1 Types and forms of erosion

ANNEX
by water and by wind

1. EROSION BY WATER

1.1 Erosion by raindrop impact (« splash »)

Erosion degree: very weak; value = 1

This form of erosion is no longer visible after cultivation (ploughing, hoeing etc.)

Splash erosion is a two step process:

Break up of soil clods/aggregates and dispersion of soil particles by the kinetic
energy of the raindrop impacting on the soil.

The dislodged particles may or may not be then moved down slope by surface
runoff, and the detached soil particles resettle on the soil surface or are thrown
onto plant stems and leaves (herbaceous vegetation or young seedlings).

1.2 Sheet erosion

This is the type of erosion that results from runoff that spreads across the soil
surface during rainfall (i.e. when the infiltration rate has been exceeded). It may
take various forms and degrees.
 Manual for Local Level Assessment of Land Degradation, Sustainable Land Management and Livelihoods
Part 2 – Field methodology and tools

pp Diffuse runoff: pp Surface scratches:

Erosion degree: very weak, Erosion degree: weak,
value = 1 value = 2
This takes place during the rain as soon as The first traces resulting from fast, concentrated
the infiltration rate is exceeded and a film surface runoff on sloping surface. The depth of
of water starts to move across the surface. the scratches does not exceed a few centimetres
Effects are limited to the transport of and are easily removed by cultivation.
fine particles and development of a sandy
film in small cultivation furrows (traces) pp Rills:
or where the fine particles are trapped by Erosion degree: weak,
small clumps of herbaceous vegetation. value = 2
There may be occasional dislodging of Soil erosion due to the grooving action by
small superficial roots. many small rivulets and water channels caused
by concentrated surface runoff. Rills do not
pp Removal of surface soil particles: exceed 30cm in depth and they can be readily
Erosion degree: weak, removed by cultivation.
value = 2
A very slight reduction in soil depth due pp Small gullies:
to down slope transport of soil particles. Erosion degree: Weak,
Removal of the surface layer does not value = 3
reach the next soil layer (subsoil). Some These are shallow gullies less than 1m deep
roots of grasses, annual plants or trees may that cannot be removed by ordinary cultivation.
be exposed.
Gullies: more than 1m deep that may be
pp Removal of surface soil with some individual gullies separated from others or
excavation: contiguous.
Erosion degree: Moderate,
value = 3 pp Individual gullies:
This is the most advanced form of soil loss, Erosion degree: moderate,
through removal of material and part of value = 3
the soil profile with a tendency to develop
into gullying. This state is accompanied pp Individual gullies accompanied by
by exposure of tree roots and exposure of collapse of the gully sides and /or
the subsoil horizon. tunnel erosion (subsurface erosion
creates a tunnel that then collapses):
Erosion degree: severe,
1.3 Linear erosion value = 4

This is erosion due to concentrated runoff pp Widespread gullies:

accompanied by scratching or scoring of the soil Erosion degree : severe,
surface to various degrees. value = 4

172 LAND DEGRADATION ASSESSMENT IN DRYLANDS (LADA) PROJECT

 ANNEX 1
Types and forms of erosion by water and by wind

pp Badlands: • Landslides;
Erosion degree very severe, • torrential lava flows (suggest remove ?);
value = 4 • mudflows.

Linear erosion also occurs in areas that are pp - Superficial mass movement:
periodically flooded in the beds of waterways, Erosion degree: weak,
in flooding areas around “oueds”, in floodplains value: 2
of rivers / alluvial deposition zones (know as This type of landslip affects non plastic materials
“garaats”, and “sebkhas” in northern Africa…). (concave), clay soils with characteristic uneven
terrain (solifluction lens) or other forms such as
The suggested degrees (rills - 2, small gullies - small terracing, or creep
2; gullies - 3), may scored at one degree less if
there are no envisaged negative impacts on the pp Deep mass movement:
hydrological regime (flow quantity and quality), Erosion degree: moderate
on infrastructure along waterways or risk to to severe, value : 3 to 4
people. However, if the risk is high the degree More significant land or mud slides that may be
should be 4. localised or widespread. This includes landslides
in the form of a slab, and mudflows.

1.4 Mass movement The figure below illustrates one type of mass
movement known as rotational concave
Type of erosion caused by soil saturation and landslide and shows the tongue (langue in
gravity and set off by intense and/or prolonged French) of the landslide and the detachment
rainfall. plane (niche d’arrachement in French) (source
Roose, 1994).

tongue detachment niche

figure 23 Rotational concave landslide

LAND DEGRADATION ASSESSMENT IN DRYLANDS (LADA) PROJECT 173

 Manual for Local Level Assessment of Land Degradation, Sustainable Land Management and Livelihoods
Part 2 – Field methodology and tools

Mass movements (slow or fast) result from an 2.2 Accumulation:

imbalance between the soil mass, the stored Degree from very weak to
water and vegetation cover, the friction forces of severe, with values from 1 to 4
these materials on the weathered bedrock and
the slope of the materials (limiting slope 30 to It is the deposition of soil / sand particles that
40 degrees / 65 %). This imbalance can develop have been transported when the wind loses
gradually on one or more slip planes following speed or becomes too laden. It can take several
wetting or by exceeding the point of elasticity forms according to the power of aggression.
of the soil (slow landslides with deformation
but without breaking up) or liquid materials • Areas severely affected: well developed
(mudflows). dune fields with or without vegetation
• Areas moderately affected: accumulation
of material trapped at the edges of fields
2. WIND EROSION or along roads;.
• Diffuse accumulations: sandy layers
Wind erosion is the form of soil degradation by around herbaceous vegetation and fine
the action of the wind which abrades, transports sand deposits less than 2 to 3 cm depth;
and deposes soil / sand particles. These actions characteristic of areas only weakly
depend mainly on the type of soil, the climate, affected by wind erosion.
the vegetation cover, the speed and frequency of
wind.
• Deflation
• Accumulation

2.1 Deflation:
Degree very weak to severe,
values from 1 to 4

It is the action of removal of soil/sand particles

which results in a loss of the surface soil layer,
appearance of a stony surface and exposure of
plant roots.

The degree of erosion depends on the abrasive

power of the wind effect on the land, it varies
from weak to severe, with values from 1 to 4 for
the most severe.

Deflation is sometimes accompanied by

corrosion.

174 LAND DEGRADATION ASSESSMENT IN DRYLANDS (LADA) PROJECT

 2 Some general and specific
ANNEX
crop nutrient deficiencies
 Manual for Local Level Assessment of Land Degradation, Sustainable Land Management and Livelihoods
Part 2 – Field methodology and tools

Table of nutrient deficiencies and toxicities–generalised symptoms and conditions

Essential nutrient Deficiency/Toxicity symptoms Typical conditions
Nitrogen (N) Leaves (first older ones) turn Sandy soils under high rainfall
yellow/ brown, plants are spindly, conditions and soils low in organic
lack vigour and may be dwarfed. matter, where leaching occurs.
Phosphorus (P) Not easily detected from Acid soils rich in iron and
appearance. Where deficiency is aluminium oxides (i.e. red tropical
severe plant will be stunted, the soils)
leaves will take on a purplish tint
and the stem will be reddish in
colour.
Potassium (K) Yellow/brown spots appear on More frequent on light soils (as K
older leaves and/or necrosis of is concentrated in the clay fraction
edges. of soils).
Sulphur (S) Leaves are stunted, with uniform
chlorosis.
Calcium (Ca) Roots are usually affected first – Acid soils, or alkali or saline soils
growth is impaired and rotting containing high proportions of
often occurs. In vegetative growth, sodium.
deficiency may show in distorted
leaves, brown scorching or spotting
on foliage or bitter fruit (e.g.
apple) or blossom-end rot (e.g.
tomato).
Magnesium (Mg) Interveinal chlorosis, first on older Acid, sandy soils in areas with
leaves. moderate to high rainfall. Often
occurs in conjunction with Ca
deficiency.
Iron (Fe) Chlorosis of younger leaves. Calcareous soils, poorly drained
and with high pH. (In neutral and
alkaline soils P may prevent the
absorption of Fe.)
Manganese (Mn) Chlorosis of younger leaves. Badly drained soils, over-liming or
deep ploughing of calcareous soils
can lead to Mn deficiency, as can
the presence of high levels of Mg.
The combination of high pH values
(> 6.5) and high levels of organic
matter can immobilise soil Mn.
Zinc (Zn) Symptoms vary with plant type Soils with high pH. Available Zn is
– in cereals young plants display reduced by the application of lime
purpling, whereas in broad- or phosphates.
leaved plants symptoms include
interveinal chlorosis, reduced leaf
size and sparse foliage.
Copper (Cu) Chlorosis of the tips of the Peat soils, or leached sandy or acid
youngest leaves and die-back of soils.
growing points.

176 LAND DEGRADATION ASSESSMENT IN DRYLANDS (LADA) PROJECT

 ANNEX 2
Some general and specific crop nutrient deficiencies

Table of nutrient deficiencies and toxicities–generalised symptoms and conditions (continued)

Essential nutrient Deficiency/Toxicity symptoms Typical conditions
Boron (B) In crops, other than cereals, the Sandy soils, dry conditions and
apical growing point on the main liming can result in B deficiency.
stem dies and lateral buds fail to
develop shoots.
Molybdenum (Mo) Marginal scorching and cupping Acid soils or soils with high pH. Mo
of leaves. Wilting is common in deficiency can lead to N-deficiency
Brassicas. as nitrate requires adequate
supplies of Mo for metabolism. Mo
availability can inhibit the uptake
of Cu.
Chlorine (Cl) Wilting of leaves. Well-drained, sandy soils.
Sulphur Toxicity Build up of sulphates as a result of
irrigation
Manganese Toxicity Brown spots and uneven Soils with pH of < 5.0 (for
chlorophyll in older leaves. susceptible species)
Copper Toxicity Chlorosis of leaves and restricted Soils with low pH
root growth.
Boron Toxicity Progressive necrosis of the leaves, Soils with low pH
starting from the tips and/or
margins.
Aluminium Toxicity Plants die after early growth. Acid mineral soils, aggravated by
low P status
Chlorine Toxicity Burning of leaf tips, bronzing and Associated with irrigation using
premature yellowing of leaves. water containing chloride

Identification of Nutrient Deficiencies:

Observation of abnormalities in plants is a complicated and skilled task. Since nutrient deficiencies
may be manifested in different ways depending on the crop in which they occur, particular criteria will
be crop-specific. As an example, the visual indicators of nutrient deficiencies in several tropical crops
are set out in the following table.

LAND DEGRADATION ASSESSMENT IN DRYLANDS (LADA) PROJECT 177

 Manual for Local Level Assessment of Land Degradation, Sustainable Land Management and Livelihoods
Part 2 – Field methodology and tools

Examples of deficiencies in several tropical crops

Maize Beans Cabbage
General High N requirement Tolerant to a wide range Demanding of N, P and
and sensitive to low of conditions, but only K. Moderately sensitive
phosphate supply. high yielding with high to water stress.
Relatively sensitive to N.
water stress.
Nitrogen Reduced vigour; leaves a Plants are small, leaves Young leaves pale
pale green or yellowish are pale green and older green, older leaves are
colour. leaves turn yellow. Few orange, red or purple.
flowers are produced. Severe deficiency
renders the crop useless.
Phosphorus Stunted growth, delayed Stems are dwarfed and Leaves are dull green
ripening and purplish thin, leaves lack lustre. with purplish tinge,
leaf colour, especially Early defoliation occurs, margins die.
during early growth. starting at base of
shoot.
Potassium Small whitish-yellow Chlorosis of leaves, with Leaves are bluish-green.
spots on leaves. Poor necrotic brown patches Leaf margins may show
root system, plants are at margins between scorching and tips of
weak and may be blown veins. older leaves may die.
down.
Sulphur Somewhat similar to Stunted growth, Smaller plants, with
N-deficiency. Plants yellowing leaves. yellowing leaves.
short and spindly. Delayed flowering and
Younger leaves pale development of beans.
beige to straw in colour. Reduced nodulation on
roots.
Calcium Poor germination and Growth is stunted and Leaves rolled up at
stunted growth. growing point may die. margins, necrosis of rims
In severe cases plants and death of growing
turn black and die. point.
Magnesium Whitish or yellow Older leaves show Interveinal chlorosis
striping between the interveinal reddish- and puckering of older
leaf veins, followed by brown mottling. leaves.
necrosis.
Iron Alternate rows of green At early stage, Whitish streaks on
and white on leaves patternless paling in leaves. Veins unaffected
leaf colour; later stage, at first, but larger veins
yellowing of leaf similar eventually turn yellow.
to N- deficiency.
Manganese Yellow and green Chlorosis, initially of Leaves are of smaller
striping along the young leaves, followed size and exhibit yellow
length of the leaf. by necrotic spots in mottling between veins.
interveinal areas. Leaves
will fall off and plants
eventually die.

178 LAND DEGRADATION ASSESSMENT IN DRYLANDS (LADA) PROJECT

 ANNEX 2
Some general and specific crop nutrient deficiencies

Examples of deficiencies in several tropical crops (continued)

Maize Beans Cabbage
Zinc Chlorotic fading of Leaves and flower buds
the leaves, with broad are shed
whitish areas.
Copper Leaves become chlorotic Leaves chlorotic, heads
and the tips wither. fail to form, growth
stunted.
Boron New leaves show Leaves turn yellow and Leaves are distorted,
transparent stripes. then brown. No flowers brittle, mottled along
Growing points die and or pods are produced. margins and wilted.
ears may not develop.
Molybdenum Not common by itself, Leaves are smaller, Older leaves become
but indicators include pale in colour with mottled, scorched and
scorched patches on interveinal mottling cupped. Margins are
leaves. developing into brown irregular and heart
scorched areas. formation is poor.
Chlorine Plants short with poorly- Cl essential for the Stunted roots with
developed stubby roots symbiotic fixation excessive branching and
of N in legumes. No poor wilted top growth
nodulation and stunted
growth
Copper Reduced growth,
Toxicity chlorosis and stunted
root development.

LAND DEGRADATION ASSESSMENT IN DRYLANDS (LADA) PROJECT 179

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