Crop management on problem

soils
Soil erosion:
➢ Erode as "To eat into or away by slow destruction of substance”
➢ The wearing away of the land surface by physical forces such as

• Water (Rainfall, flowing water, ice)

• Wind

• Gravity

• Climatic change (temperature change)

• Other natural or anthropogenic agents

➢ that 1) abrade, 2) detach and 3) remove soil from one point on the earth's surface to be deposited
elsewhere.
➢ When used in the context of pressures on soil, erosion refers to accelerated loss of soil as a
result of anthropogenic activity, above accepted rates of natural soil formation
Severity of erosion:
Divided into five scale

• low-erosion: (Erosion has tolerable level), 2) Slight, 3) moderate to high, 4) severe & 5)
extreme represent (Increasing magnitude of impact).
Soil losses: (ton /ha/ year)
1. Low erosion < 1 t/ha/yr
2. Slight erosion 1-3 t/ha/yr
3. Moderate to high erosion 2- 5 t/ha/yr
4. Server erosion 5- 50 t/ha/yr
5. Extreme erosion > than 50 t/ha/yr
Perspective of soil erosion:
• Around 16 m ha (20% of the total area) of Pakistan is affected directly or indirectly by soil
erosion.
 • Out of the total eroded area, 11.2 m ha is affected by water
• The remaining 4.8 m ha is caused by wind erosion

• Every year globally around one billion tons of soil are being lost through erosion
• The highest recorded rate of estimated erosion is 150-165 tons/hectare/year
Causes of erosion:

• Erosion occurs when soil is left exposed to rain drop or wind energy.

• Main agents are gravity (water erosion) and wind (wind erosion)
1. Soil Structure
➢ Medium to fine texture & low OM easily eroded

• Having low water infiltration rates

• Easily displaced by wind energy

2. Bareness of soil

• Caused mainly by excessive exposure of bare soil

• Easily detached, and runaway by the water

3. Land Topography

– The topography of a given landscape, its rainfall and/or wind exposure all combine
to influence the land’s susceptibility to soil erosion

– Erosion rates are high especially on marginal and steep lands which have been
converted from forests to crops
4. Other anthropogenic activity

– The construction of roads, parking lots, and buildings

– Indiscriminate land clearance,

– Soil disturbance for agriculture and other activities

5. Mismanagement of nature resources

– Due to poorly managed logging operations

– Inadequate management of runoff.
Impact of erosion:
It reduces the general productivity of terrestrial ecosystems
1. Impact on water availability

• It increases water runoff and thereby decreasing water infiltration and the water-storage
capacity of the soil
• The reduced available soil water storage lead to an enhanced risk of flooding and landslides
in adjacent areas.

• Water erosion shortens the life span of major reservoirs, irrigation system and reduces their
efficiency
2. Impact on agriculture product

• Organic matter and essential plant nutrients are removed from the soil and soil depth is
reduced.

• These changes not only inhibit vegetative growth but reduce the presence of valuable biota
and the overall biodiversity of the soil

• It devalue the Agriculture produce

3. Impact on environment

• Breakdown of soil structure, significantly alter Nutrient and carbon cycling by mobilization
and deposition of soil.

• As eroded soil may lose 75 - 80 % of its carbon content, with consequent release of carbon
to the atmosphere.

• Soil erosion impacts strongly the environment and has high economic costs
Mechanism of Water Erosion:
Soil erosion by water is a three-step process:

• Detachment
• Transport of the detached particles
• Deposition of the transported material
The most important one is soil transport is rill flow. Less important is overland flow and raindrops.
Mechanisms of Wind Erosion:
Soil erosion by wind occurs by three step mechanisms:
1. Suspension (silt) of the finer particles produced by a gradient in wind velocity.
2. Saltation (Sand) after being lifted the larger particles fell back to the ground.
3. Soil creep/rolling of the larger particles (never lifted by wind)
Abrasion: the mechanical scraping of a rock surface by friction between rocks and moving
particles during transport.
Attrition: is the regular impacts between the soil particles themselves and the soil/rock surface
causing them to be broken into smaller fragments.
Types of water erosion (gravity:
Splash erosion: as a result of rainfall impact on soil particle

• The first stage of the erosion process.

• Caused by hitting of bare soil by raindrops

• The explosive impact breaks up soil aggregates and the soil particles are ‘splashed’ onto
the soil surface.

• The splashed particles can rise as high 60cm above the ground and move up to 1.5 m from
the point of impact.

• The particles block the spaces between soil aggregates, so that the soil forms a crust that
reduces infiltration and start runoff, and hence erosion
2. Sheet erosion: as a result of overflow

• It is the removal of soil in thin layers by raindrop impact, & cause shallow surface flow
(when the rainfall intensity of a storm exceeds the infiltration capacity of soil)

• Cause losses of finest soil particles (nutrients and organic matter)

• It is the slowest stage and mostly the erosion is unnoticed

• The overgrazed/cultivated soils and soil deposited near fences are vulnerable
• Early signs of sheet erosion are bare areas, water puddling soon after rainfalls, visible
grassroots, exposed tree roots, and exposed subsoil or stony soils.
• The surface water flows that cause sheet erosion rarely flows for more than a few meters
before concentrating into rills.
3. Rill erosion

• Rills are shallow drainage lines less than 30cm deep.

• Rills develop when surface water concentrates in depressions or low points

• Rill erosion occurs (in bare, overgrazed, freshly cultivated)

• The rills erosion can be minimized via farm machinery, reduced surface water
speed/volume (with grassed waterways/ mulching/contour drains)
4. Gully erosion (V-shaped or U-shaped)
• Channels deeper than 30cm
 • Gullies occur when water flows concentrate and cut a channel through the soil.
• Expansion in gullies occurs from the upslope side (head of the gully)

• The sidewalls contribute a greater proportion of soil loss.

• The cumulative soil loss over time is less than sheet and rill erosion.
• Stages: Cutting topsoil, Enlargement of gullies, Healing stage, stabilization.
5. Tunnel/stream erosion

• The movement of surface water through dispersive subsoils.

• Dispersive soils are poorly structured so they erode easily when wet.
• The tunnel starts when surface water moves into the soil along cracks or channels or
through rabbit burrows and old tree root cavities.

• Dispersive clays are eroded 1st, causing roof fall, and form gullies
• The seepage/fine sedimentation is the common indication

• Control by breaking open existing tunnels, revegetation, and increasing SOM.

Types of wind erosion:
Wind erosion:

• The detachment and movement of soil particles by air at least 20km/h

• Wind erosion occurs mostly in low rainfall areas (when the soil moisture content is at the
wilting point or below)
Actions to minimize wind erosion include

– Improving soil structure (So that wind cannot lift the heavier soil aggregates)
– Retaining vegetative cover to reduce wind speed
– Planting windbreaks to reduce wind speed.
TYPES:
1. Suspension: Wind lifts finer particles into the air leading to dust storms.
2. Saltation: Wind lifts larger particles off the ground for short distances, leading to sand
drifts.
3. Rolling/creeping: larger particles (never lifted by wind).
Mass movement:
 • Mass movement is the downward movement of soil and rock under the influence of gravity.
• It occurs on slopes above 25 degrees with little vegetation and annual rainfall over 900mm.

• It occurs after heavy storms when soil becomes waterlogged and heavy.
• Mass movement is a major form of natural land degradation.
• Early signs of mass movement include previous movement, bare soil ‘scars’ across slopes,
and stock tracks causing cracks or minor terracing.

• Remediation actions include diverting water away from slip-prone areas, fencing off
suspect areas, and vegetating with trees and pastures.
Types of mass movement include:
– soil creep,

– Earth flow,
– Slumps (Crash),
– Landslips/landslides

– Avalanches (fall due to snow)

Calculation of Soil losses:

Universal Soil Loss Equation: (USLE)

• The USLE was developed to provide a prediction of annual soil loss for conservation
planning.
• Ten experimental sites were established between 1930 and 1942.
• Data was collected during 1950 and 1960 from standard plots
• The final version of the USLE was published in 1978

• The USLE A = R K LS C P
– A: predicted soil loss
– R, rainfall erosivity

– K, soil erodibility
– L, slope length
 – S, slope gradient or steepness
– C, cover and management

– P, erosion control practices

• Erosivity is the potential ability of water or wind to cause erosion.
• Rainfall erosivity is calculated as kinetic energy (E) times intensity (I): EI

• Erodibility is the inherent susceptibility to erosion.

• Soil erodibility factor depends mainly on the infiltration capacity and structural stability
of soil, & calculated according to Goldman et al,1986 as

• K = (1.929) (2.1x10-6 *(Psilt(100-Pclay) + 0.0325(Sstruc-2) + 0.025(Fpermi-3)

Wind Erosion Prediction Equation: (WEQ)

• WEQ E = f (I' K', C', L' V)

• E, is predicted soil loss:

– I’, soil erodibility factor

– K’, soil-ridge-roughness factor
– C’, climatic factor

– L’, width of field factor

– V, vegetative factor
• There is interaction between parameters.

• The I’ factor depends on soil erodibility and slope steepness.

• The K’ factor accounts for surface roughness, vegetative cover, and ridges on the surface.
• The C’ factor depends on wind velocity and water content of surface soil.

• The L’ factor refers to the unsheltered distance in the downwind direction.

• The V refers to the amount and nature of the vegetative cover.
Preventive measure of erosion:

• Erosion control is the practice of preventing or controlling wind or water erosion in

agriculture, land development and coastal areas

• Effective erosion controls handle surface runoff and are important techniques in
preventing water pollution, soil loss, wildlife habitat loss and human property loss.
 • The three main principles for erosion control include
1. Use land according to its capability

– The steeper slopes and shallower soils are more suitable for growing pastures, and
the lower slopes and deeper soils are more suitable for growing crops.
2. Protect the soil surface with some form of cover

– It reduces the impact of raindrops falling on bare soils and wind removing soil
particles. It also reduces the speed of water flowing over the land

– In plots having only 6% cover caused 70% of rainfall to erode resulting in the losses
of 22 t/ha soil, 15.3 kg N ha-1, & 4.3 kg P ha-1 as 38 mm storm
3. Control runoff before it develops into an erosive force

– Coordination across the catchment is important when implementing runoff control

measures. Runoff may pass through several properties and cross several roads
(sometimes railway lines) as it passes from the most remote part of a catchment to
a major drainage line or creek.
Techniques for Soil Erosion Control:

• Soil erosion can be controlled by adopting land management practices and also by changing
the pattern of human activities (accelerate soil erosion)

• The erosion can be controlled effectively via the following techniques

1. Contour Farming

– Contour farming may be defined as plowing, seeding, cultivating, and harvesting

across the slope, rather than parallel to it.

– Ploughing horizontally through the curvature of the hills, can act as a reservoir to
retain water, and thus avoid overflow
2. Strip Cropping

– On land with a definite slope, planting crops on contour strips will be an effective
erosion determent. For effective control, the width of the contour strip should vary
inversely with the length of the slope.

– Strip cropping should be combined with crop rotation so that a strip planted to a
soil-depleting, erosion-facilitating corn crop one year will be sown to a soil-
enriching and protecting strip of legumes the next.
3. Terracing
 – The modern terrace is an embankment of earth constructed across a slope in such a
way as to control water run-off and minimize erosion.

– To be effective, the terrace must check water flow before it attains sufficient
velocity to loosen and transport soil.
4. Gully Reclamation

– Gullies are danger signals that indicate the land is eroding rapidly and may become
a wasteland. If a gully is small, it may be plowed in and then seeded to quick-
growing crops like barley, maize, and wheat to control erosion.

– In case of severe gullying, small check dams of manure/straw constructed at 5 m

intervals may be effective, because silt will collect behind the dams and gradually
fill in the channel.

– Earthen, stone, and even concrete dams may be built at intervals along the gully.
– Once dams have been constructed and water run-off has been restrained, soil may
be stabilized.
5. Shelter Belts

– These are the ‘green belts’ of trees that help to break the force of strong winds and
thus, prevent or minimize the blowing away of the loose topsoil.

– In areas where wind erosion is more, rows of trees may be helpful to check the flow
of winds. Apart from this, these trees will also add color to the landscape and help
to control the desert's spread.

– Soil blowing away can also be controlled if local shrubs and small trees are planted
systematically. Even useful trees can be planted and harvested after a regular
interval of two to three years.
6. Geotextiles

– Geotextiles are commonly used to improve soils over which roads, embankments,
pipelines, and earth retaining structures will be built.

– Depending on the type of application, geotextiles can be open mesh type, warp-
knitted structure, or with a closed fabric surface, such as a non-woven.

– It is also important to highlight that geotextiles will be specified for use or proposed
design based on the following criteria: separation, filtration, drainage,
reinforcement, sealing, and protection.
– It is used as the fastest way to improve soil conditions
Other measures of soil conservation:
1. Expansion of vegetative cover and protective afforestation
2. controlled overgrazing
3. Flood control
4. Prohibition of shifting cultivation
5. Proper land utilization
6. Maintenance of soil fertility
7. Land reforms
8. Reclamation of wasteland
9. Establishment of

– Soil research institute

– Producing trained soil scientists

– Effective agencies for soil management.

Erosion control in cropping lands:
1. Tillage

– Conservation cropping practices that maintain cover on soils include minimum and
zero tillage practices.
2. Contour banks and strip cropping

– Contour banks in upland areas, or strip cropping on floodplains.

– Approximately 80% of soil lost as a result of poor cover can be trapped in the
paddock by contour banks.
3. Green cane harvesting

– The leftover leaves of the cane 'trash blanket protect the soil from raindrop impact
Erosion control in grazing lands:
1. Surface cover

– Surface cover increases rainfall infiltration and reduces runoff spreads

– The critical level of cover for pastures is about 40% having 1 t dry grass/ha.
2. Opportunistic spelling
 – Opportunistic spelling should also be part of a grazing strategy.
– A total spell in a good year may be required to allow desirable grasses to recover
from past grazing.

– Grazing pressure can also be managed by locating watering points away from areas
vulnerable to erosion.
3. Fire
– Fire is useful for controlling woody weeds but it needs to be managed carefully.

– Regular burning of pastures will reduce ground cover & promote runoff/erosion.
Managing erosion in urban areas:

• The increasing population & continued economic development require numerous

construction projects and activities that expose soils to erosion.

• The following approaches will help reduce erosion on development sites.

1. Disturb minimal area when excavating.
2. divert upslope storm water around the work site and other disturbed areas where
possible.
3. Install sediment barriers (e.g. sediment fences or turf strips) downslope of the
building site to filter coarse sediments.
4. Connect a temporary or permanent downpipe to a stormwater system.
5. Place all stockpiles on the construction site and behind a sediment barrier.
6. landscape all bare areas as soon as possible after construction is completed.
Erosion control in Forest land:

• Using trees to control erosion

– Trees are often considered to be the universal answer to control soil erosion.
– Tree roots help prevent landslides on steep slopes and stream bank erosion but they
won't stop erosion

– In forests, the soil surface is usually protected by a layer of mulch from decaying
vegetation as well as a variety of surface-growing plants.

– If the soil is bare under the tree canopy from overgrazing, vehicles, or pedestrians,
soil erosion will still occur.
 Salinity/Sodicity - II
• Salinity is the saltiness or the measure of all the salts dissolved in a mass of water.
• Dissolved salt/matter is defined as that which can pass through a fine filter (a pore size of
0.2-0.45 μm)

• Salinity is usually measured in parts per thousand (ppt), the average ocean salinity is 35ppt.
• Salinity is an important factor in determining many aspects of the chemistry of natural
waters and the biological processes within it

• It is a thermodynamic state variable (along with temperature and pressure), that governs
physical characteristics like the density and heat capacity of the water.
• The term ‘sodicity’ is closely connected to salinity but has the feature of having high
concentrations of sodium (Na+) ions in the solution.

• In general, ‘salinity’ is used along with water bodies & soil, but the term ‘sodicity’ is more
often connected to soil conditions

Difference b/w Salinity & Sodicity:

Salinity:
1. It is mostly associated with water and soil.
2. Saline soils have higher salt concentrations than usual.
3. Saline soils cause a ‘chemical drought’ in soils.
4. Saline soil does not cause waterlogging.
5. Salinity protects the integrity of soil.
6. It is quite difficult to be corrected in the soil.
7. The pH of saturated soil paste is less than 8.2.
8. Na is generally the dominant soluble cation, but soil sol also contains divalent cations, e.g.
Ca and Mg.
9. Soils may contain significant quantities of sparingly soluble calcium compounds, e.g.
gypsum.
10. toxicity of specific ions, e.g. Na, Cl, B, etc.;

Sodicity:
1. It is commonly associated with soil.
 2. Sodic soils have high concentrations of Na+ ions.
3. Sodic soils do not cause chemical drought in soil.
4. Sodic soils cause waterlogging.
5. Sodicity destroys the structure of soil by causing dispersion.
6. Sodicity in soil is easier to correct.
7. The pH of the saturated soil paste is more than 8.2.
8. Na is the dominant soluble cation. The high pH of the soils results in lowering Ca and Mg
via precipitation.
9. Gypsum is nearly always absent in such soils.
10. toxicity of specific ions, e.g. Na, CO3, Mo, etc.

GLOBAL SCENARIO OF THE PROBLEM:

• Soil salinity and sodicity - a global problem, exists in six continents and nearly 100
countries including Pakistan.

• Major countries - Argentina, Australia, Egypt, Iran, Pakistan, USA, Russia, India, China,
Thailand and South Africa.

• 7% of the earth’s continental extent.

• 20% of the world’s irrigated lands.
• Reduced crop productivity, soil degradation, increased soil erosion, etc.
Sources of Salinity/sodicity:
1. From deeper soil layers (soil solution)
• Rising the water tables that bring the salt closer to the soil surface

2. Irrigation water
• Using saline irrigation water (e.g. bore water, effluents)

3. Primary minerals
• Weathering of rocks containing salt or rainfall, a very slow process

4. Coastal soils
• Closure of paddocks to sea

• Exposing to sea wind

5. Climatic condition
• Evaporation > rainfall
6. Modern farming
• High doses of chemical fertilizers
7. Choice of crops
• Shallow roots crops will have low access to transpire deeper soil water, causing
rising water tables and thus will cause salinity problems.

8. Changing land use

• Where the water balance has been altered due to changing land use (e.g.
clearing of native vegetation), the excess water entering the water table
mobilizes salt which then rises to the land surface.

Salinity classes and its effect:

Units
– Expressed in grams of salt per liter of water (g/l ~ per mil ~ ppt).

– If measured by an electrical device, then expressed in mm ho/cm or dS/m. (1 g/l ~

1.5 mmhos/cm = 1.5 dS/m and 1 mS/cm = 1 dS/m = 1000 µS/cm)

Determined Ions
 – Anions: SO42-, Cl-, CO32-,NO3-, PO43-
– Cations: Ca2+, Mg2+, K+, Na+; Al3+, Fe3+

Measurements of Salinity:
Principle
– To measure the conductance/resistance

Methods of measurements of salinity

1. By TDS
– Total Dissolved Salts (TDS) is measured by evaporating a known volume of water
to dryness, then weighing the solid residue remaining: TDS (mg/L) = EC (μS/cm
at 25oC) x 0.6

2. By Electric conductance meter

Extraction method:
– Soil sample is saturated and left for 48 hours;
– Moisture is extracted in a vacuum chamber and conductivity of the solute is
measured.

1:5 Solution method:

– Soil sample is mixed with water in a 1:5 ratio by weight;

– Conductivity of the solution is measured when the sample becomes stable.

Determination of single ions: by titration
Quantitative determination of selected ions:
Soil solution preparation
Weight 10 g of soil, add 50 ml of overcooked distilled water, shake for 3 min, and filtrate
the soil suspension into the beaker

Determination of selected ions

1. CO32-: Move 2-3 ml of filtrate into a test tube, add one drop of phenolphthalein,
and bring to a boil over the burner
Pink color → the carbonates are present

2. HCO3-: After the pink color disappearance add one drop of methyl orange (into
the same extract)
Yellow colour → hydrogen carbonates are present
3. Cl-: Move 2-3 ml of filtrate into a test tube, add 3-5 drops of HNO3 and 3-5 drops
of 5% AgNO3
White precipitate → chlorides are present

4. SO42-: Move 2-3 ml of filtrate into a test tube, add 3 drops of 10% HCl and 3-5
drops of 10% BaCl2
White precipitate → sulfates are present (insoluble BaSO4)

Salinity effects on plant growth:

Saline conditions affect the plant growth by 3 mechanisms
1. Increasing the osmotic potential
2. Inducing specific-ion effects
3. Decreasing soil-water permeability/aeration/nutrition imbalance

1. High osmotic potential

➢ which decreased the water availability
➢ Plant roots find difficulty in absorbing high quantities of water
– it can increase the osmotic potential and hence decrease water availability; due
to high O.P. plant root find difficulty in absorbing a high quantity of water and
it is due to the presence of soluble salts in the soil.

– The osmotic effect increases the potential forces that hold water in the soil,
making it more difficult for plant roots to extract water.
– During the dry period, salt in the soil soln. maybe so concentrated as to kill
plants by pulling water from them (exosmosis).
 – Due to high salt concentration plants have to spend more energy to absorb
water and a smaller quantity of energy is left for growth in function, seriously
affected by cell elongation, leaves become deep green color, cells become
flaccid, and lose turgidity of the cell.

2. Inducing specific-ion effects

– It increases the concentration of specific ions with an inhibitory effect on
biological metabolism

– Sodium toxicity and induced potassium and calcium deficiency

– Low activity of useful microbes due to high soil pH and SAR
– Hard CaCO3 layer might hinder root growth

– Decreased solubility & availability of micro-nutrients (Zn, Cu, Fe, Mn).

• If growth depression is due to excessive concentrations of the specific ions, rather than
osmotic effects alone, it is called “specific ion toxicity”

• A. at high conc: NaHCO3 and soluble borates become toxic

– NaHCO3: its harmful effect is more likely to be due to the consequences of the high
pH it brings about.

– Phosphate, Fe,Zn, and Mn become unavailable to the plant at high pH value and
soil structure tends to become water unstable bringing about conditions of low
water permeability and poor aeration
– Borate: for citrus, the irrigation water should contain B < 0.75 mg L-1

– While for Sugarbeet, Lucerne, Cotton, and Date palm- crop growth will be
hampered if the water contains> B @4-6 mg/L

• At High conc: some ions have toxic effects

• Fruit plants can tolerate sufficient amount of SO4-2 but not Cl- (Sensitive)
Flax and grasses: sensitive to high conc. of SO4-2

3. Minimizing soil permeability/ aeration/nutrients imbalance

– Poor water and air permeability due to soil dispersion
– Low water availability due to poor air conductance

– Hindrance for seedling emergence due to hard crust on soil surface

– Difficult seedbed preparation
 – Continuous loss of top fertile soil during rain due to low water infiltration or
more erosion

• HCO3-- induced Fe deficiency: Fe is precipitated due to the presence of high bicarbonate

• Na+ induced Ca deficiency: The specific effects of Na on plant physiological

processes include antagonistic effects on Ca uptake and Ca deficiency. This is because Na+
displaces Ca2+ from membranes, rendering them nonfunctional.

• Mg-induced Ca deficiency: High concentrations of competitive cations such as Na+,

K+, and Mg2+ have been shown to displace cell membrane-associated Ca2+. The greater
antagonistic effect of Mg2+ compared to Na+ is due to its greater membrane binding
constant. Due to its greater binding constant, Mg2+ more readily displaces Ca2+ from the
plasma membrane at lower concentrations (and salinities) than Na+, resulting in a greater
growth reduction and corresponding Ca deficiency.

3. Nutritional imbalance Continued:

• Availability of plant nutrients is affected adversely in salt-affected soils and thus crop
productivity is decreased.

• The main reasons for depletion in the fertility of such soils are as under.
1. Antagonistic effect of the excess of (Na, CO3, and HCO3), which suppresses the availability
of others like Ca, K, P, Zn, Mn, Fe, and B.
2. An increase in soil pH, especially in sodic soils decreases the overall availability of
phosphorus and micronutrients.
3. In salt-affected soils microbiological activity is curtailed to a great extent.
4. During the reclamation process, the leaching of salts is also accompanied by the leaching
of nutrients.
5. Nutrient uptake by plants in salt-affected soils is also reduced due to decreased water
uptake because of the physiological unavailability of the latter.

Nitrogen contents in saline soil:

1. These soils are deficient in nitrogen, and low organic matter contents, and thus reduced
microbial population and low enzymatic activity in saline soils.
2. The rate of mineralization of nitrogen is slowed down, and the salinity level (ECe) above
10 dS m-1 is harmful
3. N absorption by plants increase up to moderate salinity value (6 dS m-1) and then decreases
at higher salinity values and ESP of soil.
 4. The rate of conversion of one form of nitrogen to other forms is quite slow e.g. hydrolysis
of urea to ammonium N was much slow down with increase in soil EC and pH.
5. Chloride reduces the rate of nitrification when present between 0.5- 1.0 %.
6. Ammonium volatilization loss from applied nitrogen increases with an increase in the
pH/alkalinity of the soil.
7. 20-25% overdose of nitrogen fertilizers is required

Phosphorus contents in saline soil:

1. The availability of P in saline soil may decrease, increase or remain unchanged depending
on the nature and degree of salinity.
2. The availability of P is decreased in sodic soil during reclamation.
3. Barren sodic soils have high amounts of extractable P and are categorized as adequate in
available P.
4. Amount of water-soluble P increases with soil pH above 9.0.
5. The availability of phosphorus increases up to moderate salinity (ECe 6 dS m-1)
6. P uptake by plants increases up to moderate salinity (ECe 6 dS m-1) and ESP (30-35) levels
7. In sodic soils, there is a tendency for the increase of Ca-P form with an increase in ESP and
a decrease in Al-P
8. In highly saline-sodic soils about 10-15% more P is to be added and special care is to be
taken for calcareous soils.
9. Phosphorus absorption by plants is generally reduced with an increase in salinity and ESP
of soil.

Low nutrient use efficiency:

Reclamation of soil salinity:
It involves the simple three rules
1. Establishing internal drainage

• If not already adequate

• May require tile installation, ditching
• Can be impractical/costly

• Surface drainage is for draining of excess runoff

• Subsurface drainage for lowering the water table
2. Replacing the excess exchangeable Na

• Necessary for sodic & saline-sodic soils

• Extent varies with soil texture, clay, quality of available water extent of
damage

• Ponding and intermittent ponding are more efficient in the leaching of salts.
For the success of leaching of water, table must be sufficiently low
 3. To leach out the most of soluble salts

• Especially in the root zone

• Use good-quality irrigation water

Salt Balance
• Outgoing salt = incoming salt
• Managed leaching to help wash away any salt buildups
• May call for a leaching requirement to remedy & keep crops productive

• The salt balance should be always positive (outgoing > incoming salt)
• A complete salt balance for an irrigated soil in a given time interval can be written as
• The Sp , Sr , Sd & Sf effects are small when compared with Siw and tends to be balanced by
Sc and Sdw. The effect of Sppt is ignored, and thus the management practices only concentrate
on the relationship b/w Siw and Sdw, Which leads to a simplified equation.

• Sp (atmospheric inputs)
• Siw (salts in the irrigation water)

• Sr (residual soil salts)

• Sd (salt released by weathering)
• Sf (fertilizer salts)

• Sdw (salt drained out by water)

• Sc (crop removal of salt).
• Sppt (precipitation of carbonates and sulfates.
Leaching Requirement: (LR)
• Defined as the fraction of irrigation water passing out or drained out through the root zone
and given by

Assumptions
The LR relation is based on the assumption that a salt balance exists (i.e. ECiwDiw = ECdwDdw),
which is based on the following three assumptions
1. Plant roots are assumed to have perfectly semipermeable membranes i.e., it allows only
water to enter into the cell but not salts
2. There should not be any precipitation of the soluble salts
 3. There will not be any release of soluble salts from the soil
4. Integrated management practices salinity reclamation:

Biological management techniques:

➢ Maintenance of fertility levels
– improve the pH and structure of soils and thus encourage the growth of high-
yielding crops; release CO2 and other organic acids

– Maximization of soil surface cover with organic residue, e.g. use of multiple crop
species;
– improves soil tilth, and structure, and improves water infiltration which provides a
safeguard against adverse effects of salinity.

➢ Mulching
– Exposed ground to help retain soil moisture and reduce erosion; which indirectly
decreases salinity
 – Mulching with crop residue, such as straw, reduces evaporation from the soil
surface which in turn reduces the upward movement of salts. Reduced evaporation
also reduces the need to irrigate. Consequently, fewer salts accumulate.

➢ Green manuring
– Its addition, improves soil properties, aeration, and microbial activity, and hence
crop growth

➢ Crop selection
– e.g. use of deep-rooted plants to maximize water extraction.

➢ Blue-green algae
– Acts as decomposer, serve food for other micro-organisms
➢ Saline Agriculture
Use of resistant crops, Using crop rotation, minimum/deep tillage, minimum fallow periods

Physical/mechanical management techniques:

➢ Scraping:
– Removing the salts that have accumulated on the soil surface by mechanical means
– Due to continuous evaporation the salt concentration is the highest in the surface
soil. The topsoil can be scraped and transported out of the field.

➢ Land leveling
– Reduce salinity by minimizing the depression where salt is supposed to be
accumulated, and provide more uniform water

➢ Sub-soiling
– Making ditches can act as a transporting system for extra leached salt from the root
zone

– Deep tillage would mix the salts present in the surface zone into a much larger
volume of soil and hence reduce its concentration and impact. Many soils have an
impervious hard pan which hinders the salt leaching process. Under such
circumstances “chiseling” would improve water infiltration and hence downward
movement of salts.

➢ Sanding
 – The addition of sand can decrease the water holding capacity, and thus most of the
salt will be leached

➢ Improving planting techniques

– Changing the planting pattern from deep rooting to a shallow system, can reduce
transpiration, or using other resistant species e.g. mustard, cabbage

Hydraulic management techniques:

➢ Flushing:
• Washing away the surface accumulated salts by flushing water over the surface is
sometimes used to desalinize soils having surface salt crusts.

➢ Leaching:
• This is by far the most effective procedure for removing salts from the root zone of soils.

• Leaching is most often accomplished by ponding fresh water on the soil surface and
allowing it to infiltrate.

• Leaching is effective when the salty drainage water is discharged through subsurface drains
that carry the leached salts out of the area under reclamation.

• Leaching should preferably be done when the soil moisture content is low and the
groundwater table is deep.
➢ Improving irrigation

• Where available, irrigation with good quality water before sowing helps leach salts from
the topsoil.

• This helps in promoting better seed germination and seedling establishment. T

➢ Adequate disposal of drainage water
To avoid contamination of receiving waters and the environment.
Chemicals as management techniques:
➢ Soil conditioning/amendments/Chemicals
– Gypsum, CaCl2, S, H2SO4, FeSO4, Al2(SO4)3, lime sulfur solution.
– Chemicals (such as gypsum), a rich source of Ca, which replaces the sodium. Then,
the replaced sodium is leached from the rootzone by irrigation water
 ➢ Mineral Fertilization
– The addition of mineral fertilizer (mixture of calcium sulfate/humic acid) by
improving the hydro-physical properties and nutrient availability of such soils.

Definition of Waterlogging
1. Waterlogging may be defined as rendering the soil unproductive and infertile due to
excessive moisture and the creation of anaerobic conditions.
2. When the conditions are so created that the crop root zone gets deprived of proper aeration
due to the presence of excessive moisture or water content, the tract is said to be
waterlogged.
3. Waterlogging refers to the saturation of soil with water. Soil may be regarded as
waterlogged when it is often nearly saturated with water such that its air phase is restricted
and anaerobic conditions prevail.
4. A situation in which the underground water comes on the surface of land and gathers on
the ground level, and may or may not assume the shape of streams, may be called as water
logging condition
5. When the water table rose to five feet below the surface the saline water reached the surface
by the capillary action with a further rise of the water table, water logging took place.
Why/When waterlogging happen:

• Waterlogging occurs

• when the soil profile or the root zone of a plant becomes saturated.
• In rain-fed situations, this happens when more rain falls occur than the soil can absorb or
the atmosphere can evaporate.

• It is usually a seasonal problem

• It is caused by a relatively impermeable layer through which water moves only very slowly
• It is due to soil compaction, sodic soils, high rainfall
Explanation: Hydrologic equation:

Equation: Inflow = Outflow + Storage

• Inflow means, the amount of water that enters the subsoil (via seepage from the canals,
infiltration of rainwater, percolation from irrigated fields).
 • Outflow mean the amount of water which is going out of soil (via evaporation,
transpiration, move in underground tract).

• Storage means, the change in the groundwater reservoir.

Scope of waterlogging in Pakistan:

• Around 50% of the total land is affected by water logging conditions.

• A 38% of Pakistan's irrigated land was damaged by waterlogged

• Out of 38%, only 45% are cultivated at present time

• A total of about 3 m acres is not suitable for cultivation
• In the case of Punjab about 0.7 m acres of land is affected by water logging every year
Causes of Waterlogging:

1. Inadequate drainage of over-land run-off increases the rate of percolation and in turn helps
in raising the water table.
2. The water from rivers may infiltrate into the soil.
3. Seepage of water from earthen canals also adds significant quantity of water to the
underground reservoir continuously.
4. Sometimes subsoil does not permit free flow of subsoil water which may bring out the
process of raising the water table.
5. Irrigation water is used to flood the fields. If it is used in excess, it may help appreciably
in raising the water table. A good drainage facility is very essential.
Symptoms of waterlogging:

1. Yellowing of crops and pastures

2. Presence of weeds (toad rush, dock, and Yorkshire)
3. Dark, wet, slimy, usually with algae on the topsoil
4. Grey or greenish-colored subsoil (permanent waterlogging creating reducing
conditions)
5. Low nitrogen status crops
6. In very warm conditions when oxygen is more rapidly depleted in the soil
Effects of Waterlogging:

1. Creation of Anaerobic Condition in the Crop Root Zone

 – When the aeration of the soil is satisfactory bacteriological activities produce the
required nitrates from the nitrogenous compounds present in the soil. It helps the
crop growth. Excessive moisture content creates anaerobic conditions in the soil.
The plant roots do not get the required nourishing food or nutrients. As a result crop
growth is badly affected.
2. Growth of Water Loving Wild Plants

– When the soil is waterlogged water water-loving wild plants grow abundantly. The
growth of wild plants prevents the growth of useful crops.
3. Impossibility of Tillage Operations

– Waterlogged fields cannot be tilled properly. The reason is that the soil contains
excessive moisture content and it does not give proper tilth.
4. Accumulation of Harmful Salts

– The upward water movement brings the toxic salts into the root zone. Excess
accumulation of these salts may turn the soil saline, & reduce crop growth.
5. Lowering of Soil Temperature

– The presence of excessive moisture content lowers the temperature of the soil. In
low temperatures, the bacteriological activities are retarded which affects the crop
growth badly.
6. Reduction in Time of Maturity

– The early maturity of the crops is the characteristic of waterlogged lands. Due to
this shortening of crop period, the crop yield is reduced considerably.
Consequences of the ill effects:

1. Reduce the pasture/forage availability during winter and early spring where soils can
remain waterlogged for considerable periods
2. The germination mostly fails and also has weak tillering capability, thus need to use higher
seed rate in waterlogged area
3. Lower leaves turn purple-red to yellow, then die, and cause yellowing of lower leaves.
4. Disruption of traffic ways and normal life
5. Increase water pollution
6. Increase maintenance cost of the building and other assets

Mechanism of low productivity in water-logged conditions:

The low productivity of really selected tree species in areas prone to waterlogging or damp
conditions is due to the following three mechanisms:
1. Waterlogged conditions reduce the supply of oxygen to tree roots and thus inhibit the ability
of the roots to support the tree, as ultimately all (or most) of the root function is reduced as
the roots are ‘drowned’ by the water and begin to decay.
2. Carbon dioxide (a product of respiration) is prevented from diffusing away from the roots
and this also reduces the root function.
3. Lack of function in a tree root system, particularly in the summer months when a tree is
growing vigorously, prevents the movement of water and essential nutrients into and out
of the plant and ultimately means that the leaves and stem of the tree become starved
causing the failure of the tree.
Reclamation of water-logged Areas:

1. Proper Drainage System

Farmers should have adequate surface drainage facilities to remove excess water from
their fields. The surface runoff and subsoil drainage of water should not be so slow.
During the rainy season, efforts should be made not to retain water on the soil surface.
1. Using Tube Wells:

A tube well is an ideal device to lower the level of water in water-logged areas.
Tube wells can draw out of the earth large quantities of water continuously. It is a
good technique to reclaim water-logged areas by installing tube wells.
2. Lining of Canals:
To minimize water logging, concrete lining of canals and other water channels
should be done. It will be helpful not only in controlling water logging but also in
saving useful irrigation water.
3. Water Management:
Farmers should be educated about water management. The use of excessive
irrigation water for the cultivation of certain crops should be avoided. Modern
irrigation techniques like drip irrigation should be adopted.
4. Tolerant Crops:
Crops like rice, oats, etc should be preferred in water-logged areas. Because rice
requires more moisture for its growth.
5. Tolerant Trees:
Trees like Eucalyptus, willows, etc should be planted in water-logged areas
because of their high moisture requirement.
 Definition dry farming
1. Dry farming, also called Dryland Farming, is the cultivation of crops without
irrigation in regions of limited moisture, typically less than 20 inches (50
centimeters) of precipitation annually.
2. A type of farming practiced in arid areas without irrigation by planting drought-
resistant crops or employing moisture-enhancing techniques such as planting seeds
deep in the ground or using and maintaining a fine surface tilth or mulch that
delays evaporation.
3. A system of growing crops in arid or semiarid regions without artificial irrigation,
by reducing evaporation and by special methods of tillage
4. Utilizes the residual moisture in the soil from the rainy season instead of depending
on irrigation.

Development of water stress:

• Dry farming depends upon efficient storage of the limited moisture in the soil and the
selection of crops and growing methods that make the best use of this moisture.

• When moisture stress developed

• When transpiration > H2O absorption

• Strategies to cope with

• ↓ H2O discharge through (1) stomatal activity
• (2) Other morphological changes i.e. leaf orientation, waxy layer, leaf rolling

• ↑ Water extraction from soil i.e.

– (1) Improved root growth rate
– (2) Improved root proliferation

– ↑ ability to tolerate low tissue ψw i.e. without injury i.e. Osmotic adjustment

PHASES OF WATER STRESS:

1. Response phase: (beginning of stress)
-Alarm reaction
- Stress intensity too high
- Overcharge of the adoption capacity
 - The catabolic process exceeds the anabolic process

2. Restitution phase: Stage of resistance

- Adaptation process
-Repair process
- Hardening (reactivation)

3. End phase: Stage of exhaustion

- Stress intensity too high
- Overcharge of the stress adaptation capacity
- Chronic disease or death

4. Regeneration phase:
Partial or full regeneration of the physiological process

Aridity and aridity index:

• Arid implies prolonged dryness, & is used concerning the climate & the land below it.
• In such regions the ability to produce crops is restricted. Usually on arid lands, the potential
evaporation of water from the land exceeds the rainfall.

• The land may be characterized according to the degree of aridity as dry forest or grassland
savannah, or desert.

• An aridity index (AI) is a numerical indicator of the degree of dryness of the climate at a
given location.

• At the turn of the 20th century, arid regions were defined as those places where the annual
rainfall accumulation (in cm) is less than R/2, where:

• R = 2 x T, if rainfall occurs mainly in the cold season

• R=2 x T+14, if rainfall is evenly distributed throughout the year
• R=2 x T+28 if rainfall occurs mainly in the hot season.

• where T is the mean annual temperature in Celsius.

• Index of aridity, defined as:

• AI = P/PET (UN Environment Program, 1992)

• where PET is the potential evapotranspiration and P is the average annual precipitation.
Scope in Pakistan:
• Out of 79.6 m ha, 22.1 m ha is cultivated

• Three-fourths of the cultivated area is irrigated and one-quarter is rain-fed (Barani).

• The rainfall in Pakistan is highly variable and is recorded as low as 10 mm in the hot deserts
of Cholistan and Thar to as high as 1500 mm per annum in the foothills of the Himalayas.

• The farming in dryland areas is subjected to

– Soil erosion
– Degradation of vegetation cover,

– Desertification,
– Low crop productivity,
– Substandard livestock

– Poor farm management

– Consequently, with low economic return
• Dry land areas sustain 80% Livestock and contribute to 12% wheat, 23% rapeseed and
mustard, 53% barley, 65%-gram, 69% sorghum, 40% maize, and 89% groundnut.

Reasons for low productivity in dryland farming:

Dry farming crops are characterized by very low and highly variable and uncertain yields. Crop
failures are quite common. These are mainly due to the following causes.

1. Inadequate and uneven distribution of rainfall

– In general, the rainfall is low and highly variable which results in uncertain crop
yields. Besides its uncertainty, the distribution of rainfall during the crop period is
 uneven, receiving high amounts of rain, when it is not needed and lack of it when
the crop needs it. Which reduces low rainwater use efficiency

2. Late-onset and early cessation of rains

– Due to the late onset of monsoon, the sowing of crops is delayed resulting in poor
yields. Sometimes the rain may cease very early in the season exposing the crop to
drought during flowering and maturity stages which reduces the crop yields
considerably

3. Prolonged Dry spells during the crop period

– Long breaks in the rainy season are an important feature of the Indian monsoon.
These intervening dry spells when prolonged during crop period reduce crop
growth and yield and when unduly prolonged crops fail.

4. Low moisture retention capacity

– The crops raised on red soils, and coarse textured soil suffer due to lack of moisture
whenever prolonged dry spells occur due to their low moisture-holding capacity.
Loss of rain occurs as runoff due to undulating & sloppy soils.

5. Low Fertility of Soils

– Drylands are not only thirsty but also hungry too. Soil fertility has to be increased,
but there is limited scope for extensive use of chemical fertilizers due to a lack of
adequate soil moisture. The farmers also use lower fertilizers than recommended
for dry land due to low income
6. Inappropriate Natural resource management practices followed by farmers.
7. Lack of proper technique available for dry land farming suitable for the region.
8. Due to erratic behavior & improper distribution of rainfall agriculture becomes risky, and
farmers do not want to adopt proper methods, tools whatever is available for dryland
farming.
9. Traditional cultivation and shifting cultivation

Crops/plants tolerance in dry-farming:

Increasing water Performance:
1. Prevent a Crust at the Soil Surface.
– By tillage, create a rough, cloddy surface which lengthens the time necessary for
the rain to break down the clods and seal the surface. For seedbed preparation in
general, small seeds should have a finer, mellower bed than large seeds.

– After harvest, create a stubble mulch on the surface. Such material not only prevents
raindrops from impinging directly on the soil but impedes the flow of water down
the slope, increasing absorption time.

2. Reduce the Runoff of Water.

– Cropland should be as level as possible.
– All tillage and plantings must run across (or perpendicular to) the slope of the land.
Such ridges will impede the downward movement of water.

– For every two feet of vertical drop or 250 feet of horizontal run, the field should
either have bunds or contour strips

3. Reducing the Loss of Soil Moisture

a. By reducing evaporation
– Shelter belts of trees or shrubs reduce wind speeds and cast shadows which can
reduce evaporation 10 to 30% by itself and also reduce wind erosion.
– Mulching reduces the surface speeds of wind and reduces soil temperatures.
 – Shallow tilling can create a dirt mulch 2 to 3 inches deep which dries out easily but
is discontinuous from the subsurface water, preventing further loss.

– Tillage must be repeated after each rain to restore the discontinuity.

b. By reducing Transpiration.
– Weeds compete not only for soil nutrients but water as well so their control is
critical.
– Dwarf varieties have less surface and so lose less water. Some plants close their
stomas when it is hot, reducing their water loss. Others, like corn, curl their leaves
during hot afternoons and open them at night, effectively changing their surface
area in response to conditions.

– In dry farming, the number and seed rate of plants is reduced so that fewer plants
compete for soil moisture.

– Area clearance and properly maintained stubble and soil mulch can retain 20 to
70% of the precipitation received until the next year.

– Post harvest tillage will create stubble and dirt mulches and destroy weeds before
the onset of the dry season.

Good practices for dryland farming:

1. Crop/variety selection
– Growing of Black gram and green gram in water-stressed areas.

– Popularization of cultivation of Green Manuring Crops like Dhaincha.

– Cultivation of Banana, Ginger, and Turmeric by mulching with paddy straw.
– Cultivation of nontraditional crops like medicinal plant

• Variety requirements for dry farming:

– Short-stemmed varieties with limited leaf surface minimize transpiration.
– Deep, prolific root systems enhance moisture utilization.

– Quick-maturing varieties are important in order that the crop may develop prior to
the hottest and driest part of the year and mature before moisture supplies are
completely exhausted.

2. Planting technique
– Seed planting depth and timing are carefully considered to place the seed at a depth
at which sufficient moisture exists, or where it will exist when seasonal
precipitation falls.

– Plant when and where there is moisture

– Increased plant spacing

– Pre-soaking seed, seed priming

– Pressing soil around the seed or transplant
• Good seed-soil contact

• Creates capillary action wicking moisture to the surface to help seed

germinate and get established

– Bunding.
– For unusual slopes, it is recommended that for every fall of two feet, a bund 18 to
24 inches in height be constructed.

– Even when land is fairly flat, a 12-inch-high bund every 250 feet is still found
useful.

– The natural drainage of the area must not be completely stopped but should be
controlled

– Summer Fallow.
– In soil having depth more than 4.50 cm, it is possible to store water as soil moisture
from one year to the next by the use of proper summer fallow techniques.

– With a soil depth of 10 to 15 feet, up to 75% of the incident water may be retained
though 20% to 40% is more normal.

– In area having rainfall about 10 to 15 inches per year (250 to 375 mm/yr.) a clear
fallow every other year is necessary and, at 15 to 20 inches per year (375 to 500
mm/yr.), every third year.

– Strip Cropping.
– By growing in alternating strips crops that permit erosion and exposure of soil and
crops that inhibit these actions, several functions are performed:

– Slope length is maintained.

– Movement of runoff water is checked.
 – Runoff water is desilted.
– Absorption of rainwater by soil is increased.

– Dense foliage of the erosion resisting crop prevents rain from beating directly on
the soil surface.

3. Soil preparation
– Soil should be deep (preferably 3 m) with no clay, sand, or gravel seams to interfere
with capillary movement of water. The minimum feasible soil depth is 4.50 cm).

– Each tillage/land disturbance operation results in a moisture loss to evaporation of

as much as ½” equivalent depth. This amount of moisture translates to 13,000 to
14,000 gallons of water per acre.

– Zero Tillage in Rabi Vegetable cultivation.

– Minimal tilling of land to control traffic and improve moisture conservation
– Tillage practices that aid in capture and storage of precipitation include

• Contour farming – leaving furrows perpendicular to the slope;

• Tillage practices that roughen the soil surface to capture snow;

• Tillage implements that leave small storage basins or pockets to temporarily

store water for infiltration during precipitation events reducing runoff.

4. Crop residue management

• For each 1% increase in soil organic matter, soil water storage can increase by
16,000 gallons per acre-foot of applied water (Sullivan, 2002)

• Crop residue performs a multitude of functions for water conservation:

– It protects the soil surface from sealing caused by raindrop impact;
– It can provide small pockets or dams of crop residue to provide temporary
water reservoirs during precipitation events;
– It captures snow – particularly effective with standing crop residue;
 – It reduces evaporation by shading the soil surface from the sun and reducing
the wind velocity at the soil surface.

5. Crop rotations management

• Crop rotations that match precipitation patterns to crop water requirements and
critical growth stages during the growing season are generally best suited to dry-
land systems.

• Often include crops with shorter growing seasons and crops that can predictably
produce harvestable grain or forage with less water.

• In most semi-arid areas, including a fallow period in the rotation is necessary prior
to a crop with a higher water requirement.

6. Surface protection
– The evaporation from the soil surface, decreases the water film (water source for
plants) around the soil particle.

– Protecting, the reduction of this soil film through surface protection is called
mulching

a. Stubble mulching
– It aimed to protect the soil disrupting either with a growing crop or with crop
residues left on the surface

• Benefits
– It reduced wind speed at the soil surface by up to 99%, significantly reducing losses
by evaporation.

– Crop and weed residues can improve water penetration and decrease water runoff
losses by a factor of 2 to 6 times

– Reduce wind and water erosion by factors of 4 to 8 relative to a bare fallow field.

• Disadvantages
– Vegetative matter can provide a home/breeding ground for plant diseases, insects
or rodents.

– The ideal C/N ratio needed is 25 to 30, for proper decomposition, thus dry woody
and non-green straw, stalks, etc. have a C/N of 50 to 100. This tends to slow
decomposition and deplete soil nitrogen temporarily.

b. Dirt mulching
• It aims at disrupting the soil drying process with tillage techniques that separate the upper
layer of the soil from the lower layers, making the soil moisture film discontinuous.

• Principles of dirt mulching:

– Effectiveness increases with increasing depth to a limit of to 4 inches (75 to 100
mm).

– Increasing the dirt mulch depth decreases the available fertile soil.
– The effectiveness of dirt mulches decrease with age, thus need to be recreated by
shallow tillage after rain
– Dirt mulches can only be properly made when the soil is moist.

– For a climate with a "rainy" growing season and a hot, windy, dry season, dirt
mulching should only be performed during the rainy season and with a growing
crop to slow the wind and water and hold the soil.

– Dust mulch
– Cultivation of soil to produce a "dust mulch", thought to prevent the loss of water
through capillary action. This practice is controversial, and is not universally
advocated.

– Govt. assistance for large scale production of Vermi compost under different
scheme to increase the use organic matter.
– Application of organic matter, green manuring to be promoted.

7. Water harvesting techniques

1. Rainfall must be greater than 10 inches per year (250 mm).
2. Putting check-dam on seasonal streams for surface irrigation.
3. Water harvesting, management of drainage lines in field to be encouraged in
community approach.
4. Conservation of soil moisture through a combination of management strategies

8. Agronomic management
– Proper crop rotation.
– Maintaining lower plant population, and proper plant arrangements like skip rows,
etc
– Research to be evolved for flexible cropping system
– Strict weed control, to ensure that weeds do not consume soil moisture needed by
the cultivated plants.

– Summer fallow rotation (in which one crop is grown on two seasons' precipitation,
leaving standing stubble and crop residue to trap snow), and preventing runoff by
terracing fields.