3

MAN-MADE FIBRES

HIGHLIGHTS
Production and classification of man-made fibres
• Fibres from natural polymers
Viscose rayon Cellulose acetate
Cuprammonium rayon Lyocell
High wet modulus rayon Modal
High tenacity rayon Rubber
Polynosic rayon
Fibres from synthetic polymers
• Acrylic
Polyamide fibres
- Nylon
- Aramids
Polyester
Polyolefins
.
Elastane (spandex fibre)
• Fibres from inorganic materials
Mineral fibre

Glass fibre
Carbon fibre
Ceramic

The era of man-made or manufactured fibres

began in the early 1900s with
production of rayon fibre. The development X-ray the commercial
of technology in the 1920s and 1930s helped
scientists characterise synthesised fibres
in terms of building blocks and
rhis the manufactured fibre industry grew molecules, and with
rapidly. In 1931, nylon was
de Nemours and Company and subsequently, developed by DuPont
the share of man-made fbres (MMFs)
tremendousy. increased
Man-made Fibres

57
cpOWTH AND DEVELOPMENT OF MAN-MADE FIRPES

History
:dea of crcating an artificial
fibre was first documented
Hooke predicted that it would in 1664. The English naturalist
be possibe to duplicate silk artificial
Chre could be produced tor more by mans. Unfortunatzly.
than twO CCnturies. The hrst commercial-scale
rmanufactured fibre was achieved by the French chemise production
ook In 1889,his fabrics of 'artifhcial silk' caused a Caunt Hilaire de Chardonnet in
sensation at the Paris Exhibition,
be built the first commercial rayon Two ycars
plant at Besancon, France, and became known as
Earher of the rayonindustry. the
In 1893, Arthur D. Little of Boston invented another cellulosic
sct acetate, and developed it as a hlm.
The first comnmercial tetile ues fot acetate in fibre
Form were developcd by the Celanese
Company in 1924. In Seprembes 1931. the American
chemist Wallace Carothers focused his work on a fbre referred to simolv as
derived from its molecular structure--and now known as nylon. the ´mircie Ebre'. '66. a number
By 1938.
Paul Schlack of the I.G. Farben Company in Germany, polymerised caprotam
and created a
different form of the polymer, identifcd simply as nyion '6. The arrivai of ayicn revolutionised
the fbre industry. Rayon and acetate had been derived from plant celluioe. but ayion was
synthesised completely from petrochemicals. In the 1940s. chrec new manufcruret fbres were
being produced: Dow Badische Company (today, BASF Corporation) introduced metalsed fbres:
Union Carbide Corporation developed modacrylic fibre: and Hercules. Inc dereiopet olefin fbrc.
By the 1950s, a new fibre, 'acrylic, was added to the list of generic ame. as DruPont began
production of this wool-like product. Meanwhile. polyester, first cxaminei s part of Wallace
Carothers' early research, was attracting new interest at the Calico Printes Association in Great
Britain. There, J. T. Dickson and J. R. Whinficid produced a polyster fbre by condensation
polymerisation. In the summer of 1952, the term 'wash and
wear wa
ctired ta describe a new
blend of coton and acrylic. The term eventually was applied to a vide variery of manufacrurcd
wear novclty
fibre blends. Commercial production of polyester ibre transfutmet the 'wash ari
fibrr reached
into a revolution in textile product performance. The production of mufcTurei
new heights in the 1960s. These fibres were further modificd to ofer gatr rmfort. provide
more casily, cAsier dyeaility and better blending
tHame resistance, reduce clinging, release soil
Spandex, z strethubie tbre: atamid.
qualities. New fibres were introduced to meet special needs
strength-to
polyamide: and para-aramid. fbre with cutstanding
a
a high-temperature-resistant
weight properties.
purte
spinning units were sturted in thc IS20s snd 1930s when
ln India, the man-made fbre was
breakthrough ournd when, in 1950. a fctory
Silk was the most expensive fbre. A major Al!
Travancore Rayons Lrd. (Rayapuram, Kerala) to mnutture synthetic bre.
established by e to make fabric until thcn.
handloom units were inorting svnthti
the powerloom and Sirsilk Ld were oablished
at tyderabad. By
Munbai and the
oO0n National Rayon Co, at Silk Manufacturing
at Kalvan (Maharashtra) and the Gwaliot Rayon
TO0, Century Rayon Ltd,
Company ar Nagda had also been conmission.
 58 Textile
Science
Today, the man-made fibres produced in India include polyester (staple
and filament), VisCOSC
(staple and flament), acrylic (staple), nylon 6 (flament) and polypropylene
(staple and flament)
India is che second largest producer of polyester (staple and
filament fbre) and viscose
fbre. It is the third largest manufacturer of viscose staple fibre Alament
and eighth largest manufacturer
of acrylic staple
fbre. However, the specialised man-made fibres like
rayon, acetate, trii-acetate,
cuprammonium nylon 66, nylon 11, spandex, poly vinyl
alcohol (PVA)
are not being manufactured
in India. In India, viscose staple fibre is produced and modacrylic
Industries, Reliance Industries only by Grasim
produces about 64 per cent of
of polyester flament yarn. Century Enka polyester staple fibre and 48 per cent
yarn. and JCT Ltd. produce about 85 per cent
flament Century Rayon and Indian
Rayon Corporation produce of nylon &
viscose filament yarn (Gol n.d.). about 80 per cent of

PRODUCTION OF MAN-MADE FIBRES

Man-made fibres/flaments are

processes to.
manufactured using chemical
produce man-made fibres are spinning processes. All spinning
based on the following three steps:
1. Preparation
of spinning solution or dope
2. Extrusion of the dope
through the spinneret to form a
3. Solidifying the fibre by coagulation, fbre
evaporation or cooling
The dope, a fowing solution, is
prepared by dissolving the raw
polymer) in a suitable solvent or material (natural or synthesised
by melting the polymer.
through the holes in a spinneret, The dope is then forced or
which is similar to a shower pumped
extrusion. As filamentsemerge head. This process is
known as
from the holes of the spinneret,
first to a rubbery state and the liquid polymer is converted
then solidifed. An untwisted rope
fbres is called a tow. This process of a number of these filament
chemical spinning. There are three of extrusion and solidification
methods of spinning filaments
of endless filaments is called
dry and melt spinning. of manufactured fibres: wet,
Wet Spinning Figure 3.1: Wet spinning
Wet spinning is the oldest chemical Dissolved
spinning process. It is polymer
applied to polymers which do not melt or
which cannot be
dissolved in a volatile solvent.
Therefore, a non-volacile solvent
is used to convert the raw Solvent
material into a solution and later the Extraction
aolvent must be removed by chemical means.
The spinneret is
ubmerged in a chemical/spinning bach and as
the ilaments
merge they precipitate
in the bath and solidify. The spinneret
then washed to remove the chemicals deposited on
their Spinneret
rface and then dried (Figure 3.1). Viscose rayon is
produced Source: Drawn by
the authors.
Man-made Fibres
59
by this proccss. This mcthod
of wet spinning is more
han the other two and is used when complcx Figure 3.2: Dry spinning
spínning by the other
nuO methods is not possible.
Dissolved
polyrner
Dry Spinning

Dry spinning is used for ibre forming substances that dissolve

in avolatile solution. The dope is extruded Spinneret
into an cvaporating
cabinet fled with hot air. The
ibre is solidiied by evaporating
the solvent (Figure 3.2). The solvent vapours can Evaporating
be removed
and condensed for reuse. Since the filaments do not come in cabinet
contact with a precipitating liquid, there is no nced for drying.
This process is used in the production of acetate, triacetate,
acrylic, modacrylic and spandex.

Melt Spinning

Melt spinning is used for those fibre forming substances chat

can be melted without getting decomposed. In this method, the
polymer is first melted in an autoclave, then extruded through
the spinneret and finally solidifed by cooling. Solid polymer Scurce Dræur by the authors.
chips are dropped from the hopper into the autoclave where
heat melts the solid polymer into a viscous liquid. The liquid
is then pumped through filters to remove any impurity and Figure 3.3: Melt spinning
then delivered to the spinneret at a controlled rare of iow.
Melted
When the liquid polymer emerges from the spinneret hole, a poiymer
cool stream of air is passed over the fibre causing it to harden
(Figure 3.3). Nylon, olefin and polyester are produced by chis Cool air

method. An advantage of melt spun fbres is that they can

Spinneret
be extruded in different cross-sectional shapes viz., round.
trilobal, pentagonal, octagonal, etc.

Special Spinning Methods

Gel Spinning

process used to obrain fbres with

Gel spinning is a special
high strength or other special properties. The polymer of
a very
an Cxtremely high molecular weight is dissolved and
viscous
viscous (thick) solurion is obrained. This highly
gel are bound
solution is the gel. The polymer chains in the
produces strong inter-chain
together at various points. This
can signiicantly increase Source: Drawn by the authors.
forces in the resulting flaments hat
 60 Textile
Science

the tensile strength of the ibres. In addition, the liquid crystals are aligned along the fbre
due to the action shear forces during extrusion. The filaments emerge with an unusually
of

degree of orientation, further enhancing strength. The process can also be described
high
dry.
since the filaments frst pass through air and are then further cooled
wet spinning,
bath. Some high-strength polyethylenc in a liquid
and aramid fibres are produced by the method
spinning. of gel

Emulsion Spinning

Ifthe polymer has a very high melting point or is insoluble it cannot be extruded
through
of the aforementioned processes, it
is spun by emulsion spinning.
The polymer is made into
emulsion, forced through a narrow tube and then fused
by
application of heat without melting. The polymer is An emulsion is a
then fine dispersion
extruded through a spinneret into a coagulation where solid particles are not
bath and
then stretched to impart orientation. completely dissolved in. the
solvent.
Post-spinning Processes

These are common to all methods Figure 3.4: Effect of drawing on

and include washing, drawing
of chemical spinning polymer chain orientation in a
(stretching) to improve fibre
orientation (Figure 3.4) and heat
setting for thermoplastic
fbres to impart dimensional stability.

CLASSIFICATION OF MAN-MADE
FIBRES
Man-made fbres, are classified
into the following three
categories:
1. Fibres from
natural polymers: The most common
man-made fbre made fromn
naturally
polymer is viscose rayon. Viscose is occurring Source: Drawn
by the authors.
cellulose obrained mostly from made from
the wood pulp of various trees.
man-made hbres are cupramonium rayon, Other cellulose based
Less common fibres acetate and triacetate,
of this type are made from rubber, lyocell and modal.
protein. alginic acid and regenerated
2. Fibres from synthetic polymers:
These are organic fbres
are synthesised
from petrochemicals. The most common
that are made from polymers
that
called nylon), acrylic and modacrylic, are polyester,
polyamide (often
polypropylene, segmented
fibres or elastanes (or spandex polyurethanes or elastic
in the USA), and speciality
aramids. fbres such as high-performance
3. Fibres from inorganic materials:
The inorganic man-made fibres are
such as glass, metal, carbon or ceramic. made from materials
These fibres are very often used to
to form composites. reinforce plastics
 UTEOF
Man-made Fibres
61
EIBRES FROM NATURAL POLYMERS
There are two categories man-made
of cellulosic ibtes. regeneráted«elfulosic
modifed cellulosic ibres. Both the fibres are ibres and regenerated
made from cotton finters and
Gbre is produced by dissolving wood pulp. Aregenerated
and cxtruding a natural polymer, or
continuous filament. After thís
ibre formation process the chemícal natureis chemical derivative. as a
is either retained or
regenerated. Examples of rcgenerated ccllulosic
of the natural polymer
fibres are the various types of
ravon--viscose rayon, cuprammonium rayon, high wet
modulus rayon, high tenacity rayon and
nolynosic rayon. Modified fibres are made by chemically
modifying, disolving and cxtruding a
natural polymer as a continuous filament. Examples of this
kind are secondary acetate and triacetatc.
Sincethe fibre-forming substance for these fibres is not cellulose
but chemically-modifed cellulose
(i.e. cellulose acetate, an ester), these are called regenerated
modified fibre.
.
Viscose Rayon Figure 3.5: Chemica! structure of rayon
Rayon fibres are made from cellulose that
CH,OH
has been reformed or regenerated. Figure 3.5 H OH
shows the chemical structure of rayon. Rayon H
is 100 per cent cellulose and has the same KOH
chemical composition as natural cellulose.
However, it consists of cellulose of lower -0
cotton OH CH,OH
degree of polymerisation (DP) than
cellulose. The DP of viscose polymer is
(300-450). The various varieties of rayon fibres are: viscose rayon. cuprammonium ayon. high
wet modulus rayon, polynosic rayon and high tenacity rayon.
RAS-
Production 67
Viscose rayon is produced from cellulose which is majorly obrained from wood pulp. Cotton
linters (short cotton fbres) can also be used. The wood pulp, taken rom the tres of eucalyprus,
beech and pine, is treated to remove lignin and resin. The pulp is then pressed and cut into
sheets. More than 95 per cent of these sheets is made up of cellulose. Thc various steps involved
in the process of manufacturing viscose are as follows (Figure 3.6):
aqueous NaOH (austic soda)
1. Steeping: Sheets of cellulose pulp are immersed in 17-209%
at the temperature range of 18-25°C in order to swell the cellulose fibres and
solution
convert cellulose to alkali cellulose (Egn 3.1).
...(3.1)
(CçH,0;), + nNaOH (CH,O,ONa), + nt,0
a cquivalent of
2. Pressing: The swollen
mass of alkali cellulose is pressed to wet weight
to obtain an acurate alkali to cellulose ratio.
2%-3 times the original pulp weight divided,
cellulose is shredded mechanically to yicld inely
3. Shredding: The pressed alkali surface area of the alkali
step increases the overall
Huffy particles called 'crumbs'. This steps that follow.
cellulose mass, therebyincreasing its ability to react in the
 62 Textile Science

Figure 3.6: Steps the production of viscose rayon

Purified wood pulp Sodium Hydroxide NaOH solution

or cotton linters (NaOH)
Dissolving Tank

Steeping Pressing
Storage Tank

Shredder
Eilter Press

White Crumbs
Feed Tank

Ageing Room
Spin Bath Washing
Drying
Xanthating Carbon
disulphide

Source: Drawn by the authors.

4. Ageing: The alkali cellulose is aged under controlled conditions

of time (for 50 hours) and
temperature (between 18°C and 30°C) in order to depolymerise
the cellulose to the desired
degree of polymerisation to get a solution of the right viscosity
and cellulose concentration.
In this step the average molecular weight of the original pulp is reduced.
5. Kanthation: The aged alkali cellulose crumbs are placed in vats
and allowed to react with
carbon disulphide under controlled temperature (20-30°C) to form an
orange-coloured
compound called cellulose xanthate (Eqn 3.2).

(CçH,0,0Na), + nCS, (CcH,0,0-SC-sNa), ... (3.2)

6. Dissolving: Xanthate crumbs are dissolved in dilute NaOH solution at
15-20°C under high
shear mixing conditions to obtain a viscous orange-coloured solution. The large xanthate
substituents on the cellulose force the chains apart, reducing the inter-chain hydrogen
bonds
and allowing water molecules to solvate and separate the chains, leading to the dissolution
of the otherwise insoluble cellulose. Since the cellulose xanthate solution has very high
viscosity, it is termed viscose in this stage.
7. Ripening: Viscose is allowed to
stand for a period of time to 'ripen'. Two important processes
occur during ripening-redistribution and loss xanthate groups.
of The reversible xanthation
reaction allows some of the xanthate groups to revert to cellulosic hydroxyls and free CS
This free CS, can then escape or react with other hydroxyl groups (-OH) in the other
parts of the cellulose chain. In this way, crystalline regions are gradually broken down and
Man-made Fibres

a more complcte 63
solution is achieved. Thc
with the consistency similar colour of the ripened viscose
to that of honey. solution is gold
8. Filtering. The viscose
solution is filtered to remove
the spinning process or causc defects undissolved materials
that mnight disrupt
in the rayon flament. At
agents or pigments for colouring this point, delustering
the fibres can be added.
9. Degassing. Bubbles
of air entrapped in the viscOSe are
degassing prior to extrusion, so that removed through the process of
voids or wcak spots in the fhne rayon
avoided. ilaments are
10. Spinning (wet spinning): The viscose
solution is metered through a spinneret
bath containing 10l% sulphuric acid (for acidifcation and into a spin
regeneration of sodium celluiose
xanthate to cellulose), 18% sodium sulphate (for rapid
coagulation of viscose),and 1%
zinc sulphate (which controls the rate of regeneration).
Once he cellulose xanthate is
neutralised and acidified, rapid coagulation of the rayon ilaments cccurs
(Eqn 3.3).
(CGH,0,0-SC-SNa),+(nl2)H,SO,+(CH0,),+rCS+(r2)Na,50, .. (3.3)
11. Drawing. The rayon filaments are stretched while the cellulose chains are still relatively
mobile. This causes the chains to stretch out and orient along the fbre zxis. As the
chains become more parallel, inter-chain hydrogen bonds form and give che fiaments the
properties necessary for use as textile ibres. Stretching is viral to ger the desired tenacity
and other properties of rayon.
12. Washing. The freshly regenerated rayon contains many salts nd other water soluble
impurities which are removed through one of several washing ehniques.
13. Cutting. If the rayon is to be used as staple fbre, the group af flaments (ie. tow) is
passed through a rotary cutter to provide a ibre which can be processd in much the

Same way as COtton.

Properties
rayon can be modified by the addition
Rayon fbres are normally white in colour. The lustre of cross
of the delustering agent titanium dioxide
to the solution before the Gbrs te atruded. The
serrated edges. Lengthwiss nes called striations
section of rayon fibre is an irregular circle wich
cros-Section amd longitudinal sections of
are seen in the longitudinal section. Figure 3.9 gives the cellulosic
rayon has slk-like aesthetics with superb drapc and fel. lts
allman-made fbres. Viscose cellulosic fibres. The
similar to those of cotton or oher natural
base contributes many properties as compared to cotton
its lower polymer chain length
strength of viscose rayon is low because of
and also because the physical structure is ditferent. of fibres
the A pil (o bobble)is a snall bal
There is a considerable decrease in strength when on a pleco of cloth because
a percentage of -OH that forrs
ibre is wet. Viscose has high contribute f washing and wearing of fabrics
that
regions that to pUsh out from
groups present in amorphous causes loose fibres
behaviour. Thus, due to high tha surfaco.
to its hygroscopic to
breathable, confortable
moisture regain, rayon is
 64 Textile Science

wear and can colours. Due to low

be casily dyed in vivid elastic recovery and resiliency,
rayon
wrinkles badly. lt does not build up static electricity, and there is no pilling unless the fabric
made from short, low-twist yarns. As a cellulosic fibre, rayon is flammable is
and burns like paper.
Properties of viscose rayon are given in Table 3.1.

Uses and Care

Ravon is comfortable, soft to che skin,
and has moderate dry strength and abrasion
One of rayon's strengths is its resistano
versatility and ability to blend casily with fbres
acrylic, nylon, acetate, cotton, wool to reduce cost, or
such as polyester,
for lustre, softness or absorbency
resulting comfort. and the
The strength of rayon
ibre is low, thus the products should not
Jaundering. Rather they should be twisted or wrung followino
be padded by using a towel or a
machine can be used. Since gentle cycle in the washing
it is not affected by organic solvents,
rayon fabrics. dry cleaning does not damage

Major Domcstic and Industrial Uses

• Apparel:
Blouses, coats, dresses, jackets, lingerie,
linings, millinery, rainwcar, slacks,
shirts, sportswcar, suits, tics, work sports
clothes.
Home furnishings: Bedspreads,
blankets, carpets, curtains, draperies,
tablecloths, upholstery. shects, slipcovers,
Other: Industrial products,
medical and surgical products, non-woven
cord. products, tyre

Cuprammonium Rayon
Production

Cupprammonium rayon is produced by a

solution of cellulosic material in aqueous
(NH) and copper sulphate (CuSO) at low temperature ammonia
in mixer along with caustic soda in a nitrogen atmosphere. It is put
(NaOH). The step of ripening or
cuprammonium production. The solution ageing is not required for
is fltered and then wet spun. are neutralised
in sulphuric acid, followed by washing, lubrication, drying, twisting Filaments
Ihis is a more expensive process than that into yarn and winding.
of viscose rayon. The cross-section
cuprammonium rayon is almost round.
The main disadvantage
of a fibre of
is the toxicity of copper sulphate. of the cuprammonium process
It must be fully recovered from the proces,
large-scale production is limited. and as a result

Properties and Uses

Its properties arc quite similar to those

lightweight fabrics. A good conductor of iscose rayon. The fbre can be made
of heat into very
use in warm-weather and fairly absorbent, it is especially
clothing. suitable for
 Man-made Fibres

High Wet Modulus Rayon 65

One of the drawbacks

of viscose rayon is its very
eubsritute for cotton. This low wet
limitation led to the development strerngth. This limits its usage as a
HWM rayon does not exhibit drastic of High Wet Modulus (HWM) rayon.
reduction in strength when
using the same process as Viscose wet. HWM rayon is
but with some modifications in produced
bach composition-.c. the spinning conditions
rare of regeneration
the addition of certain chemicals in the spinning and
of cellulose in the extrusion bath. bath that slow down the
from these, higher draw ratios are Apart
also employed to improve
rhe degree of orientation and achieve Draw ratio is the extensibility
much higher tenacities that can be subjected to the
in dry as well as wet conditions.
A comparison of properties fibre during a process.
of viscose rayon and HWM rayon given in Table 3.1.
High Tenacity Rayon
High Tenacity (HT) rayon was developed for
high performance and industrial applicaions
than for apparel. For many years HT rayon was rather
was substituted by used for the manufacture of tyre cords
nylon and polyester. HT rayon possesses before it
superior tensile strength as compared
to regular viscose and has a greater percentage
of crystalline regions which translate to greater
strength. For the production of HT rayon certain
modifications are made in the composition
the spinning bath, like increasing the quantity of
of zinc sulphate (up to about 4 per cent). This helps
rerard the coagulation of viscose. A greater
stretch is also imparted to improve the orientation.
Slow regeneration of cellulose and stretching
of rayon will lead to grcater areas of crystallinity
within the fibre and therefore increased strength.

Polynosic Rayon

These fibres have a very high degree of orientation, achieved as a

result of very high stretching
(up to 300 per cent) during processing along with DP values as high as
800. They have a unique
ibrillar structure, high dry and wet strength, low elongation (8-1l per cent), relatively low water
retention and very high wet modulus.

Lyocell
Lyocell is a new generation of cellulosic fibre that was first commercially produced in 1992, by
Acordis Cellulosic Fibres in the US. The US Federal Trade Commission (FTC) defines lyocell as
a hbre composed of cellulose precipitated from an organic solution in which no substitution of
the hydroxyl groups takes place and no chemical intermediates are formed.' The FTC classifhes
lyocell as a subcategory under rayon. Lyocell fibres are manufactured by wet spinning proces.
Ihe cellulose is directly dissolved in the solvent N-mehylmorpholine n-oxide (NMMO) and
water. The solution is then fltered and spun through spinnerets to make the flaments, which are
spun into water. The NMMO solvent is recovered from this aqueous solution and reused. Lyocell
ibres, like ocher cellulosics, are soft, strong, moisture-absorbent and biodegradable. They have
a dry strength higher than other cellulosics and approaching that of polyester. They also retain
can be laundered easily.
per cent of their strength when wer. They are wrinkle resistant and
 64 Textile
Scienc
wear and can be easily dyed in vivid colours. Due to low elastic recovery and resiliency,
wrinkles badly. It does not build up static electricity, and there is
no pilling unless rayon

yarns. As a cellulosic fibre, rayon is flammable

thefabrici
made from short, low-twist and burns iikepaper
Properties of viscose rayon are given in Table 3.1.

Uses and Care

Rayon is comfortable, soft to the skin, and has moderate dry strength and abrasion
resistance
One of rayon's strengths is its versatility and ability to blend casily with fbres such as
or polyester,
acrylic, nylon, acetate, cotton, wool to reduce cost, for lustre, softness or absorbency
resulting comfort. and the
The strength of rayon fbre is low, thusthe products should not be
twisted or wrung
laundering. Rather they should be padded by using a tollowing
towel or a gentle cycle in
machine can be used. Since is not affected by organic solvents, dry cleaning the washing
does not
rayon fabrics. damage

Major Domestic and Industrial Uses

Apparek Blouses, coats, dresses,
jackets, lingerie, linings, millinery,
shirts, sportswear, suits, ties, work clothes.
rainwear, slacks, sDOn:
Home furnishings: Bedsprcads,
blankets, carpets, curtains,
tablecloths, upholstery. draperies, sheets, slipcovers
Other: Industrial products,
medical and surgical
cord. products, non-woven products, tyre

Cuprammonium Rayon
Production

Cupprammonium rayon is
produced a solution
(NH) and copper sulphate (CuSO) by at
of cellulosic material in aqueous
ammonia
in mixer along with low temperature in a nitrogen atmosphere.
caustic soda (NaOH). It is put
cuprammonium production. The step of ripening or
The solution is fltered ageing is not required tor
in sulphuric acid, followed and then wet spun. Filaments are
by washing, lubrication, neutralised
This is a more expensive process drying, twisting yarn and winding
than that of viscose ravon. into
cuprammonium rayon The cross-section
is almost round. of a hbre Of
is the toxicity of copper The main disadvantage
large-scale production
sulphate. It must
be fully recovered
of the cuprammonium proco
is limited. from the process, and as a result
Properties and Uses

Its properties are

quite
lightweight fabrics. A similar to those of viscose rayon.
use in warm-weather good conductor of heat and The fibre can be made
into very
clothing. fairly absorbent,
it is especially suitable for
 Man-made Fibres

High Wet Modulus Rayon 65

One of the drawbacks viscose rayon

of is its very low wet
substitute for cotton. This
limitation led to the devclopment strength. This limits its usage as a
HWM rayon does not cxhibit of High Wet Modulus (HWM) rayon.
drastic reduction in strength
using thc same process as viscose when wet. HWM rayon is
but some modifications produced
bath compositioni.e. the addition with in the spinning conditions
and
rate of regeneration of cellulose
of certain chemicals in the spinning bath
in the extrusion bath. Apart
that slow down the
from chese, higher draw ratios are
also employcd to improve
the degree of orientation and achieve much Draw ratio is the extensibility
higher tenacities that car be subiected to the
in dry as well as wet conditions. A fibre duing a process.
comparison of properties
of viscose rayon and HWM rayon is given in Table
3.I.
High Tenacity Rayon

High Tenacity (HT) rayon was developed for high

performance and industrial applications rather
than for apparel. For many years HT rayon was used for
was substituted by nylon the manufacture of tvre cords before it
and polyester. HT rayon possesses superior tensile
to regular viscose and bas a greater percentage strength as comparcd
of crystalline regions which ransiate to greater
strength. For the production of HT rayon certain modiications are
made in he composition of
the spinning bath, like increasing the quantity of zinc sulphate
(up to abour 4 per cent). This helps
retard thc coagulation of viscose. A greater stretch is also
imparted to improve the orientation.
Slow regeneration of cellulose and stretching
of rayon will lead to greater aris of rystallinity
within the fibre and therefore increased strength.

Polynosic Rayon
These fibres have a very high degree of orientation, achieved as a result very
of high stretching
(up to 300 per cent) during processing along with DP values as high as 800. Thcy have a unique
ibrillar structure, high dry and wet strength, low elongation (8l per cent), relativey low water
retention and very high wet modulus.

Lyocell
Lyocell is a new generation of cellulosic fbre that was irst commeriallv produd in 1992, by
Acordis Cellulosic Fibres in the US. The US Federal Trade Commission (FT) deines lyocell as
a hbre `composed of cellulose precipitated fron an organic solution in which no substitution of
the hydroxyl groups takes place and no chenmical intermediates are formed. Thc FTC classifhcs
lyocell as a subcaregory under rayon. Lyocell fibres are manufzctured by wet spinning proces.
The cellulose is directly dissolved in the solvent N-mehyimorpholine n-oxide (NMMO) and
water. The solution is chen fltered and spun through spinnerets to make the filaments, which are
spun into water. The NMMO solvent is recovered fron this aqucous solution and reused. Lyocell
fibres, like other cellulosics, are soft, strong, moisture- absorbent and biodegradable. They have
a
dry strength higher than other cellulosics and approaching that of polyester. They also retain
are wrinkle rsistant and can be laundered casily.
85 per cent of thecir strength when wet. They
 Textile
Scienc

Table 3.1: Properties of iscose and HWM rayon

Viscose Rayon HWM Rayon

Physical properties
Shape and appearance Man-made fibres can be manufactured in any lennth
diameter. The lustre can be modified by the addition of
delustering agent titanium dioxide.
Tenacity Dry: 1.0-5.0 gld Dry: 4.0-5.0 g/d
Wet: 0.5-1.5 g/d Wet: 2.0-3.0 g/d
Moisture absorbency (65% RH) 13% 11.5%
%Elongation at break (65% RH) 24-27% 15-23%
Elasticity Poor, wrinkles badly
Resiliency 674 Low
Poor
Better than viscOse
Density RAS-84 1.5 g/cm
rayon
Not available
Electrical conductivity No static charge
No static charge
Chemical properties
Effect of acids
Carbonised by hot acids. Cold
concentrated acids cause
gradual fibre disintegration.
Effect of alkalis
No damage
Effect of organic solvents No damage
No damage
Effect of bleaches No damage
No damage
Effect of sunlight No damage
Not greatly harmed
Biological properties by sunlight Not greatly harmed
Attacked by silverfish by sunlight
and termites, but generally resists insect
damage
Thermal properties
Safe ironing temperature
Melting point 110-150°C
Not available
Not applicable (fibres
decompOse before melting Not applicable (fibres
Burning behaviour decompOse
It ignites quickly, before melting)
burns freely and has an
odour similar to burning paper. afterglow. Has an
Note: RH: relative humidity
Source: Compiled
by the authors.

Lyocell hbres are mostly

dresses, coats, slacks used for apparel fabrics,
etc. Tencel' is a especially outerwear.
Pvt. Ltd. trade name End uses of lyocell incluae
of
Lyocell produced by the
Lenzing Fibes
Modal
Modal, a type rayon,
of is
beech trees. They are made made by spinning reconstituted
by a modified cellulose, in
this case often from
and modified precipitating viscose process
baths. The process with a higher
produces ibres degrec of polymerisation
wich
improved as
properties such
Man-made Fibres

Lotrer wcar, higher 67

dry and wet strengths
making and better dimensional
smooth and soft, them very suitable for stability. The modal
clothing such as fbres are
used alone or with other ibres (often cotton intimate apparel. Thcy Gan be
or spandex).
Soak up water and thus the fabric remains They are highly absorbent
dry. and quickly

Acetate
Acotate was the first
thermoplastic (hcat sensitive)
PnrOn. acetate is often used as a fibre to be introduced to consumers.
substitute for Like
cillk and is generally silk, but it is much weaker
used for apparel that willnot be worn than either ravon or
t chis case is cellulose acetate. Cellulose acetate often. The fbre-forming substance
and cellulose triacetate ibres are
regenerated modified cellulosic hbres. classifed as
The difference between acetate and triacetate Gbres
rhe number of cellulose hydroxyl groups is in
that are acetylated. When a substance is formed
cellulose in which almost all three from
hydroxyl groups per glucose ring have
more than 92 per cent of been acetyiated (i.e.
the groups), the material is called cellulose triacetate (or
If approximately 2.4 out of hree hydroxyl groups per glucose ring are just triacetate).
aceryiated (berween 75
and 92 per cent), the substance is called cellulose acetate
(or simply acetate) (Figure 3.7).

Figure 3.7: Chemical structures of cellulose acetate and cellulase

triacetate

H,C-C-O
Ho-0--CH H HC-0--cH, HC-C-O
C

OH
C 0-C-CH.G

- C
H HC-O-p H HC-0-C-CH,
H,C-Ç-O L
(a)Cellulose acetate (b) Ceiluicse tiacetate

Production of Acetate and Triacetate

In the production of acetate fbres, triacetate is formed first and therefore it is also known as
primary acetate. The triacetate is then partially hydrolysed to obtain diacetate which also known
is

as secondary acetate or acetate. The proces involves the tollowing steps (Figure 3.8):

at for
I. Pure cellulose is pretreated with a small amount of glacial acetic acid about 35°C
causes swelling of cellulose material and facilitates the
One hour. The acid pretreatment
acetylation process.
misture of acetic acid, acetic anhydride
2. The pretreated material is added to the acetylation
as reaction). Proper stirring is required to
and sulfuricacid (which acts the catalyst for the
 Textile
Science
68
Figure 3.8: Steps in the production of
acetate
ensure uniform acetylation. The
reaction is allowed to continue for Purified cellulose (wood Acetic acid and
acetic anhydride
about 8 hours till clear viscous pulp or cotton linters)
a

solution is formed. During this

to be
period the temperature has
cooling because the Acetylation
maintained by
reaction is exothermic and high
temperature can cause degradation Hydrolysis
of cellulose.
3. Triacetate: For production of
Precipitation
triacetate, the viscous solution
is mixed with water. Triacetate
precipitates out in the form of Washing and drying
white flakes. These flakes are
washed, dried and then dissolved
in mechylene chloride containing Dissolving in acetone
about 10% methanol. The polymer
dope thus formed is dry spun in Dry spinning Warm air
a chamber of hot air to produce
triacetate filament yarns.
4. Diacetatelacetate: The dope from Acetate
the acetylator is mixed wich water Source: Drawn by the authors.
to give an approximately 95 per
cent solution and left for about 20 hours at a temperature
of 60-80°C. Hydrolysis takes
place and some of the acetylated groups are reconverted to
the original hydroxyl groups.
The mixture is tested constantly to stop the reaction at the appropriate
point. Once the
required reduction of acetyl groups (to about 2.4 per glucose unit) has
been achieved,
the mixture is mixed with excess water. The acetate polymer precipitates
flakes that are collected, washed and dried. The Aakes
into chalky, white
from different are
batches mixed and
dissolved in acetone to form the spinning solution. The solution is
fltered and extruded
through the spinneret in a chamber
of hot air that evaporates acetone.
5. The hilaments are given slight
stretch to improve orientation and the resultant strength.
Properties of Acetate and Triacetate

If acetate and triacetate have not been treated to decrease

appearance and good lustre. lustre. both fibres have a brigt
Fibres are white unless they have
appearance both are very been solution dyed. In microscoplc
similar. They have a clear
section. The longitudinal appearance and irregular multilobed shape in cross
shows broad striations.
low strength. Both are weaker Both acetate and triacetate have vely
when wet. Acetate has poor
triacetate has relatively higher elastic recovery elastic and wrinkle recovery whereas
and is more resilient. Acetate
fabrics are fast drying
Man-made Fibres
69
resistant to wrinkling and shrinkage.
They give cxccllent drape and moderate
Both the fibres tend to build up moisture absorbency.
static clcectricity Properties of acetate
given in Table 3.2,
and triacetate fibres are

Table 3.2: Properties of acetate and triacetate fibres

Acetate Triacetate
Physical properties
Shape and appearance Man-made fibres can be manufacured in 21y length
and diameter.
The lustre can be modified by the addition cf
the desiering agent
titanium dioxide.
Tenacity Dry: 1.2-1.4 gld Dry: 1.2-.4
Wet: 1.0-1.3 g/d
ld
Wet: 1.0-13 gd
Moisture absorbency 6.5% 3.2%
(65% RH)
% Elongation at break 25-35% 25-35%
(65% RH)
Elasticity Poor Better tha acEae
Resiliency Low Better thar acetate
Density 1.3 g/cm,lighter weight than rayon
in
Electrical conductivity Poor for both fibres, they tend ta build uo static electricity.
Chemical properties
Effect of acids Damaged
Efect of alkalis Damaged
Effect of organic solvents Dissolves in acetone, phenol and chiorofcr
Efect of bleaches Bleached with hydrogen peroxide
Effect of sunlight Causes a loss of strength and Moderate tesstarce to sunlight
deterioration
Biological properties May be attacked by mildew if More resistart to miidew atack
stored incorrectly
Thermal properties
Safe ironing temp 130°C 150C
Melting point 175°C 23$°C
Burning behaviour Both fibres are thermoplastic, they will soten and melt with the
application of heat.

Source: Compiled by the authors.

Uses and Care

in laundering or dry cleaning.
Fabrics from either ype of fbre require careful handling
any kind of twisting should be avoided, gentle
Acetates tend to wrinkle badly, and therefore
 Textile
70 Sciene

machine wash cycle should be used. Triacetate performs little better than acetate in this respec
a

Any type of detergent may be used. Blcaches

must be used with care. The fbres are also
so nail polish removers
affecel
by some organic solvents. Acetate will dissolve in acetone, should be us
with caution. Both fbres are thermoplastic, and they will soften and melt with the application
of heat. Medium to low ironing temperatures should be used. Acetate may be attacked
mildew if incorrectly stored, triacetate is more resistant. Extended exposure to sunlight
shou
be avoided.
Both acetate and triacetate have a luxurious feel and appearance. Therefore,
they are populaty
used in a variery of applications, but mostly for apparel and home furnishings.

Major Domestic and Industrial Uses

Apparel Blouses, dresses and foundation garments, lingerie,
linings, shirts, slack
sportswear
Home furnishings: Draperies, upholstery
Other Cigarette flters, ibre fll for pillows, quilted products

FIBRES FROM SYNTHETIC POLYMERS

Acrylic
Acrylic fbres are the third largest class of synthetic
fbre after polyester and nylon. Commercial
acrylic fibre was first developed by DuPont in USA as
Orlon while modified acrylic
(modacrylic) fibre was first developed by Union Carbide as
Dynel. Other trade names ar:
Acrilan, Zefran, Creslan and Courtelle for acrylic
and Teklan and Verel for modacrylis.
BISFA (Bureau International pour la Standardisation des
Fibres Artificielles; an internationa
association of man-made fibre producers) defines acrylic
fibres as 'fibres composed of linear
macromolecules having in the chain at least 85 per cent
(by mass) of acrylonirile repearing
units' (CIRFS n.d.). Typical comonomers in acrylic are vinyl acetate or
modacrylic fibre chains contain at least 50-85 per cent by mass methyl acrylate. Ihe
vinyl chloride, vinylidene chloride or vinyl bromide
of acrylonitrile. The comonomers
used in modacrylic give the ibre lame
retardant properties.

Production of Acrylic
The starting materials for acrylonitrile (CH,=CH-CN) are
are reacted with oxygen in propylene and ammonia, which
the presence of catalysts (Eqn 3.4). The
polymerised to produce polyacrylonitrile (PAN). acrylonitrile is then
Pure acrylonitrile is very inert with no dye
cires. Therefore, comonomers, usually
with anionic groups as mentioned
during polymerisation reaction to introduce reactive above, are addeo
and dye sites. PAN is then spun into fibre
from a solution in a solvent. I wo process routes are
used: (a) wet spinning, in which
the hbre
 Figure 3.9: Longitudinal
and cross-sectional views
of various fibres
|Longitudinal section
Cross sSEcion

RAYON

ACETATE

ACRYLIC

NYLON

POLYESTER

Source: Drawn by the authors.

 72
Textile
are spun Science
in an aqucous coagulation bath, and (6) dry spinning,
hot air. in which the fibres are
spun
in

CH,=CH-CH, + NH,+ 3/2 O, Ammoxidation

400-500°C CH,=CHCN
(3.4)
In wet spinning, sodium thiocyanate is commonly used as
a liquid bath solvent. The fibres are spun
containing a solvent-nonsolvent i
water. The fibres emerging mixture called coagulant.
from the spin bath are washed Nonsolvent is usuall.
is dissolved in dimethyl and dried. In dry spinning,
formamide (DMF). The
at about 300°C to remove the DMF is evaporated by circulating the polyme
solvent. The ibres are an inert a
then stretched, washed and
crimped
The modacrylic fibres are produced (Figure 3.10). Crimp refers to any
by polymerising as foldsor grooves, kind of texture, such
various copolymers and dry which
spinning by dissolving the fibre when texturisationis imparted to
the polymer in acetone (Figure 3.10). is done.

Figure 3.10: Schematic

of the production of acrylic
and modacrylic fibres
Dry and Wet spun fibres Vinyl chloride
Vinylidene chloride
Acrylonitrile and Acrylonitrile or Vinylidene
copolymers ficyanide

Polymeriser
Polymeriser
Solvent Solvent
Solvent

Dry Y
Dry spinning
spinning

Wet spinning

Acrylic fibre
production

(a) Acrylic
Source: Drawn by the authors. (b) Modacrylic

Properties
The longitudinal view of acrylic fibre
shows a rod-like structure
thecross-section is either dumb-bell, corn mushroom with a uniform diameter, while
or round shaped.
They are mostly of staple
Man-made Fibres

loncth and are dull or 73

semi-dull lustre. Acrylic a
per is hydrophobic
F 1.5 cent and thus, dries quickly. It
has fair dry strerngth
fbre. has low moisture regain
on wetting. of 2.0-2.7g/denier and weakens
The clongation of acrylic ranges
medium to high. Acrylic berween 20 and 55 per
hbres have good resiliency. cent. Its clastic recovery
Iofry. If heat set properly, Bulky fabtics ase cspecially is
they do not shrink nor resilicnt and
resistance and can be stretch. Acrylic, in general,
efectively heat set. The fibre has good heat
nited, they burn with a yellow flame and degrades and decomposes before melting.
drip in molten drops, which are Once
combustible substances. On hot enough to ignite
the other hand, modacrylic
They are dificult to ignite hbre have cxcellent fame resistance.
and self-extinguishing when the Aame source
have good resistance to most is removed. Acrylics
mineral and organic acids. Wcak or
effect. Strong or concentrated dilute acids have no destructive
acids cause a loss of strength and
dissolve the fibre. They have cold concentrated nitric acid will
good resistance to weak alkali,
damage. Acrylics have remarkable resistance but concentrated alkali wil! cause
to sunlight and other dimatic cnnditions.
and soaps have no deleterious effect on them. Acrylics Detergent
show static build up that increses at
humidity. Micro-organisms like mildew or bacteria low
have no effect on acrylics. Properties
are also given in Table 3.3. in bricf

Uses and Care

Acrylic fibres do not require special care and maintenance.

Most acrylic fbres an be washed
and dried in home laundering equipment. However, for machine
drying, the setting has to be
either low or medium. Any type of detergent or soap and bleach can
be used. Dr deaning is
not recommended for acrylic fibres.
Knitted products of acrylic fibres are quite popular such as sweaters
and other apparel
items. These are also used for home furnishings. As acrylic fibres are wam.
licht weight and
soft, they are also popular in sportswear. The mnajor end use of modacrylic has been as
ibrs
part of a blend for children's sleepwear and other items of apparel that must meer fame resistant
regulations.

Major Domestic and Industrial Uses

Apparel: Dreses, infant wear, knited garments, ski wear, socks, sportsweat, swcaters
• Fabrics: Fleece and pile fabrics, face fabrics in bonded fabrics, simuated fur, jerseys
Home furnishings Blankets, carpets, draperies, upholstery
• Other Auto tops, awnings, hand-kniting and craft yarns, înduserial and geoterile fabris

Polyamide Fibres
Nylon
or made are up
lincar of macromolecules
Nylon fibres (i.e. nylon 6, nylon 66, Nylon 1l others)
group (Figure 3.11) and are
Whose structural units are linked by the amide (-NH-CO-)
polyamide ibre as 'a fibre composed of
therefore also known as polyamides. BISFA defines
amide linkages, at least 85 per cent of which
linear macromolecules having in the chain recurring
 76
Textile
Science
and lustre, the cooled fibre is drawn or stretched in its length. The fbres
to six times their original are
length. This is also important to improve drawn
the ibres. The degree of crystallinity may vary between the crystallinityfou
60-80 per cent depending
amount of drawing. on the
Properties
Untreated nylon is transparent. The
fibres can be bright, semi-dull or
amount of delusterant added dullI depending
during the process. Most of the nylon upon the
shiny, as they are round in cross-section. flaments are
Longitudinal structure shows smooth and
uniform diameter with a transparent fibres
slightly speckled appearance of
natural fbres. The mechanical (Table 3.3). Nylon is stronger
properties of nylon 66 than many
nylon is in the range and nylon 6 are quite similar.
of 4.6-8.S gldenier. The wet strength reduces Tenacity
Nylonexhibits fairly high to 3.5-8.0 g/denier.
elongation. Nylon is highly
retention. Ar 8 per cent elastic and therefore has excellent
elongation, it has 100 per cent shan.
therefore does not wrinkle. elastic recovery. Its resilience
Its specifc gravity is 1.14 is good and
Nylon has the highest abrasion and therefore is lighter than cellulosic
resistance compared fbres
nylon fbres is 4.24.5 per cent with other fibres. Moisture
at standard conditions, absorption of
Low moisture absorption fairly low. It dries quickly
and consequently poor electrical after laundering.
of staic elecuric charge on its surface. conductivity result in accumulation
charge on its surface makes Drapability of nylon is excellent.
the garment cling to body. is However, static electric
difference berween nylon It in the thermal properties
66 and nylon 6 is most apparent. that the
250°C whereas that of nylon The melting point of nylon
6 is 210°C. Both melt flame 66 is
that hardens as it cools. Because in and form a grey gummy substance
nylon is heat sensitive or
processing, so that it will thermoplastic, it can be heat set
retain its shape. Nylon is during
whether mineral or organic, substantially
will destroy the fibre. Dry-cleaning resistant to alkalis, but acids,
have no effect on ibre. Sunlight solvents, soaps and detergents
has a destructive effect on
strength afrer prolonged exposure. nylon, resulting in a marked loss
Nylon is highly resistant to attack of
organisms. Properties by most insects or
of nylon fibres are also given in Table 3.3. micro

Uses and Care

Nylon was intended to be a synthetic

replacement for silk and substituted
products after silk became scarce for it in many different
during World War II. It replaced
such as parachutes, and was used many silk in military applications
in types of vehicle tyres.
in making fabrics, apparels, home Currently nylon fibres are used
furnishings such as carpets,
is the most popular fibre for musical strings, tyres and rope.
the manufacture of hosiery, active wear
fact that nylon is more water sensitive and lingerie. Despite the t
than polyester, it is not considered a
in contact with the skin. Its toughness comfortable ibre
makes it a major fibre
needle-punched floor-covering
products. Because of its relatively of
choice in carpets, including
limited use in non-woven products. high cost, nylon has somewhat
excellent tear strength.
It is used as a blending fbre in some cases,
because it conveys
 Man-made Fibres

Most items made 77

Bleachcs can from nylon can
be used when ncedcd. be machine-washed and rumble-dfiet
oarments made trom Since nylon has a at
it must be ironed 6 much tomer melting low temperaturs.
with considerahie care point than nylon
66
Aramids
The second group of
polyamides are aramid
amide linkages are fbres. In the aramics
causes significant attached to two aromatic rings 85 rct cent ct more
differences between (Figure 3.14). Thás of the
aramids. aramid and nylon. Nomea ánt
difence in percentage
krtar ate cxmpies of
Figure 3.14: Molecular
structure of
kear

Properties of Aramids

Highly fame-resistant, they have no melting

point and hrve cremiy lo czniustibility
• High strength

High resistance to stretch

• Good lex and abrasion
resistance
Good dimensional stability
Maintain shape and form at high temperarures
• Excellent resistance to insects
and micro-organiss
• Not a good conductor of heat

Major Domestlc and Industrlal Uses

Aramid fibres are used in industrial and military clehing, induseia! hot-ait fltration fabeics.
military helmets, protective vests, structural compoits ôe aixcraft and boat, saildoch, tyrcs,
ropes and cables, mechanical rubber goods, marins and spozting goods Highly temperarure
resistant papers are made from Nomex. A vraricy ef coasumet goods like carpets, dapery fabrics,
upholstery fabricsand ironing board coves are also made from Nomex. Kevlar is used in bullet
resistant garments and coated fabrics.
 Textile
78

Polyester
fbrecomposed of linear macromolecules having at least
According to BISFA polyester is 'a acid' (CIRFS n.d.). The first polyester,
a diol and terephthalic polyet.
cent by mass of
was made in the UK in 1941 and has become by far rhe world's
terephthalate (PET),
man-made fbre. polyesters such as polybutylene terephthalate (PBT)
Other and polytrimet
terephthalate (PTT) are also made but in much smaller quantities.

Production of Polyester
Polyester ibres are made in a way very smilar to polyamide. The steps in the produe
polyester are as follows (Figure 3.15):
Fiqure 3.15: Steps in the production
of polvee
1. Polymerisation: The two raw
materials, echylene glycol and Dimethyl terephalate Dihydric alcohol
terephthalic acid, are placed in
a polymerisation reactor where
under proper conditions they Polymerisation reactor
-H,0
combine to form the terelyne
polyester polymer (Figure 3.15).
Condensation polymerisation Polyester chips
takes place during the reaction
of the alcohol and acid at Melt spinning
high temperature. Polymerised
material is extruded in the form
of a ribbon. The ribbon hardens Drawing
and small polyester chips are
cut
from the ribbon.
2. Spinning: The chips are Texturising
dried
to remove any residual Source: Drawn by
moisture the authors.
and are then melt spun.
3. Drawing. Fibres are
hot stretched Flgure 3.16: Polymerisation
to about five reaction
times their original to form polyester
length which decreases
their HO
width. The drawn
fibres is either
wound onto cones as
+
HOVOH
filaments OH
or crimped and
cut into staple Terephthalicacid
length. Ethyleneglycol

Propertles of Polyester - H,0

Polyester fibres are dull or
semi-dull
in appearance due to the addition of
Polyethylene
Terephthalate
(polymer)
Scenk

Man-made Fibres
79
delustering agents in the spinning solutíon. The
fbre is generally round in cross-section and
uniform and rod-like with a smooth surface
in the longitudinal view.
mayot
The strength of polyester varies from 2.5
gdenier to 9.5 gldenier. There is no loss of strength
ylen when wet. Elastic recovery is superior to cellulosic
ibre but is slightly inferior to nyion. The
resilience of polyester is excellent. Further, hcat-setting
of fabric can stabilise fibres and yarns so
that they need little or no pressing to retain a smooth appearance.
Polyester has low moisture
regain of 0.4 per cent under standard conditions. Therefore,
moisture has negligible effect
on its strength. For the same reason static
on
of electric charge accumulates on the fabric. Owing to
low moisture regain, it requires special dyeing and finishing processes. It is
hydrophobic and
therefore is also oleophilic and consequently retains greasy soil to some extent
but watet-borne
stains and soil can be easily removed. Polyester fabrics have satisfactory
draping quality
and very good abrasion resistance. Polyester melts between 237°Cand 272°C depending on
the
type. It burns while in ffame but is self-extinguishing when remaved from the fame. It produces
dark smoke with an aromatic odour. Ir forms a fawn-coloured bezd that is uncrushable. Fabrics
made of polyester filaments can be ironed between 135°C and 149°C. Polyesters are better
conductors of heat compared to acrylics, as snooth polyesters
have fewer air pockets and consequently less insulation. A fbre is oleophilic #R has
a strong affinity for oils rather
However, hollow polyester fabrics, bulked types and crimped
than water.
Gbre flls have better insulating property.

Polyester has good resistance to weak alkalis even when hot. they have moderate resistance to
strong alkalis even at room temperature and are degraded only at higher termperatures. Boiling
weak acids have no effect on polyesters. Polyesters have good resistance even to concentrated
acids at room temperature. Prolonged exposure to boiling hydrochloric acid causes destruction of
the fibre and 96 per cent sulphuric acid disintegrates the ibre. Polyesters have good resistance to
household bleaches and oxidising agents. Polyester has good resistance to sunlight when placed
behind glass windows, but direct sunlight weakens it on pralonged exposure. Micro-organisms
and bacteria do not affect polyesters as also insect. Bur insects such as beetles when trapped
between folds of fabric cut their way through fabric only as a means of cscape.

Uses and Care

Polyester fibres and fabrics have many uses. They have good moisture transport through wicking
and dry quickly, and are thus populary used for apparcl inciuding sportswear for men. women
and children. Polyester is often used in outerwear becaus of its high tenacity and durability.
are commonly available. In blended
Blends of wool, cotton, rayon or linen with polyester ibres
and
fabrics polyester contributes easy maintenance, strength, durability, abrasion resistance
as
wrinkle resistance. Polyester has industrial uses as well, such in making carpets, filters, synthetic
fabrics for upholstery,
artery replacements, ropes and films. It is widely used in home furnishing
draperies and floor coverings.
are minimum. Most materials made from polyester can
Care requirement of polyester fabrics
temperature, because
be machine-washed and machin-dried. Ironing should be done at moderate
 Textile
78 Sciene:

Polyester
macromolecules having
According to BISFA polyester 'a fibre composed of linear
is at least
terephthalic acid' (CIRFS n.d.). The frst polyester, polyethylen
cent by mass of a diol and
was made in the UK in 1941 and
has become by far the world's
terephthalate (PET), majp
as polybutylene terephthalate (PBT) ) andpolytrimethylen.
man-made fibre. Other polyesters such
terephthalate (PTT) are also made but in much smaller
quantities.

Production of Polyester
Polyester ibres are made
in a way very similar to polyamide. The steps in the productiono
polyester are as follows (Figure 3.15):
Figure 3.15: Steps in the production
of polyester
1. Polymerisation: The two raw
materials, ehylene glycol and Dimethyl terephalate Dihydric alcohol
terephthalic acid, are placed in
a polymerisation reactor where
under proper conditions they Polymerisation reactor
combine to form the terelyne
polyester polymer (Figure 3.15).
Condensation polymerisation Polyester chips
takes place during the reaction
of the alcohol and acid at Melt spinning
high temperature. Polymerised
material is extruded in the form
of a ribbon. The ribbon hardens Drawing
and small polyester chips are
cut
from the ribbon.
2. Spinning The chips are Texturising
dried
to remove any residual Source: Drawn by
moisture the authors.
and are then melt spun.
3. Drawing: Fibres are hot strerched Flgure 3.16: Polymerisation
to about five times reaction
their original to form polyester
length which decreases HO
their
width. The drawn fibres VOH
is either
wound onto cones as filaments
+
H
or crimped and OH
cut into staple Terephthalic acid
length. Ethylenegiycol

Propertles of Polyester -H,0

Polyester fibres are dull or
semi-dull
in appearance due to the addition
of
Polyethylene
Terephthalate
(polymer)
Man-made Fibres
79
delustering agents in the spinning solution. The
ibre is generally round in cross-section and
uniform and rod-like with a smooth surface in the
longitudinal view.
The strength of polyester varies from 2.5 gldenier to 9.5 gldenier. There is no
loss of strength
when wet. Elastic recovery is superior to cellulosic fbre but is slightly inferior to
nylon. The
resilience of polyester is excellent. Further, heat-setting fabric can
of stabilise fibres and yarns so
that they need little or no pressing to retain a smooth appearance. Polyes ter has low moisture
regain of 0.4 per cent under standard conditions. Therefore, moisture has negligible effect
on its strength. For the same reason static electric charge accumulates on
the fabric. Owing to
low moisture regain, it requires special dycing and finishing processes. It is hydrophobic and
therefore is also oleophilic and consequently retains greasy soil to some extent but water-borne
stains and soil can be easily removed. Polyester fabrics have satisfactory draping quality
-and very good abrasion resistance. Polyester melts between 237°C and 272°C depending on the
type. It burns while in Aame but is self-extinguishíng when removed from the fame. lt produces
dark smoke with an aromatic odour. It forms a fawn-coloured bead that is uncrushable. Fabrics
made of polyester ilaments can be ironed between 135°C and 149°C. Polyesters are better
conductors of heat compared to acrylics, as smooth polyesters
A fibre is oleophillc if it has
have fewer air pockets and consequendy less insulation. a

strong afinity far olsrather

However, hollow polyester fabrics, bulked types and crimped than water
fbre fills have better insulating property.
Polyester has good resistance to weak alkalis even when hot, they have moderate resistance to
strong alkalis even at room temperature and are degraded only at higher temperatures. Boiling
weak acids have no effect on polyesters. Polyesters have good resistance even to concentrated
acids at room temperature. Prolonged exposure to boiling hydrochloric acid causes destrucion of
the fibre and 96 per cent sulphuric acid disintegrates the fibre. Polyesters have good resistance to
household bleaches and oxidising agents. Polyester has good resistance to sunlight when placed
behind glass windows, but direct sunlight weakens it on prolonged exposure. Micro-organisms
and bacteria do not affect polyesters as also insects. But insects such as beetles when trapped
between folds of fabric cut their way through fabric only as a means of escape.

Uses and Care

Polyester fibres and fabrics have many uses. They have good moisture transport through wicking
sportswear for men, women
and dry quickly, and are thus popularly used for apparel incuding
durability.
and children. Polyester is ofren used in outerwear because of its high tenacity and
are commonly available. In blended
Blends of wool, cotton, rayon or linen
wvith polyester fibres
easy maintenance, strength, durability, abrasion resistance and
tabrics polyester contributes
uses as well, such as in making carpets,filters, synthetic
wrinkle resistance. Polyester has industrial
artery replacements, ropes and films. It is widely used in
home furnishing fabrics for upholstery,
draperies and floor coverings. can
are minimum. Most materials made from polyester
Care requirement of polyester fabrics
be done at moderate temperature, because
be machinc-washed and machine-dried. Ironing should
 excellent

resistance
(Contd)
g/cm
gld g/d
Modacrylic

2.0-3.1 2.0-3.1 Good resistance

damage
Moderate 1.30-1.37

2.5-4%
35-45% to
Good Good
Very Poor
Dry: Wet:
No
humidity
weak
concentrated
of
staple, of damage.

addition
loss concentrated
semi-dull
that to
low cause
gd g/d
resistance
Acryllc
mostly
glcm build-up

cause
to delusterant.
2.0-2.7 1.6-2.2 at damage

modacrylic
or due Moderate 1.16-1.18 increases
or will
are dull 20-60%
Strong
strength
alkalis,
Good Static acids alkalis
Good
lustre
They Dry: Wet: 1.5%
with
No

and strength
solution acids,

acryllc
or appearance
agenls
strong
dull

weak
Polyester
are deluslering
spinning of
polyester,
loss by resistance
fibres
withstand destroyed

In g/d no wet. g/cm?

nylon,
Polyestersemi-dull
lo is 9.5-75%
Excellent Excellent
Resistant

loadded 2.5-9.5
There when
0.4% acids Good
due 1.38 Poor Can
but
of
Properties
g/d g/d resistance
resistance

66 seml to 4.6-8.8 4.0-7.6

Nylon theadded Good Good g/cm³

Resistant
bright, on 4.5% 19-40% acids

Good
depending
delusterant Dry: Wet: Very Very 1.14 Poor Poor
3.3:
4
to
Table be
can g/d g/d resistance
resistance

6 4,2-8.0
4.9-8.5
Nylon
fibres dull
of Good Good g/cm3
fibre Resistant
amount
or 2.5-5% 50% acids

The dull Dry: Wet: Very Very 1.13 Good

the Poor Poor
16-
to
break conductivity
absorbency
properties
properties

organic
at alkalis
Elongation acids
appearance

and
Physical
Moisture
RH) RH) Resiliency
Chemical
Tenacity Elasticity Electrical
Shape
(65%
Density of of of solvents

Effect Effect
(65% Effect

%
 Modacrylic upport

seif
damage
extinguiting
combuslion,
150-190°C
Resistant
Resistant

<150*C
not

Does
No

with whataCOG

whicn
drip
burna
Acrylic
and fall
dropa,

damago igited, they

ftamo combLaipis

Resistant
FResistant
moltern whict
<160°C

I90*C yellow
Once
No
COn
in
sunlight

direct after and non

Polyester oxposure

is
herrrioplastic

to but it weakens (hat

resistance

glass, bead
240-29C
prolonged
Resistant crusrhahs
Resistant
sunlight
behind a
121C
good Moits torms

resistance

66 teTRElastc

t51-175°C
Nylon resistance
Resistanl
Excellent

250C
Good
teits

resistanco

6
Nylon
tesistace
Resistant
Excellernt

150°C 210*C
Good tfats.

propeties

propertis
(Contd.)
bieaches

sunlight

Braogical
3.3:
Thernal
t
tol
Tabie Etect Etlect
 82 Textile
Sienc
M
high temperature can increase shrinkage. Most items made from polyester
the possibility of
can
be dry-cleaned. Soaps and detergents can casily be used for washing polyester fabrics.
po
hig
Polyolefins
str
a simple olefn (or alkene;
polyolefin belongs to a class of polyners produced from C,H,) a slc
a monomer. The two common polyolefins are polyethylene (Figure 3.17a) which is ne
by polymerising ethylene, and polypropylene (Figure 3.17b) which is made from propylene. The ag
BISFA defnes polyethylene ibre as 'a fibre composed of linear macromolecules of unsubstituted
saturated aliphatic hydrocarbons' and polypropylene fibres as 'a fibre composed of lh Us

macromolecules made up of saturated aliphatic carbon units in which one carbon aron Po
two carriesa methyi side group' (CIRFS n.d.), Polyolein fibres were developed in
the 1950 its
and 1960s. Polyethylene in fibre form was first devloped by Imperial Chemical Industries W
England while polypropylene was developed by Montecatini of Italy. Both these polyolefins a
very important in plastic moulding and for making plastic sheets, but both are also spun into
heic fbres on a large scale. SU

Figure 3.17: Chemical structures of polyethylene and polypropylene re

HH
CH3

-CH- CHa
|H H/n Jn
(a) Polyethylene (b) Polypropylene

Production of Olefins

Polyolefins are produced by polymerising olefn raw materials under pressure with a catalyst,
R
While polyethylene fbre is made rom polymerising echylene, polypropylene is from propylene.
They are both melt spun. Usually, polymer granules are fed to an extruder which melts the
polymer which is then pumped through a spinneret. The flaments are cooled in an air stream
and are then drawn or sretched to six times the spun length. Since the fbres are difficult to
dye, coloured pigments are often added to the polymer stream before extrusion. An alternative
process is to produce a flm, cut the film into strips
and then fbrillate the individual strips before C

winding onto a package.

Properties
Both polyolefin fibres resemble glass rods in borh longitudinal and cross-sectional
views. They both
have adensity less than 1.0. They have good strength but it varies
with the degree of polymerisation
and molecular orientation. They do not absorb moisture, which is an
uses, but without modiication they cannot advantage in many end
be dyed. Their melting points are around 130°C lor
1-made Fibree
83
lvethvlene and 160C fof poypropetse.
whieh
h enough fot textile applications. They have a ikigt
le in ctnnrien to dylon nt poiester but
resisranes nis chenmeai
ength on prolonged exposufe to attak. They lnse
sunlagh. They hzve
swy and give off a sooty. waxy tst
smoke They are highi resisranr
sösgt£ ns crushitsg. They
bur
ept for oxidising acids. Ihey exhibit static build-up o
aldine t witicaubstas.
Ther are
nts. Properties of olefhn fbres are given Table
34 talt tacet b hiningical
es and Care

lypropylene fbre consumption has grown rapidly during the past

acceptance as a carpet hbre (as it has good daate Tie eg die to
Dven end-uses,especially disposables
resistance to criushing?
s
the gtsh
i he ton
mre.
and geotextiles where
These foor coverings can casily be cleaned. Theend uses
pnivropdee i s
te termitant
of prindent ihcad aes, tpes,
cines and fishing nets. Apparel (blended with other
ibres) sch as qntswe.
its and coats are also being made.
esitt westes
Polyolefin fibrcs launder well. dry quickly and require littte iruning
commended.
Drdezning is ot

Box 3.1: Elastomerfc fiires

An elastomer is a polyrner with the physical property ct sicty Fitrss tr N
tGh
elongations at break and that recover fully and rapidly frcoem Fg slcgtits N

fibres. These fibres are ali used in specialised acplicaicrs wre Fngtt ty
the textile structure. Elastomeric fibres inchude the croSsilKet natut
at seS S

fibres (segmented polyurethanes). anidex fibres (cross-inset petyacryjiess

biconstituent fibre of nylon and spandex (Morvelej.
t ti s rste

ubber
is npriset af naturad
ubber is a manufactured fibre in whbich the fbre-fming talbstare
r synthetic rubber. Rubber fibtes from: natucal xuscs have b kete t oveie I0 ys
arural rubber is derived from coagulation cf the
gtur fim e
omesienút 4N grimarly
have bxr xuS it te previeras
olyisoprene, a diene polymer. (Details o natutd euter
hapter.)
bt
propeeties a% NeNtE *
cmical atc, terty
Rubber fibres exhibit excellent elastis
a
miting their usefulness. As ibrs
ruttber asrs tt
bk (KH t whge e
tS Rubier Cnpny
htres, ie. ay re
Ound that finc rubber flasents çoud b
uc h or
aiastá, yarR. Gan be shaine.
uch as coton
can be wrappd atutsd tc EVNhÉ GYOS, 4M ts à t9pe
comLKAn Én thcs claat; kuSe;s
tun tursad tubivEr. Seopsnr.
is more
ynthetic ubber
oisents, Is is fnsnd
t9 açkti, al cia, cOti, sSt and
is rsistant
lastic ilm, I
 84 Textile
Scienc

in protective gloves and clothing, industrial hoses and belts and coaings for wiring. Rubber
been replaced in many uses by spandex but it continues to be
used in narrow elastic
fabrics,
as narrow elastic tapes in the waist bands of many garments. su

Elastane (Spandex Fibre)

BISFA defnes elastane as 'a fibre composed of at least 85 per cent by mass of
segmentel S
polyurethane (-NH-COO-), which, if stretched to three times its unstretched length,
reverts substantially to the unstretched length when che tension is raidly
removed' (CIRES T
Therefore, elastane yarns arc primarily characterised by a property not found n.d)
recover
in natureth
ability to from cxtraordinary stretch. Although elastane was first synthesised
Germany, it was not commercialised as a fibre until 1958. Elastane fibres are in 1937i
better known today
under their trade namcs-Lycra (manufactured by DuPont)
and Dorlastan (by AsahiKASEL E
Japan). While the gencric tcrm prefcrred in the US is clastane, the
in many other parts of thc world. In India,
fbre is known as eo
the Thapar group was
the first to launch spande
in 1991 under the trade name Elyxa. Elastanc polymer
chains have rwo kinds of segments. Th.
rigid segments which impart strength to the fabric E
and the fexible, amorphous segments whia
lie coiled up like a spring when the filamcnt is
in a rclaxed state. On being subjected to stretch
these coiled up structures straighten upP. m

m
Propertles

The appearance of clastomeric fibres under the microscope

varies considerably. Lycra has a dark, F
spotted longitudinal appearance with dog-bone-shaped cross-section.
be rounder than Lycra.
Other spandex fbres may E

Natural rubber has an excellent elongation (500-600%)

and recovery, but its low tenacity
of 0.34 gld and low dye-acceptance limits its use in lightweight garments. B
Spandex is
superior to natural rubber in strength and durability. It is
highly stretchable, light weight
and durable. It can be repeatedly stretched over 500 per cent
instantly. Elastanes resist perspiration and cosmetic oils, are without breaking and
recovers
casily washable and are dyeable
(Table 3.4).

Uses and Care

The main end uses for the yarns are garments

and other products where stretch, comfort andor
fit are important. Typical examples are sports
and leisure wear, swimwear, elastic corset tabrig
and stockings.
P

INORGANIC FIBRES
it
There are many inorganic hbres, including glass,
carbon, metal and ceramic. They are useo
particularly in the industrial fibre sector.
Aan-made Fibres
85
Table 3.4: Properties of polyolefins
and spandex
Polyethylene Polypropylene
Spandex
hysical properties
hape and appearance Can be controlled Can be controlled Length and diameter can
be controlled
enacity 1-1.5 g/d 1.5-3.5 g/d 0.7-1 g/d
loisture absorbency 0%, but can transport 0-0.5% Less than 1%
moisture by wicking
ongation 20-80% 15-50% 500-800%
lasticity Excellent Excellent 600-800%, Excellent
esiliency Good Excellent Excellent
ensity 0.9 g/cm³ lighter than 1-1.2 g/cm
water
lectrical conductivity No static build-up No static build-up Static build-up
hemical properties
tect of acids Resistant Resistant Good resistance
fect of alkalis Resistant Resistant Conc. alkalis at high
temperature cause
degradation
fect of organic solvents Good resistance Resistant Good resistance
fect of bleaches Good resistance Resistant Not resistant to chlorine
bleaches
iect of sunlight Gradual decline strength
in Good resistance
iological properties Good resistance Resistant Good resistance
hermal properties
afe ironing temp <75°C <75°C <150°C
elting point 130°C 160°C 150°C
urning behaviour Burns slowly Flammable and melts Burns and forms a
on burning gummy residue

ource: Compiled by the authors.

ilass

Glass, a mineral fibre, is the most important inorganic fibre. It is produced by melting glassa
passes through small holes in
ellets in an electric furnace at around 1500°C. The molten glass
up on a package. Alternatively,
late at the base of the furnace. After cooling in air it is wound
can be spun centrifugally to form a web.
following properties in common: high
Several types of glass fibres are produced. They have the
are brittle and have low breaking extensions.
noduli, high rot resistance, low moisture uptake,
 86 Textile
Scienc
is used extensively for insulation in the form of a felt and also for reinforcing
Glass
make boats, caravans, automobile parts, etc. Other lesser uses are flame-resistant plastics

decor fabrics. curtains

an

Carbon
BISFA defines carbon fbre as 'a fbre containing at least 90% by mass
of carbon
thermal carbonisation of organic fibre precursors' (CIRFS n.d.). obtained
The comimon
to make carbon fbres are polyacrylonitrile (PAN) or raw materials b
pitch. Pitch is the name for any
of viscoelastic polymers
such as tar, resin, etc. If pitch is used the process of a numbe
consists of
oxidation and graphitisation, while if PAN is used the tow is extrusion
oxidised, carbonised
graphitised. Carbon Gbres are characterised by and finaly
having high moduli and high
also brittle and have a low density. The strength. They
main end uses are as reinforcement
fbres
ar:
for the aircraft and acrospace industry sports in composits
and goods.

Advancements in ibre science

and technology are being made at a
first century, new fibres and textile fast rate in the twen
materials are being developed in
fhelds such as Information association with ohm
Technology (IT) and biotechnology.
circuit boards for mobile phones Optical ibres, integratc:
and wearable computers are examples
technology has interfaced with
the IT revolution. Bacteria are where fibre textil.
and polyesters, and soon there being used to produce cellulog:
could be more industrial bioplants
chemical fbres and textiles producing fibres. Many
in the twentieth century are being
biomimetics, the mimicking developed by the approach calld
processes. These
of biochemical processes in nature in fibre-creating
fibres and textiles could well themselves possess synthetic
century. bio-functions in the twenty-frst

SUMMARY
Man-made fibres can be categorised as
regenerated and synthetic fibres.
Man-made fibre/filaments are produced
by chemical spinning which
polymer extrusion through the spinneret. includes the process of extruding the
The diferent types of chemical
dry spinning and wet spinning. spinning methods are melt spinning
Rayon is a manufactured regenerated
cellulose fibre. Rayon is
'artifcial silk' in the textile industry. known by the names viscose rayon and
Cellulose acetate and cellulose triacetate are
classified as regenerated
Acrylic fbres are composed linear modified cellulosic fibres.
of macromolecules having in the
chain at least 85 per cent (by mass) of
acrylonitrile repeating units.
A
polyamide fbre is composed of linear macromolecules
having in the chain recurring amide
least 85 per cent of which are joined to aliphatic or linkages, at
cycloaliphatic units.
Polyester fbre is composed of linear macromolecules
having a' chain at least 85 per cent
and terephthalic acid. by mass of a dio!
Man-made Fibres

87
KEY WORDS
Reocnerated fibre: A regenerated
fibre is formed when a natural
and extruded as a continuous polymet, or ies chemical derivarive
filamcnt, and the chemical nature is dicsolved
-egenerated after the fibre-formation process. of the natural polymer is either
retained or
Synthetic fibre: Synthetic
ibres are those where the polymers are synthesised
Dope: The spinning solution or from petfochemicals.
dope is prepared by dissolving the raw
n a suitable solvent or material (natural or synthesised potymer)
by melting the polymer.
Tow: Tow is an uniwisted rope
of thousands of flament fbres.
BISFA: Bureau International pour la
Standardisation des Fibres Artifhcíelles (the internationa!
standardisation of man-made fibres). bureau for the

HWM: High Wet Modulus Rayon

EXERCISES
• What are synthetic and regenerated fbres. Give examples.
What are the disadvantages of rayon?
What is high tenacity rayon?
• Identify the differences between nylon 66
and nylon 6.
Explain the production process of acrylic ibre.
Why are aramid fbres popular for army clothing?
• Enumerate the properties of polyester and relate them to end use.
How do acrylic and modacrylic fibres compare?
Why is spandex used for foundation garments?

REFERENCES

Corbman, B. P. 1983. Textiles: Fiber to Fabric. Sixch edition. New Yotk: Mcgraw-Hil Bock Cormpany.
CIRFS. n.d. European Man-Made Fibres Association is the representative body for dhe European an-made
fibres industry.' Available at http://www.cirfs.org/Home.aspx (accessed 2 February 2017).
Policy for Totiles and
Governmnent of India (Gol). n.d. 'Section Il: Man Made Fibers in Nariona! Fibre
https//www.wesbengalhandloom.org/national
Garments. New Delhi: Ministry of Textiles, Gol. Available at
fibre_policy/Fibre_Policy_Sub_9%20Groups_Report_dir _mg d_20100608_2.pdf (accessed 2 February
2017).
Macmillan.
Hollen, N. and J. Saddler. Textiles. New York:
Philadelphia: Saunders College Publishing.
Joseph, M. J. 1988. Esentials of Textiles.
Pearson Pablications.
Kadolph, S. J. 2009. Textiles. New York:
off Taile Fibres. London: RSC Publishing.
2011. Tbe Chemistry
Mather, R. R. and R. H, Wardman,
Testiles. New York: Macmillan.
Tortora, P, G. 2009, Understanding
Man-made Fibres
83
polyethylene and 160°Cfor polypropylene,
which is
high enough for textile applications. They lowin comparison to nylon or polyester but
have a high
Ctrength on prolonged cxposure resistance to chemical attack. They lose
to sunlight. They have
good
clowly and give
of a sooty, waxy smoke. They are highly resistantresistance to crushing. They burn
vcept for oxidising acids. They cxhibit to alkaline and acidic substances,
static build-up. They are seldom
agents. PProperties of olefin fibres are given attacked by biological
Table 3.4.

Uses and Care

Polvpropylene hbre consumption has grown
rapidly during the past decade. This
irsacceptance as a carpet hbre (as it has good resistance to is largely due to
crushing) and the growth in the non
wOven end-uses, especially disposables
and geotextiles where polypropylene is now
Shre. These floor coverings can casily be the dominant
cleaned. The end uses of polyolefins include ropes,
tapes,
ines and fishing nets. Apparel (blended wih other fibres) such as sportswear, knitted sweaters,
suits and coats are also being made.
Polyolefin fibres launder well, dry quickly and require
litde ironing. Dry-deaning is not
recommended.

Box 3.1: Elastomeric fibres

a
An elastomer is polymer with the physical property of elasticity. Aibres that possess extremely high
elongations at break.and that recover fuly and rapidly trom high elongaions are known as elastomenic
fibres: These fibres are all used in specialised applications where high elasticity is necessary within
the textile structure. Elastomeric fibres inciude the cross-liniked natural and synthetic rubbers, spandex
fibres (segmented polyurethanes), anidex fibres (cross-linked polyacrylates) and the side-by-side
biconstituent fibre of nylon and spandex (Monvelle).

Rubber
Rubber is a
manufactured fbre in which che fbre-forming subsrance is comprised of narural
years.
or synthetic rubber. Rubber fibres from natural sources have been known for over 100
gum from Hevea brasiliensis and is primarily
Natural rubber is derived from coagulation of the
have been discussed in the previous
polyisoprene, a diene polymer. (Derails of natural rubber
chapter.)
but arc sensitive to chemical attack, thereby
Rubber fibres exhibit excellent elastic properties Company
a dates back to the 1920s when the US Rubber
limiting their usefulness. As fbre rubber fibres, i.e. any fibre
rubber filaments could be used as a central core for other
found that fine core, and thus, an elastic yarn can be obtained.
can be wrapped around the rubber
such as cotton Neoprene, a type
is more common in these elastic fabrics than natural rubber. or a supported
Synthetic rubber fibre
made from polychloroprene, is used as an elastomeric
of synthetic rubber soda and solvents. It is found
resistant to acids, alkalis, alcohols, oils, caustic
elastic flm. It is