Temperature Measurement

• Accurate measurement of temperature is one of the

most common and vital requirements in industrial
instrumentation

• It is one of the most difficult objectives to achieve

• Unless proper temperature measuring techniques are

employed, serious inaccuracies of reading can occur,
or otherwise useless data can result

• The thermocouple is by far the most widely used

temperature sensor for industrial instrumentation
 Temperature scales
• An ideal temperature is independent of the substance used in
defining it- such a scale was suggested by Lord Kelvin.

• In Kelvin thermodynamic temperature the equilibrium

temperature of ice & water at standard pressure is called the
ice point is at 273.16K.

• Fahrenheit scale assigns 320F to the ice point & 2120F to the
steam point.

• The Centigrade scale assigns assigns 0C to the ice point &

1000C to the steam point.
 Types Of Measurement
There are four basic types of temperature measuring
devices, each of which uses a different principle:
• Mechanical (liquid-in-glass thermometers, bimetallic
strips, etc.).
• Thermojunctive (thermocouples).
• Thermoresistive (RTDs and thermistors).
• Radiative (infrared and optical pyrometers).
 Mechanical temperature measuring
devices
Principle of operation
A change in temperature causes some kind of
mechanical motion, typically due to the fact that most
materials expand with a rise in temperature.
Mechanical thermometers can be constructed which use
liquids, solids, or even gases as the temperature-
sensitive material.
The mechanical motion is read on a physical scale to
infer the temperature.
 Liquid in glass Thermometer
• A thermometer is an instrument that measures the temperature
of a system in a quantitative way
• The easiest way to do this is to find a substance having a
property that changes in a regular way with its temperature
• The most direct 'regular' way is a linear one:
t(x) = ax + b
where t is the temperature of the substance and changes as
the property x of the substance changes
• The constants a and b depend on the substance used and may
be evaluated by specifying two temperature points on the
scale
• Range
Mercury -38° C to 357°C
Alcohol -700 C to 1500 C
Mercury in-Glass Thermometer
• expansion chamber
Space that is taken up by the gas in the capillary bore;
it is pushed back as the mercury rises into it
• stem
Glass tube containing the capillary bore
• capillary tube
End of the glass tube in which the mercury rises or
falls with the temperature
• scale
Divisions of equal length marked on the thermometer
that constitute the units of measurement
• column of mercury
Quantity of mercury that is contained in the capillary
bore; its height varies with the temperature.
• constriction
Narrowing that prevents the mercury from
spontaneously dropping into the bulb as the
temperature lowers (the thermometer must be shaken to
make it go down).
• mercury bulb
Glass reservoir containing mercury (a liquid metal)
that expands and rises in the capillary tube as the
temperature rises
➢ Utilizes the volumetric expansion of mercury with temp
➢ As its expansion rate is linear, it is accurately
calibrated on the glass scale
➢ Used in application such as open tanks containing
liquids ,cooling kettles , steam lines , pipe lines for
fluid flow and air ducts
 Why mercury is used?????
• It remains liquid over a wide range of temperature. Its bp is
high and freezing point is low.
• Has low vapor pressure.
• Coefficient of expansion is high. Little heating produces more
expansion.
• Specific heat is low. Small heat produces more increase of
temperature and thus more expansion. It makes measurement
accurate.
• Does not stick (wet) the walls of glass.
• Does not react with glass.
Accuracy- ±1% of span when properly installed.
To achieve this accuracy thermometer should be installed so as
the bulb is at thermal equilibrium with the processing medium.
Possible errors
immersion error – results due to heat loss along thermal well if
the thermometer is not immersed to sufficient length.
Applications-
processing in open tanks containing liquids, cooking kettles,
pipelines for fluid flow.
 ALCOHOL IN GLASS
THERMOMETER
➢ The range is set by the boiling point of the liquid used.
➢ The liquid used can be pure ethanol or toluene.
➢ For ethanol filled thermometer the upper limit for
measurement is 80°C and lower limit is – 70oC.
➢ For toluene filled, lower limit is -90 oC and upper limit
is +100 oC.
➢ Low cost and low hazard posed by liquid in case of
breakage.

Uses
• Meteorological measurements.
• Measures day and night-time temperatures.
• Measure body temperature.
 Bimetallic strip thermometer
• The bimetallic thermometer uses the bimetallic strip which
converts the temperature into the mechanical displacement.
• The working of the bimetallic strip depends on the thermal
expansion property of the metal.
• The thermal expansion is the tendency of metal in which the
volume of metal changes with the variation in temperature.
 Working Principle of Bimetallic
Thermometer
The working principle of bimetallic thermometer depends on the
two fundamental properties of the metal.
• The metal has the property of thermal expansion, i.e., the
metal expand and contract concerning the temperature.
• The temperature coefficient of all the metal is not same. The
expansion or contraction of metals is different at the same
temperature.
 Constructions of Bimetallic
Thermometer
• The bimetallic strip is
constructed by bonding
together the two thin strips of
different metals.
• The metals are joined together
at one end with the help of the
welding.
• The bonding is kept in such a
way that there is no relative
motion between the two metals.
• The physical dimension of the
metals varies with the variation
in temperature.
• Since the bimetallic strip of the • The figure below shows the
thermometer is constructed with
different metals. Thereby, the length
bimetallic strip in the form of
of metals changes at different rates. the straight cantilever beam.
• When the temperature increases, the The strip fixed at one end and
strip bends towards the metal which deflects at the other end.
has a low-temperature coefficient.
• And when the temperature decreases,
the strip bends towards the metal
which has a high-temperature
coefficient.
• The range of deflection of bimetallic
strip depends on the type of metals
used for construction.
• The deflection of the metal is directly
proportional to the length of the strip
and the variation of temperature and
is inversely proportional to the
thickness of the strips.
 Types of Bimetallic Strip
The linear strip shows the small deflection. If the length of strip
increases, the size of thermometer also increases. For keeping the
size of the thermometer in the manageable limit, the helix or
spiral strip is used for making the thermometer.
Spiral Strip bimetallic thermometer
• In bimetallic strip thermometer, the
spiral-shaped strip is used. This type
of thermometer is used for measuring
the ambient temperature.
• Because of the thermal expansion
property of metal the deformation
occurs in the spring with the
variation of temperature.
• The pointer and dials attached to the
spring, which indicates the variation
of temperature.
Helical Types Bimetallic Strip
• The helix type bimetallic strip is
mostly used for industrial
applications.
• In this thermometer, the helix
shape strip is used for measuring
the temperature.
• The free end of the strip is
connected to the pointer. The
deflection of the strip shows the
variation of temperature.
Advantages
• The thermometer is simple in construction, robust and less
expensive.

Disadvantages
• The thermometer gives the less accurate result while
measuring the low temperature.

Applications of Bimetallic Thermometer

• The bimetallic thermometer is used in household devices likes
oven, air conditioner, and in industrial apparatus like
refineries, hot wires, heater, tempering tanks etc. for measuring
the temperature.
bimetallic thermometer
(solid expansion thermometer)
⚫The lower limit is – 40o C.
⚫Air Conditioning , Boilers, Coolers, Concrete, Dairies, Dyeing
Equipment, Dehydrators, Engines, Grain Elevators, Furnaces,
Food Processors, Heaters, Heat Exchangers, Incinerators,
Petroleum, Petrochemical, Pharmaceuticals.

⚫Used as Overload cut out switches in electrical apparatus.

⚫Temperature compensating devices for various instruments

• A bimetal is composed of two strips of metal welded together each
strip made from a metal having a different coefficient of thermal
expansion
• The bimetal is wound in the form of a helix with one end fixed to
outer casing and other end connected to the pointer stem
• A pointer is attached to upper end of stem and sweeps over a
circular dial to indicate the temp
• When the temp surrounding the whole stem changes the bimetal
expands and the helical bimetal rotates at its free end thus turning
inside stem and pointer to a new position on dial
• Two independent measuring systems in one instrument
• High reliability and long service life
• The stem should be inserted in the medium far enough to minimize
immersion error
• The temp range covered by this is -40 to 8000F
• The accuracy of this when properly installed is about ±1 per cent of
span
• Material of construction

• Brass, Ni-Fe alloyed with Cr & Mn : High expansion

• Invar (alloy of Ni, Fe): Low expansion
 Applications

• Heating systems
• Hot water boilers
• Solar power systems
• Heat transfer system
• Air conditioning technology
• Ventilation systems
• Chemical processing industry
• Petro-chemical industry
• Food industry
ELECTRICAL RESISTANCE
THERMOMETER
 RESISTANCE TEMPERATURE DETECTORS
(RTDs)

Working Principle

➢ Electrical resistance of a substance changes with change in

its temp.

➢ This substance can be metal or nonmetal like semiconductor.

➢ Any changes in temp of a metal can be measured in terms of

change in its electrical resistance.
➢ It consists of sensing element(resistance element) &
indicating element (whetstones bridge)
➢ An RTD is basically a sensor that consists of fine wire
wrapped around a glass or ceramic material and various
other constructions are also used.
➢ The wire used is typically made of copper, nickel or
platinum.
➢ Resistance coils of Nickel and Copper are used for
temperature between 150 and 500oF.
➢ Platinum may be used between -350 and +1100 oF.
Advantages
➢It gives an accurate result

➢it is used in various industrial applications

➢It provides you with a vast operating range.

Disadvantages
➢The sensitivity of platinum is extremelyless

➢fragile and require many precautions to use.

➢The response time is quite slow

Applications

➢ Used in communication to measure the temperatures of

amplifiers, stabilizers, etc.

➢ Used in food processing, power electronics, and aerospace

engineering

➢ Used in automotive to measure the temperature of engine oil

➢ It can be used as the std thermometer for the calibration of

other thermo meter.
 THERMOCOUPLE

Working Principle-Thermoelectricity

➢ In 1831, Seebeck discovered that an electric current flows in a

closed circuit of two dissimilar metals when one of the two
junction is heated with respect to the other

➢ The magnitude and direction of the current is a function of the

temperature difference between the junctions and of the
thermal properties of the metals used in the circuit

➢ This phenomenon is known as the Seebeck effect

Construction

➢ A thermocouple is composed of two wires of different metals

joined together so as to produce a thermal emf

➢ The temperature can be measured at this junction, and the

change in temperature of the metal wire stimulates the voltages

➢ The measuring junction is normally formed at the bottom of

the thermocouple housing
Favorable Characteristics of Thermocouple
➢ good inherent accuracy

➢ suitability over a broad temperature range

➢ relatively fast thermal response

➢ ruggedness

➢ high reliability

➢ low cost

➢ great versatility of application

➢ large temperature range upto 2300 0C.

Industrial Thermocouples
➢ Relatively large thermal emf (10 to 50 millivolt)- in order to
use simple & rugged measuring instrument for indication of
temperature.

➢ Precision of calibration-should maintain the same emf

temperature relationship without drift over a long period of
time.

➢ Resistance to corrosion and oxidation – for a long life

➢ Linear relation of emf to temperature

 Applications
Steel industry

➢ Type S, R, B and K thermocouples - monitor temperatures

throughout the steel making process.

➢ Type S thermocouples -the electric arc furnace process to

accurately measure the temperature of steel before tapping.
Non Contact Temperature
Measurement
OPTICAL PYROMETER

Working Principle

➢ Any metallic surface when heated emits radiations of different

wavelengths which are not visible at low temperature,

➢ But at about 5400C radiations of shorter wavelength are visible

to eyes
➢ The colour scale is
Dark red - 5400c
Medium cherry red – 680
Orange – 900
Yellow – 1010
White - 1205
Construction
➢It involves the colour of a heated filament to a known
temp which is compared against the background of a body .
➢If the temp of the filament equal that of the body then
filament will not be visible against the body.
➢The filament is heated by current supplied through a
battery .
➢Milli ammeter to measure the current can be calibrated in
terms temp.
➢Find best use in heat treatment & welding of metal
➢The temperature range of Optical Pyrometer is from 1400 to
2400 o F. Genarally useful above 810 oC
 RADIATION PYROMETER
Working Principle
➢Radiant energy emitted from a body increases with temperature
and this principle is used in measuring temperature particularly
in the higher ranges.
Used for
▪ high temp
▪ Where furnace atmosphere is detrimental to thermocouples
& causes erratic measurement & short life.
▪ Where it is not possible to contact the material whose temp
is to be measured.
➢ Used in the range from +40 to 4000 0C

➢ Used widely in many manufacturing process like metals, glass,

cement, ceramics, semiconductors, plastics, paper, textiles,
coatings.

➢ Enable automation and feedback control that boost

productivity while improving yield and product quality.

➢ Save lives and improve safety in fire-fighting, rescues and

detection of criminal activities.

➢ Monitor and measure human body temperatures with one

second time response.
PRESSURE MEASUREMENT
 Absolute pressure is the pressure measured with respect to a
vacuum and is expressed in pounds per square inch absolute
(psia)

 Gauge pressure is the pressure measured with respect to

atmospheric pressure and is normally expressed in pounds per
square inch gauge (psig)

 Differential pressure is the pressure measured with respect to

another pressure and is expressed as the difference between the
two values
 MANOMETERS

 One of the oldest means for the measurement of pressure.

 Liquid column manometer is the commonly used type.

 Manometers are the simpler, most direct and most accurate of

all pressure measuring means.

 Normally limited to measurement of differential pressure less

than 30 psi.
Manometric fluid

Should have high density ( not for low p)

Low vapour pressure
Freely movable
Incompressible
Chemically inert
Non sticky
Surface tension errors
U-TUBE MANOMETERS

• In this type, 2 vertical tubes or legs are freely connected

through a metal fitting at the bottom.
• The assembly is partially filled with a manometer liquid such
as mercury, oil or water.
• The range of U tube manometer is from 100 Pa to 10^6 Pa.
• If the legs of U tube are vertical, for static balance the equation
is
P-P0 = ρ g h
WELL TYPE MANOMETER
• It consists of a very large diameter vessel (well)
connected to one side by a very small size tube.

• The advantage of this type of manometer is that the

head can be read directly on a single scale instead
of subtracting two distance readings as in the U
tube manometer.

• It can measure upto pressure of 250 Psig.

• The equation for static balance is
P2-P1=w (h + h′)
h d = h′ D
P2-P1 = wh(1+d/D)

W=specific weight of mercury

h=Head of liquid in the leg from reference line
h′=Distance between liquid and reference line in well
D=Diameter of the well
If D ≥ d (of the order 500 to 1) then variations in the
level of well can be neglected.
INCLINED TYPE MANOMETER
• The inclined type or inclined tube manometer is a variation of
well type manometer.
• In this type of manometer an inclined tube is provided with the
well.
• The purpose of the inclined leg is to expand the scale so that
lower pressure differentials can be read more easily.
• Maximum pressure it can read is about 350 Psig.
• As the inclined tube will have more graduations per unit
vertical height than the equivalent vertical scale of the well
type, the accuracy of reading the scale can be increased.
• The angle of inclination is usually of the order of 10 degree

• The scale of the instrument can be greatly expanded by

reducing angle of inclination to a small value.
• The equation for static balance is

P2-P1=ρ(1+A1/A2)d sin α

A2=Area of well
A1=Area of inclined tube
d=Distance along the tube through which level moves
α= Angle of inclination
 MICRO MANOMETER
Prandlt Type
• A reservoir and an inclined transparent tube connected
together by a flexible tubing.
• The capillary and meniscus errors are minimized by returning
the meniscus to a reference null position.
• The null position can be achieved either by moving the
reservoir portion vertically w.r.t an inclined portion of the tube,
or by moving the reservoir portion.
• The liquid displacement corresponding to the applied pressure
difference can be determined by noting the rotation of lead
screw.
BAROMETER METHOD
• Very old device used for precise determination of steady
atmospheric pressure and is accurate enough within the range
of 0.001 to .003% of the reading.

• Commonly used barometer is the Fortin type.

• It consists of a cistern made of leather bag supported by a

Bakelite housing and is filled up with mercury.

• The level of mercury in the cistern can be adjusted by some

screw.
• A closed end tube having very small diameter at the other
end is inverted into this cistern.
• A brass plated mercury height scale is adjustably attached
with the glass tube.
• The metal tube in turn rigidly fastened to the solid parts
of the cistern assembly and except for reading slits ,
surrounds the glass tube containing the barometer
mercury.
McLeod Gauge

• McLeod gauge is used for the measurement of very low

pressure of about 0.01 micron of Hg.
• Indirect or inferential method of measurement.
• The pressure of any gas is calculated by the Boyle’s law
P1V1=P2V2 in this gauge.
• This type of gauge is generally used as a primary
standard for the measurement of high vacuum.
Working

• The unknown pressure source is connected to the gauge at point P.

• The mercury level is adjusted so that the unknown pressure fills up the bulb
B and capillary C.

• When the mercury level is at the cut off point then a known standard
volume of gas is trapped in the bulb and capillary.

• The mercury level is then raised by the piston mechanism to reach zero
reference point in the reference column R.

• The volume remaining in the capillary is read directly from the scale.
Advantages

• McLeod gauge is simpler to use.

• Its calibration is the same for nearly all non condensable gases.

• With different ranges of instruments ,this gauge is suitable for

a total pressure range from about 0.01 micron to 50 mm of
mercury.

• Greater magnification of pressure can be achieved using

capillary with small bore.
Disadvantages

• The McLeod gauge cannot be used for measuring gases

containing vapours.

• This gauge does not give continuous readings. So steady state

conditions must prevail before taking the readings.

• A few gases that deviate from ideal gas law at low pressure
require special calibration in McLeod gauge
 Pirani gauge

 The temperature of the wire is determined by

measuring the change of resistance of wire.
 It employs a single platinum filament enclosed in a
chamber.
 The chamber is subjected to medium whose pressure
is to be measured.
 As the surrounding pressure changes, the filament
temperature & hence its resistance also changes.
 A compensating cell is also employed to minimize
variations caused by ambient temp changes.
• Coiled tungsten or platinum wires
• Current of about 10 to 100 mA passed ( 70 to
400°C )
• Gauge is connected to one arm of bridge circuit
• At low pressures, the heat conduction is low,
increasing the temperature of the filament (PTC).
• Three modes- Constant voltage, constant current
and null balance
• Can measure up to 10-3 torr
TRANSDUCERS
Electrical Type
• The transducers that convert the mechanical input signals of
the physical quantity into electrical output signals are called as
electrical transducers.
• Input - displacement, strain, velocity, temperature, flow etc
• Output - current, voltage and change in resistance, inductance
and capacitance.
• The output can be measured easily and it is calibrated against
the input, thus enabling the measurement of the value of the
input.
1. Potentiometers: They convert the change in displacement
into change in the resistance, which can be measured easily.

2. Bridge circuits: These convert the physical quantity to be

measured into the voltage.

3. Wheatstone bridge: It converts the displacement produced

by the physical quantity to the current in the circuit.

4. Eddy Current Sensor

5. LVDT Signal Conditioner

6. Total Ultrasonic Solution

7. Capacitive sensors or Variable Capacitance Transducers

8. Linear variable differential transformer (LVDT)

Mechanical Transducers
The mechanical transducers are the mechanical elements that are used for
converting one form of energy into other form that can be measured
easily.

1) Bellows: These are the elastic elements that convert the air pressure into
displacement, and it is commonly used for the measurement of
pressure.

2) Bourdon tube: This elastic tube converts air pressure to the rotary
motion of the pointer used to indicate the pressure.

3) Spring: The spring tend to expand when force is applied to them, thus
they are used for the measurement of force.
4) Proving rings: Like the springs the proving rings also convert
applied force to the displacement.

5) Diaphragm: It converts applied pressure to the displacement.

6) Manometer: The manometer converts the applied pressure

into variable displacement of the liquid within it enabling to
measure the pressure.

7) Thermocouple: Thermocouple is the devise that produces

electric current when one of its end is heated.
DENSITY MEASUREMENT
 Constant Volume Hydrometer

• This is the most popular device for the measurement of

density of liquids in open vessels
• It usually consists of a hollow glass float weighted on one
side to make it float upright.
• The amount of immersion on the glass float depends on
the density of the liquid.
• The glass float is usually calibrated in terms of specific
gravity.
In conventional hydrometer the weight of the float is constant &
the volume of the immersed float changes. In this method the
volume is kept constant & the weight is changed.
• This method utilizes a plummet made of cylinder having spherical
ends as shown in figure.

• The plummet core is magnetic material and the plummet moves

within an induction coil.

• The dispersed volume is kept constant by immersing the plummet

completely in the liquid.

• The plummet is fastened by a series of chains & kept in a fixed

reference point.

• As the plummet rises due to an increase in density, chain weight is

transferred from the reference point to the plummet.
• In case the density of the liquid is more than the mid-range
point ,the plummet will rise due to increased buoyancy & the
chain weight is transferred from the reference point to the
plummet.

• The plummet will then obtain an equilibrium at a new position

where the added weight of chain will equal the added plummet
buoyancy caused by an increase in density,
 Air Pressure Balance Method

 If air is passed through a pipe immersed in a constant level

tank at a pressure slightly higher than the static head so that
bubbles come out of it, then the change in bubble pipe pressure
reflects the change in density of the liquid in tank.
 In industrial application, as the level of the tank cant be kept
constant & further the density changes of the liquid are very
minute, this method as such cant be applied to density
measurement.
 A slight modification to suit above requirements is made by

using 2 bubble pipes at different levels of the liquid under

investigation.

 The 2 pipes are connected with a differential pressure

instrument & the pressure differential between the 2 bubble

pipes is a measure of the liquid density.

 Measurement Of Density Of Gas
Gas Density Detector
 This method utilizes a fluid bridge mounted in the vertical
plane. The sample gas whose density is to be determined is
made to flow at S & it splits into 2 branches afterwards.

 A reference gas enters at R & splits into 2 branches ,passes

around 2 detector elements D1 &D2 mixes with the same gas
& the mixture leaves the ridge at M.

 The detector elements were wired into an electrical

whetstones' bridge.

 When the flow is balanced ,the detector elements are equally

cooled & the bridge is balanced.
• If the density of the sample gas exceeds even slightly the density of
the reference gas ,there will be a tendency of sinking of the sample
gas into the lower branch of the vertically located fluid bridge. This
obstructs the flow in path R-D2-M causing a rise in temp of detector
element D2 & unbalancing the whetstones bridge.

• When the sample gas is lighter than the reference gas ,the upper
branch R-D1-M gets obstructed & the unbalance of the bridge
occurs in the opposite direction.

• Thus the unbalance of the electrical whetstones becomes a

measurement of the density of sample gas.
Gas specific gravity measuring system
• A very accurate device for continues measurement of gas
density uses a tiny dumbbell which is placed in side the
measuring cell & supported on a horizontal quartz fibre.

• One wall of the dumbell is punctured ,making it independent

of buoyancy effects & the other ball rises or dips as the density
of the gas varies.

• Two electrodes held at different potential are arranged near

one of the dumbell balls, creating an electrostatic field around
it.

• The dumbell is created with rhodium to make it electrically

conductive.
• When a varying potential is applied in the dumbell ,it is
subjected to an electrostatic force in the field.
• The gas whose specific gravity is to be measured is made to
flow around the dumbell & any change in gas density will
exert a force on the dumbell causing it either to raise or dip.
This force is counteracted by applying balancing potential to
the dumbell to maintain it in a stationary or null position.
• The balancing potential output is proportional to the force
exerted on the dumbell by the gas & in turn proportional to the
density of the gas sample.
FLOW MEASUREMENT
 Head type

Permanent pressure loss : difference between

upstream and down stream pressures
Pressure recovery: difference between narrow throat
pressure and down stream pressures
Orifice meter
➢Principle : By reducing the c/s area of the flow passage the
fluid is accelerated & a pressure difference is developed & by
using this pressure difference we can calculate the flow rate
through the pipe.
➢Fluid is accelerated by causing it to flow through a sudden
constriction (orifice), then kinetic energy increases & pressure
energy decreases.
➢Relatively cheap & require small length.
➢Where the space is limited orifice meter may be used for the
measurement of discharge through pipe.
 Venturi meter
The Venturi tube is used to determine flow rate through a pipe.
• Principle: By reducing the c/s area of the flow passage
the fluid is accelerated & a pressure difference is
developed & by using this pressure difference we can
calculate the flow rate through the pipe.

• The fluid is gradually accelerated to a throat & then

gradually retarded in a diverging section where the flow
channel expands to the pipe size.

• A large portion of the kinetic energy is thus recovered.

Pitot Tube
• For measuring fluid velocity.

• Initial conditions V1 and P1

• When a solid body is immersed in a pipeline velocity is zero in

front of the body and at this point V2 and P2.

• The increase in pressure (P1-P2) is due to decrease in

velocity.

• It consists of a tube supported in the pipe with the impact of

opening 1/8 to 1/4 in diameter arranged to point directly
toward the out coming fluid and is used to measure stagnation
pressure.
Advantages

➢ simple installation

➢ readily adaptable to flow through ducts and large pipes.

➢ employed in open channels and weirs.

➢ pressure loss is small

Disadvantages

➢ cannot be used for fluids containing solid particles.

 Weirs and Notches
• A notch is an opening in the side of a measuring tank
or reservoir extending above the free surface. A weir
is a notch on a large scale
Applications

• central power stations, hydraulic power

generating stations, municipal water works,
sewage disposal units, and water irrigation
projects.
• can measure the flow of water, sewage sludge,
chemical wastes and other semi fluids.
• Types- trapezoidal notch or Cipoletti weir, V
notch or Thomson weir, rectangular notch.
Flumes

• Hydraulic flumes are used in open streams where

a sufficient fall or head cannot be obtained using a
weir and also for high flow rates.
• Eg. Parshall flume, Palmer –Bowlus flume
• The head is measured at a single point about 1/3
the distance downstream from the inlet in the
entrance section.
• The discharge is determined by an empirical
formula or from test data.
Variable area meter-rotameter
➢ Rotameter is a typical area meter
➢ In case of Full-Bore meters, the variation of flow rate
through a constant area is related to the flow rate.
➢ Area flow meters are devices in which pressure drop is
constant and the area through which the fluid flows
varies with flow rate.
➢ Area is to be related to flow rate through proper
calibration
➢ Consists of gradually tapered glass mounted vertically in a
frame with the large end up.
➢ Fluid flows upward through the tapered tube and suspends
freely a float (which is submerged in the fluid)
➢ Float is the indicating element, and the greater the flow rate,
the higher the float rides in the tube.
➢ The tube is marked in divisions, and the reading of the meter is
obtained from the scale reading at the reading edge of the
float, which is taken at the largest cross section of the float.
➢ A calibration curve must be available to convert the observed
scale reading to flow rate.
Advantages

➢ A rotameter requires no external power or fuel, it uses

only the inherent properties of the fluid, along with
gravity, to measure flow rate.
➢ A rotameter is also a relatively simple device that can
be mass manufactured out of cheap materials, allowing
for its widespread use.
➢ Scale is approximately linear.
Drawbacks
➢ Due to its use of gravity, a rotameter must always be
vertically oriented and right way up, with the fluid flowing
upward.

➢ Due to the direct flow indication the resolution is relatively

poor.

➢ Oscillations of the float and parallax may causes errors.

➢ Rotameters normally require the use of transparent material.

➢ Rotameters are not easily adapted for reading by machine..

 Turbine flow meters

• Use the mechanical energy of the fluid to rotate a

“pinwheel” (rotor) in the flow stream. Blades on the
rotor are angled to transform energy from the flow
stream into rotational energy.
• The rotor shaft spins on bearings. When the fluid
moves faster, the rotor spins proportionally faster.
• Turbine flowmeter sensors are typically located
external to the flowing stream to avoid material of
construction constraints that would result if wetted
sensors were used.
• When the fluid moves faster, more pulses are generated.
• The transmitter processes the pulse signal to determine
the flow of the fluid.
• Transmitters and sensing systems are available to sense
flow in both the forward and reverse flow directions.
Applications
• Turbine flowmeters are less accurate at low flow rates
due to rotor/bearing drag that slows the rotor.
• It should not be operated at high velocity because
premature bearing wear and/or damage can occur.
• Be careful when measuring fluids that are non-
lubricating because bearing wear can cause the
flowmeter become inaccurate and fail.
• In some applications, bearing replacement may need to
be performed routinely and increase maintenance costs.
• Application in dirty fluids should generally be avoided
so as to reduce the possibility of flowmeter wear and
bearing damage.
• Turbine flowmeters have moving parts that are subject
to degradation with time and use.
THERMAL ANALYSIS
• The study of the relationship between a sample
property and its temperature as the sample is heated or
cooled in a controlled manner.
• Thermal analysis is a general term defining a technique
used to analyze the time and temperature at which
physical changes occur when a substance is heated or
cooled.
• Each technique is defined according to the types of
physical changes being analyzed
 Differential Thermal Analysis

• In this process, the sample under consideration and an

inert reference undergo similar thermal cycles, and the
temperature difference between the sample and the
reference is recorded.
• The data is used to plot a thermogram that provides
information about the transformations such as glass
transitions, crystallization, melting, and sublimation.
• DTA is widely used in the pharmaceutical and food
industries.
• It is also used in research involving cement chemistry,
archaeological materials, and mineralogical research.
 Thermogravimetric Analysis (TGA)
• TGA is a type of TA that involves measuring
the changes in sample weight in a controlled
thermal environment as a function of
temperature or time.
• The changes in sample weight can be owing to
modifications in chemical or physical
properties.
• This technique is useful for analyzing the
thermal stability of solids and liquids.
• A sensitive microbalance measures the change in the
sample's mass as it is heated or placed isothermally in a
furnace.
• The purgative gas surrounding the sample can be
chemically inert or reactive.
• TGA instruments are designed so that they can switch
gases during the test, as a result of which they provide
wide-ranging information in a single experiment.
• Some of the standard applications of TGA are as
follows:
✓ Thermal stability/degradation studies
✓ Quantitation of volatiles and moisture
✓ Vaporization and sublimation
✓ Decomposition kinetics
Strengths
• Small sample size
• Analysis of solids and liquids with minimal
sample preparation
• Quantitative analysis of multiple mass loss
thermal events from physical and chemical
changes of materials
• Separation and analysis of multiple
overlapping mass loss events
COMPOSITION ANALYSIS USING
SPECTROSCOPIC METHODS
 SPECTROSCOPIC METHODS
• Spectroscopy = interactions between light & matter
E = hn = hcl

n = frequency; l = wavelength

• Absorption and emission of light by compounds is generally

associated with transitions of electrons between different energy
levels

• Emission: Sample (in an excited state) produces light/looses

energy

• Absorption: sample takes up energy & consumes light of

appropriate wavelength
 Absorption spectroscopy
Classified as
• Infrared Absorption spectrometer (1-25 micron
wavelength)
• UV Absorption spectrometer (.2- .8 micron)
• X-ray Absorption spectrometer(.4 – 1.5 A)
Absorption spectrometer
• IR or UV spectroscopy can be used for both qualitative and
quantitative non-destructive analysis of gases, liquids, pastes,
powders, films, and surfaces.

• The absorption spectrum of a molecule provides a unique

"fingerprint" of absorbances that can be used to deduce a
sample's chemical composition and species concentrations.

• IR spectrometers typically consist of a broadband IR light

source, a wavelength separating device and a detector.

• Liquid or gas samples are typically contained in a sample cell.

• UV is used to detect the presence or absence of a functional

group in the compound.
Applications

• Used in petroleum refining & synthetic rubber

production (analysis of hydrocarbon & gases)
• Also used in chemical plant (analysis of both organic &
inorganic compounds)
• UV spectrophotometer may be used as a detector
for HPLC.
• IR spectrophotometer is used in FTIR
Emission Spectroscopy

• For the analysis of metallic compounds

• Arc type – arc spark is used for producing radiation
emission & a grating for diffraction of the emitted
radiation into a spectrum.
• The intensity of radiation at various wavelength in the
UV region of 800-2500 A can be measured by a
phototube to operate a direct reading instrument.
• Used for the analysis of magnesium, Al, steel.
• Flame type – Operates by atomizing an aqueous
solution & introducing it into a burner.
• A lens system concentrates the emitted light through
filters on a phototube.
• An amplifier operates an indicating instrument to
indicate concentrations.
• Used for the analysis of inorganic compounds.
 Mass spectroscopy
• It employs some of the most fundamental characteristics of
materials:
a) For a given accelerating force, the acceleration is inversely
proportional to the mass.
b) As the ions of various materials have different weights, they
are accelerated at different rates.
c) These ions follow a curved path when they caused to pass
through a magnetic field.
• There are 3 fundamental components for mass
spectrometry—an ion source, a mass analyzer, and a
detector.
• The ion source is the component responsible for ionizing
the sample.
• There are many different methods including chemical,
electrical, or laser ionization.
• Selection of the proper ion source depends on the
characteristics of the sample (phase, biologically active,
etc.).
▪The mass analyzer is the technique and tool used to
differentiate the ions in a spectrum based on the
mass/charge ratio
▪ The path followed by an ion depends upon the
accelerating voltage, the strength of the magnetic field
& the mass of the ion.
▪For practical design, varying the applied voltage can
cause all of the ions to be counted at some common
point ,thereby providing a relationship between
composition & voltage.
Analysis of solids by X-Ray diffraction
• X-ray diffraction is used to obtain structural information about
crystalline solids.
• X-ray diffraction is important for:
• Solid-state physics
• Biophysics
• Medical physics
• Chemistry and Biochemistry
• It is a non-destructive analytical technique for identification
and quantitative determination of the various crystalline forms,
known as ‘phases’.
• Identification is achieved by comparing the X-ray diffraction
pattern
Working
• Every crystalline substance produce its own XRD pattern,
which because it is dependent on the internal structure, is
characteristic of that substance.
• The XRD pattern is often spoken as the “fingerprint” of a
mineral or a crystalline substance, because it differs from
pattern of every other mineral or crystalline substances
• Therefore any XRD machine will consist of three basic
component.
• Monochromatic X-ray source (l)
• Sample-finely powdered or polished surface-may be rotated
against the center – (goniometer).
• Data collector- such as film, strip chart or magnetic
medium/storage.
 GAS ANALYSIS BY GAS
CHROMATOGRAPHY
THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY &
POLAROGRAPHY
Gas chromatography
- Injection of sample mixture into a column packed with
certain materials (stationary phase);
- Passing a fluid/gas (the mobile phase) through the
column.
- Mobile phase pass to other end of the column taking
away the weakly bound component first to the outlet
of the column.
- Thus, the components will be separated according to
the boiling point, molecular weight, polarity, ability
to for hydrogen bonding with the stationary phase.
- In this method the sampler gas is combined with a
carrier gas (it may be N, H, He, or air etc) & this
combined gas is passing through the chromatographic
column.
• It is the analysis method that permits the continuous
measurement of the amount of each constituents in a
complex gas or vapour mixture.
• In this method we can physically separate &
quantitatively identify two or more components of a
mixture .
• It can be used for the analysis of single key
component, multi key component, complete
component analysis etc.
• Identification of the component is done by measuring
the time required for a component to move through
the column operating under specified conditions.
• A quantitative determination is done by measuring the
peak area.
Thermal Conductivity Bridge For Flue Gas
Analysis
• Thermal conductivity is measured with a sensor that
employs four matched filaments that change
resistance according to the thermal conductivity of
the gas passing over it.
• The amount of heat developed when a fuel is burnt
depends upon the completeness of combustion .
• The indication of incomplete combustion can be done
by detection of carbon monoxide in flue gas.
• The flue gas is first passed through one thermal
conductivity chamber and then into an apparatus that
converts CO to CO2.
• The resultant gas is then passed through a second
thermal conductivity chamber .
• The difference in the output of the two chambers is
due to the carbon monoxide present is the flue gas.
• Air or CO2 can be used in the reference chambers of
the two cells.
 Applications
• Measure the gas sample content of a sample/reference mixture
by comparing the thermal conductivity of the mixture with that
of a reference.

For example, hydrogen has a thermal conductivity which is

approximately seven times greater than that of nitrogen, so
small changes are readily detected. All other common gases
have thermal conductivities similar to nitrogen so the method
of measurement is fairly selective.
Helium is the only other gas with a thermal conductivity
comparable with that of hydrogen.
• Carbon Dioxide, Oxygen, Argon, Methane, Sulphur Dioxide,
Ammonia are also measured using this technique
 Polarography
• It is useful in analyzing substances that are subjected
to electrolytic oxidation and reduction.
• This includes analysis for nearly all metals in
nonferrous alloys, steels, magnesium alloys, zinc
alloys, and ores.
• Simple principle of Polarography is the study of
solutions or of electrode processes by means
of electrolysis with two electrodes, one polarizable
and one unpolarizable, the former formed by mercury
regularly dropping from a capillary tube.
• The sample being analyzed needs to have the ability
to depolarize the system, or tip the balance of
charges.
• The ion of interest crosses a selective membrane and
reacts by an oxidation/reduction reaction with a metal
surface (often called the measuring electrode).
• The reaction between the ion and electrode causes an
uneven distribution of charges. Once a system is
depolarized, the potential of the system increases
since a more positive and a more negative region
exists separately.
• The increase in potential causes current to flow which
is the signal measured by the sensor. This creates a
graph showing the relationship between applied current
versus measured potential.

• The advantage of this type of method is that it is highly

accurate and very reproducible.

• A disadvantage to this type of measurement tool is that

this graph requires a calibration curve in order to
interpret the data, and so analysis of composition using
polarography can’t be done in-line