doi.org/10.3390/su151411301 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/sustainability

2.2. Previous Studies on Poverty Reduction and Access to 5G Technology

2.3. Asymmetric Advances of the Technological Frontier (Digital Divide)

2.4. Magnitude and Trends

2.5. Research Purpose and Questions

Table 1. Classification of sources.

Database Source Number of Related Items Predominant Language

3.1. Type of Study

3.2. Search Strategy

3.2. Search Strategy

Sustainability 2023, 15, 11301

Figure 3. PRISMA diagram methodology.

15, x FOR PEER REVIEW 9 of 27

Sustainability 2023, 15, 11301 9 of 25

Figure 4. Articles by year and database.

, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW

Figure 8 shows the Treemap based on a bibliometric analysis including the p

Sustainability 2023, 15, 11301 13 of 25

Sector Quantity Articles

Figure 10. Articles

Table 4. Contributions of 5G network-based technologies to poverty reduction in different sectors.

Contribution Sector Description Articles

Contribution Sector Description Articles

RQ2. Which 5G network-based technologies contribute to poverty reduction?

5G network-based technologies have the potential to have a significant impact on

Sustainability 2023, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW 17 of 27

Table 5. 5G network-based technologies, with significant impact on poverty reduction.

Contribution 5G Technology Articles

Table 5. 5G network-based technologies, with significant impact on poverty reduction.

5G Network-Based Technologies Quantity Articles

Contribution 5G Technology Articles

Table 7. Technology applications with significant impact on poverty reduction.

Table 7. Technology applications with significant impact on poverty reduction.

Technological Application Area of Application Articles

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, M.C.-C.; methodology, J.Z.-P.; validation, J.P.-M.; formal

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