Pisciculture: Characteristic features of cultivable fishes

Pisciculture or fish culture, included under the broad term 'aquaculture', can be
defined as the 'farming and husbandry of economically important fish, under
controlled conditions'

Pisciculture or fish culture, included under the broad term 'aquaculture', can be
defined as the 'farming and husbandry of economically important fish, under controlled
conditions'.
Fish farming is a productive venture. Fishes are highly nutritious sources of easily digestible
proteins (rich in lysine and methionine. They are essential amino acids); minerals like
calcium, phosphorous, iron, sodium, potassium, magnesium and sulphur; vitamins such as A,
D and health promoting fats. Fish are the source of polyunsaturated fatty acids which are
helpful in cholesterol regulation and promoting cardiac health. Fish farming can help in
integrated rural development by generating employment opportunities.

Fish farming
Fish farming is the raising of fish for personal income or profit. Based on the environment in
which culture is done, fish farming may be categorized as freshwater fish farming, brackish
water fish farming, saltwater or marine fish farming (mariculture).
Characters of cultivable fish
The following criteria should be considered before selecting a fish for farming purpose.

� Rate of growth :Fish which grow to a larger size in shorter period are suitable for
culture.Eg. Carps.

� Adaptation to climate: The cultured species of fish should be able to adapt to the local
climatic conditions of the farm.

�Tolerance: The fish should have the capacity to tolerate wide fluctuations in the physico
chemical conditions such as oxygen, salinity, temperature etc of the water.

�Acceptance of artificial feed : When more number of fish is to be accom-modated in a

limited space, there is the need for supplementary feeding on compounded diets. The fish
should show ready preference for these feeds.

�Resistance: It is desirable that the cultured fish is hardy enough to resist the common
diseases and attack of parasites.

� Amiability and compatibility: The fishes proposed to be cultured together ('poly culture')
should be able to live together without interfering or attacking the other.

� Conversion efficiency: The species of fish which give more edible flesh per unit of food
consumed, is preferred.

� Consumer's preference: Food preference of people vary with the geographic regions.
Hence, the species cultured should be easily marketable locally or to the targeted consumers.

� Culturable Fishes of India

� Carps, Catfishes, Murrels, Tilapia etc are the main culturable fishes.

� Culturable Fishes of India

� Indian major carps:
� Carps (Kendai)
� Catla catla (Catla)
� Labeo rohita (Rohu)
� Cirrhina mrigala (Mrigal)
� Exotic (Chinese) carps
� Cyprinus carpio (Common carp)

� Minor Carps
� Labeo bata (Bata)

� Catfishes ( 'Keluthi')
� Wallago attu (freshwater shark : 'Valai')
� Mystus aor (Cat fish)
� Clarias batrachus (Magur)

� Murrels or snake heads ('Viral')

� Channa striatus (Striped snake - head)

� Tilapia
� Oreochromis mossambicus ('Jilebikkendai')

� Sport fishes (Cold - water fishes)

� Trouts (Order : Salmoniformes)
� Salmo gairdneri (Rainbow trout)

Marine fishes
Lates calcarifer (Sea bass or cockup, 'Koduva') Mugil cephalus (Grey mullet,
'Madavai') Chanos chanos (Milk fish) esides these food fishes, there is an
enormous potential for the mass culture of a variety of ornamental fishes, which can bring in
high profit, also from overseas markets.

Fish Pond : Types and Preparation of pond, Management and Feeding

Fish Pond
A successful aquaculture practice with a good harvesting is usually due to proper
construction preparation and maintenance of the fish pond.
Types of fish ponds
Within the fish farming pond system there can be different pond components, namely
nursery, rearing, production, segregation and breeding or spawning ponds. The area
percentage of these ponds in a fish-farming complex can be:
Nursery pond - 3%
Rearing pond - 11%
Production pond - 60%
Segregation pond - 1%
Breeding pond - 25%

Nursery ponds are shallow, while the others are moderately deep. In larger production
ponds, water can be maintained at a depth of 2 and 3 metres. A fencing around the fish farm,
may be constructed for protection.
Preparation of pond
Before the culturing of fish, the pond should be conditioned.
1. Conditioning
A layer of lime (calcium hydroxide) is spread over the bottom, for two weeks. It
removes the acidity of the soil, facilitates desirable geochemical cycles and kills unwanted
soil organisms.
Water may be let in slowly after two weeks and filled to the desired depth. The
quality parameters such as temperature, oxygen content, pH, turbidity, hardness, alkalinity
and plankton growth should be checked for their optimal levels, before stocking the fish.
2. Manuring
After 15 days of liming, the fertilization is to be done in order to develop the fish food
organisms (phytoplankton and the zooplankton: macro and micro). Manure may be of organic
or chemical nature. Organic manure may be urine or sewage rich in nitrogenous matter,cow
dung, pig dung, poultry manure and plant manure such as green manure, compost, oil cake
etc. If the organic carbon is less, cow dung for the stocking pond is applied at the rate of 2-3
tonnes / ha. Poultry manure at the rate of 5000 kg / ha is known to enhance zooplankton
induction. Use of chemical fertilizers should vary according to the concentration of
phosphorus and nitrogen in the soil. The standard combination of NPK as 18 : 10 : 4 is
generally recommended for freshwater ponds. For a production pond of medium fertile soil;
urea at the rate of 200 kg / ha / yr or ammonium sulphate at the rate of 450 kg / ha / yr may be
applied in split up dozes, alternating with organic manure.

Management of fish farm

Feed and water quality are the two major factors governing the productivity of the fish
culture pond. Besides, seed quality, stocking and other management measures also determine
the extent of fish production.
Water quality involves the regulation of Temperature at 25-33oC, dissolved oxygen, pH
(6.5 - 9.0 ), hardness, alkalinity, turbidity and plankton culture etc..
Feeding
Apart from natural food, most cultured species take artificial feeds. In general artificial feed
should contain 30-40% protein, 5-10% fat, 50-60% carbohydrate, less than 5% cellulose,
10% water, vitamins and minerals. Animal and vegetable ingredients can be used in
formulating feed pellets. Fishmeal, prawn meal, soybean meal, silkworm pupa, wheat,
tapioca, slaughter house wastes, rice bran, aquatic weeds, oilcakes etc are good feed
ingredients. Usually Indian farmers give rice bran and oil cakes in powder form to major
carps.Carnivorous fishes such as murrels and catfishes may be provided with trash fishes. For
adult fish, daily supplementary feeding can be at 2% of its body weight.

Routine Management and Diseases

Analysing water parameters, replenishment of water, aeration, regular feeding, observation
for mortality and disease symptoms should be routine checks in the management of
aquaculture ponds. Diseases can be of viral or bacterial origin or may be due to ectoparasites
or endoparasites.

Among the freshwater fishes, carps belonging to the order Cypriniformes form significant
components of reservoir, riverine and culture fisheries. They have no teeth in any part of their
mouths, however pharyngeal teeth may be present.

I. Fresh Water Fishes

Among the freshwater fishes, carps belonging to the order Cypriniformes form
significant components of reservoir, riverine and culture fisheries. They have no teeth in any
part of their mouths, however pharyngeal teeth may be present.
i. Indian Major Carps ('Kendai' meen)
a) Catla catla (catla) : Catla has a deep body with prominent head, large upturned mouth,
non-fringed lips, devoid of barbels and a broad dorsal fin with 14-16 branched rays are the
identifying features. It feeds on zooplankton of the pond surface using large gill rakers;
however, young ones (15-20 mm) feed on zooplankton and phytoplankton. It grows to a
maximum size of 1.8 m (45 kg). It is a fast growing species among the Indian major carps.
First year growth is 35-45 cm and about 1.5 - 2.0 kg. It matures in the second year.
b) Labeo rohita (Rohu) : Of all the carps, this is considered as the tastiest fish. It has a small
and pointed head, terminal small mouth with fringed lower lip. A dorsal fin with 12-13
branched rays and full reddish scales are its identifying features. It is a column feeder on
phytoplankton, plant debris or decaying debris of aquatic plants; however, the young feed on
zooplankton. The maximum size attained is 1m. It is fairly fast growing species and first year
growth is 35 - 40 cm and 900 g.
c. Cirrhina mrigala (Mrigal) : A linear body small head with blunt snout, subterminal mouth
with thin non-fringed lips, dorsal fin with 12-13 branched rays and a bright silvery body
having golden tinge are its identifying features.
It is a bottom feeder on decaying organic and vegetable debris; however, its young feed on
zooplankton. The maximum size attained is 0.9 m. Its growth in the first year is about 30 cm
(700 g).

(ii) Catfishes (Order: Siluriformes-'Keluthi')

The catfish are air-breathing, or live-fishes as they are capable of directly breathing
atmospheric air. They can live for a long time without water and can therefore be transported
live and in fresh condition over long distances. The body is without scales and each of the
upper and lower jaws possesses two pairs of long barbels in each. The mouth is non-
protractile having jaws with teeth. Majority of the catfish are predatory and cannibalistic,
feeding on all pond animals including fish fry.

(iii) Murrels or Snakeheads (Order : Channiformes-'Viral' meen)

These fish are also air-breathing and have a good demand. Elongated and cylindrical body,
depressed head, large and protractile mouth are its identifying features. Murrels are suitable
for culture in irrigation wells and shallow swamps.
a) Channa marulius (Giant snakehead) : Dorsal and anal fins of this species are long and
without spines. It reaches a maximum size of 1.2 m. It is suitable for culture in ponds along
with tilapia, the young ones of which serve as food source to this species.
b) C. striatus (Striped snake-head or Common murrel) : Stripes are present on its body.
Attains a maximum size of 90cm.

(iv) Tilapia (Order : Perciformes)

a) Oreochromis mossambicus (Tilapia -'Jilabi' kendai) : An exotic fish introduced in India
from East Coast of Africa in 1952. It is characterized by an anterior spinous dorsal fin and
posterior soft dorsal fin. Maturity occurs even in two months old individuals. It breeds nearly
eight times in a year. Female keeps the fertilized eggs guarded in its mouth.

II. Brackish water Fishes

Brackish water fishes spend most of its life in river mouths (estuaries) back waters, mangrove
swamps and coastal lagoons. These are
Chanos Chanos (Milk fish), Grey mullets ('Madavai') , Pearl spots ('Kari'meen), Seabass
('Koduva'), The Seabreams .

III. Marine Fishes

Marine edible fishes of Tamilnadu coast include both cartilaginous and bony fishes.
Elasmobranchiata
Cartilagenous fishes are the sharks and skates.
Bony Fishes are i) Pomfrets ('Vavva'): ii) Indian Mackeral ('Kanangeluthi') : iii) Seer fish
('Vanjiram' or 'Neimeen'): iv) Carangids ('Para' meen):(v) Ribbon fishes: (vi) Catfishes
('Keluthi'): (vii) Flat fishes ('Naakku meen'):(viii) Sardines ('Maththi meen'):

Site selection and construction of fish farm

Site selection

Appropriate site selection is one of the most important factors that determine the
success of the fish farm. Before construction of the pond, the water retention capacity of the
soil and the soil fertility has to be taken care of because these factors influence the response
to the organic and inorganic fertilization in the farm pond. The selected site should have
adequate water supply round the year for pond filling and other uses. The pond construction
has to be based on the topographic area. In swampy and marshy areas, bunds should have a
greater accumulation of soil to build the pond of a preferable size. Self-draining ponds are
ideal for higher elevation areas. The site should be easily accessible by road or any form of
transport to reach the market for easy fish disposal. In addition to this, the accessibility of
inputs such as feed, seed, fertilizer and the construction material should also be available
nearby the site. The site should be free from pollution, industrial waste, domestic waste and
any other harmful activities.
For, site selection the following ecological, biological and social factors need to be
considered.
Ecological factors
In site selection for a pond, the ecological factors to be considered include soil, water,
topography and climate.
Soil
The soil quality influences the pond productivity and water quality and determines the dyke
construction. The properties of soil texture and soil permeability are determined to decide the
suitability of a site. Pond bottom should have the ability to hold the water. Loamy, clay
loamy and silt clay soil types are most suitable for pond construction. A good quality gravel
should not exceed 10 percent. Thus the rocky, sandy, gravel and limestone soil types are to be
avoided.
Evaluation of soil suitability
Soil suitability can be evaluated by three methods.

 In squeeze method, take the soil in wet hand and squeeze the soil by closing your
hand firmly. If it holds its shape even after opening the palm of your hand, soil is
suitable for pond construction.
 The ground water test is the best method to evaluate the soil suitability. Dig a pit of
one-meter depth and cover it with leaves for a night. If the pit is filled with ground
water in the next day morning then a pond could be built. However, in such soils,
drainage may require more time due to the availability of sufficient groundwater. If
the pit is empty the next morning, the site is suitable for pond construction, but the
water permeability has to be tested.
 The third method is the water permeability test. Pour the water into the pit and cover
with leaves. If no water is found in the pit on the next day morning then there is
seepage. To confirm this, once again pour the water into the pit and cover it with
leaves. If the water availability is high then the site is suitable for construction. But if
the water is drained, the site is not suitable for pond construction. However, the site
can be used through use of plastic or heavy clay to cover pond bottom.
Water
An adequate amount of water is required to build the fish farm because water depth needs to
be adjusted at regular intervals. Natural water bodies such as reservoir, river, and lakes have
stable water quality parameters (Water temperature, dissolved oxygen, pH, alkalinity and
water hardness) when compared to borewell and well water. The site should be away from
the flood area. Water should not be acidic or alkaline and if found to be so, suitable
correction is to be done by applying lime or organic manure respectively.
The ideal water temperature is 20 – 300C for a fish farm. Water Salinity is the amount of salt
dissolved in water. A few freshwater fishes such as tilapia and catfishes grow even in salt
water, but the carps can withstand only in freshwater.
Topography
Type of pond construction is determined by the land topography. Normally, flood prone areas
and poor rainfall areas need to be avoided. Areas such as industrial zones, fields with
underground oil pipelines, irregular land area, fields with high electricity poles and radio
masts and highly rooted vegetation area are also not recommended for pond construction.
Biological factors
Biological factors include the species to be cultured, seed source and culture type and they
need to be considered before site selection of farm.
Social and economic factors
The ecological and biological factors are a prerequisite for good practices in aquaculture site
selection and site management. It is also important to get to know the social and economic
background of the area and understand the culture and traditions, particularly ideas and
beliefs locally associated with aquaculture practices. The social fabric, market, and its
structure, services directly or indirectly linked with aquaculture sector such as transportation,
storage, wholesale market aspects etc are to be considered. The land identified for farm
should be without legal issues and fish farming should be accepted by the local people. Other
factors include availability of labour, electricity, medical facilities, and transportation.
Pond Construction

An intelligent design and layout is a prerequisite for an efficient pond construction. The
excavated earth should be used to construct the dyke and with a plodding slope towards the
outlet for the proper draining facility. Preferably construction of pond has to be completed
during summer so that the pond can be used for stocking.
Steps in pond construction
Normally, the pond construction includes the following steps.
Step 1: Prepare the site by removing unwanted things such as the trees, bushes, and rock
Step 2 : Construction of seepage-free and secure dyke by using the clay core
Step 3 : Digging the pond and construction of dyke over the clay core
Step 4 : Inlet and outlet construction
Step 5 : Pond dyke covered with soil and plant grass species (avoid long rooted plants such as
Rhodes grass and star grass)
Step 6 : Pond should be fenced to avoid theft and entry of predatory animals
Site preparation
The place is cleared of ropes, cables and other items. Trees and bushes and other obstacles
that hinder movement of heavy equipment around the site are to be removed - manually /
animal power /using machinery. All vegetation including wood are to be cleared in the area
(inclusive of 2 to 3 m beyond the dyke for workspace). Trees within 10 meters
surrounding, tree slumps, large stones, are also to be removed. The surface soil which has the
highest concentration of roots and organic material is not suitable for pond construction.
Hence, about 30 cm of surface soil has to be removed.
Construction of dyke
Dykes should be compact, solid and leak free. A desirable dyke is constructed using 15 - 30
percent of silt, 45 - 55 percent of sand and 30 - 35 percent of clay. A sufficient width of the
berm (not less than 1 m) is required to stabilize slope. The embankment slope in horizontal to
vertical should be 2:1 in good quality clay soil and 3:1 for loamy silt or sandy soils. To raise
the dyke, the clay buddle (1:2 sand and clay) is deposited as 10 - 15 cm thick layer and it can
be formed at centre or inside the waterside of the pond. The crest of the dyke should be
sufficient to help allied farm activities and the top of embankment should be above 1 m.
Extra outlet is essential on the embankment as a safety measure to avoid damage due to
excess raise in the water level.
Digging the pond and construction of dyke
Types of pond
Specific kinds of ponds are required for specific life stage development of fishes - such as
nursery, rearing, stocking, treatment and broodstock pond. The rectangular pond is preferred
than round shaped corners as it prevents the fish escape during harvest. An ideal length and
breadth ratio of the pond is 3:1 is ideal, with breadth not more than 30 - 50 m. The total farm
area can be divided as - nursery - 5 % of total farm area, rearing pond - 20 %, stocking pond -
70 %, and bio pond or treatment pond - 5 % of the total farm area.

 Nursery pond - The size of the nursery pond is about 0.01 to 0.05 ha with a depth
of 1.0 – 1.5 m. The spawn (3 days old) are stocked in nursery pond, reared for a
maximum of 30 days (to attain 2 – 3 cm length).
 Rearing tank - a tank where the fry are reared into fingerlings (to attain a size of 10
– 15 cm) and the culture duration is 2 – 3 months. The size of pond varies from 0.05 –
0.1 ha with water depth of 1.5 – 2.0 m.
 Stocking pond - In stocking pond, the fingerlings (TL 10 – 15 cm) are reared into
marketable size. The culture duration varies from 8 – 10 months. The stocking density
varies according to the target fish production. The stocking pond is used as
broodstock pond and breeding pond as per the requirement. However, the pond area
ranges from 1 – 2 ha with a greater water depth of 2.5 – 3.0 m. There are no hard rules
regarding the size of the ponds.
 Bio pond or treatment ponds - these are large settling tanks, where the water used
for fishponds is purified biologically. They may also be used as stocking pond.
However, an even flat bottom is recommended for easy netting operation.

A productive farm should use its higher altitude area for construction of nursery pond
followed by the rearing pond. The lowest area of the farm should be used to build the
stocking pond, which will help in reducing the cost of construction and increase ease of farm
management.
Pond construction types
The ponds are constructed by two types namely, dug out and embankment pond.
The dug out pond is constructed by digging the soil and is most suitable to construct ponds in
plain areas. It is to be scientifically constructed maintaining shape, size, depth and other
factors.
Embankment pond is more appropriate for hilly areas. Dykes may be erected on 1 or 2 sides
based on need. This pond is economically viable but not ideal for fish culture because the
size, shape and depth of pond cannot be fixed as per scientific fish culture specifications.
Inlet and outlet construction
Feeder canals are constructed to provide sufficient amount of quality water to the ponds
except in ponds which are filled by rainwater. Inlets are provided at top of the pond and
screens are used to filter the pumped water to avoid entry of unwanted particles to the culture
system. The inlet pipe size has to be designed is such a way that it should not take more than
1 or 2 days to fill the pond.
The outlet pipe is set up at bottom of the pond. It is used to dewater the pond during harvest
and partial draining for pond water exchange to maintain the water quality of the pond during
the culture period. The outlet is constructed prior to pond dyke construction.
Soil and vegetation coverage of Dyke
To reduce the soil erosion, creeping grass can be grown on the top and sides of dyke. The
banana and coconut trees can be planted in the embankment. The slope of the embankment
can be planted with grasses such as Hybrid Napier, gunny grass and elephant grass to supply
feed to the grass carps reared in the ponds.
Pond fencing
The ponds are fenced to protect from theft. Live fences also serve as windbreak, increase
farm diversity, provide privacy to farm and improve the appearance of the fish farm. There
are several ways to make fences. These include live fence, piled fence, woven fence, post and
rail fence, wire fence, wire netting fence and stone wall. Each type of fence has its own
advantages and disadvantages. Wired net fence is primarily used in fish farms to stop
intruders and protect the fish stock.

Food and Feeding Habits of Fish

The inland water bodies consist of small aquariums to nursery ponds, canals, beels, haor,
baors (oxbow-lake), rivers, streams, flooded lands, etc. These are called freshwater
basins. The more diverse fish types are found in these water bodies. The shape, nature,
feeding habits, color, etc. vary from species to species. Their cultivation system is also
different. It is important to have scientific knowledge about the nature of fish, feeding habits,
diseases and so on to cultivate fish through the choice using suitable control measures. Food
and feeding habits of fish is very important factor that helps to choose the fish type for
cultivation.

Types of Fish
Fish are classified into the following four types based on the type of food.
Herbivorous
This type of fish survives, grows and reproduction by eating unicellular algae, filamentous
algae, small water plants, portion of higher aquatic plants, detritus along with some mud or
sand. In this case, the plant materials in their food consist of about 75% or more of the total
gut contents while the animal-based food varies 1-10% in its diet. For example, Labeo
rohita, Catla catla, Labeo bata, Ctenopharyngodon idella, Amblypharyngodon mola,
Oreochromis mossumbicus, etc.

Carnivorous
They take large numbers of animals as food such as Copepods, Cladocerans, insects
such as beetles, water bugs, damsel flies, dragon flies, larvae, mollusks, different small fishes,
tadpole larvae, etc. Some notable carnivorous fishes are Wallago attu, Channa punctatus,
channa striatus, Channa marulius, Channa gachua, Chitala chitala, Chanda nama, Chanda
ranga, Rita rita, Glossogobious giuris, Mystus seenghala, Mystus cavassius, Ompok pabda,
etc. Among them some are active predators such as Channa marulius, Channa striatus,
Wallago attu, Chitala chitala, Mystus seenghala, etc.

Omnivorous
These types of fish eat all kinds of food. Although their favorite food is insects, they also eat
vegetable-based foods such as unicellular and filamentous algae, different aquatic plants
when needed. Besides, they take zooplankton such as crustaceans, rotifers, insects and its
larvae, mud and sands. During their young stage, most of the fish prefer to eat zooplankton.
They consume varying percentage of plants and animal materials.
Among omnivorous fishes, some feed on a large amount of plant materials. Some feed on
equal amount of animal and plant materials while other take a greater amount of animal
foods. Some important omnivorous fishes are Cyprinous carpio, Cirrhinus cirhosus, Tor tor,
Puntius ticto, Puntius sophore, Puntius sarana, Gadusia chapra, Colisa fasciatus,
Eutropicthyes vacha, etc.

Plankton Feeders

Some fish species take both zooplankton and phytoplankton. They take these types of food by
filtering water using their gill rackers. Gizzard shad (Dorosoma cepedianum) fry feed on
zooplankton until reach the length of one inch. They become a filter feeder after losing their
teeth and consume phytoplankton and some tiny invertebrates.

Menhaden (Brevoortia) is also filter feeder that prefers to feed mainly on

phytoplankton. They capture phytoplankton from the water using their gill rakers. Adult
menhaden can filter 4 gallons of water per minute and receive different phytoplankton and
zooplankton within their gills.

A silver carp (Hypophthalmichthys molitrix) is also a filter feeder that has a special filtration
capacity. They can filter though their gills and consume lots of phytoplankton and
zooplankton.
Fish can also be classified into the following three types based on the niche they occupy
in different water levels.

Surface Feeders

The uppermost layer of water, where sunlight enters, grows a large number of plankton which
produce their food through the process of photosynthesis using their chlorophyll. At this level
oxygen is even higher which is suitable for various animal organisms. Catla catla is mainly
stay at this level to collect food. Silver Carp is also a resident of this level. Besides, Puntius
ticto, Oygaster bacaila, Chanda ranga, Chanda nama, Glossogobious giuris,Tenualosa
ilisha, Gadusia chapra, etc are notable surface feeder fishes.

Column Feeders
Some species of fishes take their food from the mid water. At this level water waves are
relatively few but zooplankton, phytoplankton are available with sufficient amount of
oxygen, suitable for fish. The fish that live here are neither true bottom nor true surface
feeders. They mostly depend on the food of the middle layer of the water. Labeo rohita,
Labeo bata, Tor tor, Puntius sophore, Mystus seenghala, Wallago attu, Mystus vittatus, etc
are the column feeder fishes.

Bottom Feeders
The bottom feeder fish mainly depend on food for bottom organisms. At this level, lots of
benthos live here that provides nutrients to the fishes. Labeo calbasu, Labeo
gonius, Cirrhinus cirrhosus, Puntius sarana,Amblypharyngodon mola, Cirrhinus reba,
Clarias batrachus, Heteropneustes fossilis, Channa striatuis, Channa marulius, etc are
notable bottom feeder fishes.

Aquaculture feeds are formulated with a vast pool of ingredients which, when fed to the
animal, are intended to supply its nutritional requirements to perform its normal physiological
functions, including maintaining a highly effective natural immune system, growth, and
reproduction.
The following table showing the food and feeding habits of some freshwater fishes:

Scientific Name of Fish Order Name Feeding Habits Food Types

Fish fry, insects and its larvae,

Mystus seenghala, Wallago Carnivorous and
Siluriformes fingerlings, small fishes, tadpoles,
attu, Predatory
frogs, etc.

Fish fry, insects and its larvae,

Channa marulius, Channa Carnivorous and
Cahnniformes fingerlings, small fishes, tadpoles,
striatus, Chitala chitala Predatory
frogs, etc.

Insects, worms, crustaceans, fish fry,

Clarias batrachus Siluriformes Omnivorous insects larvae, decaying organic maters,
etc.

Insects, worms, copepods, ostracods,

Heteropneustes fossilis Siluriformes Omnivorous
debris, algae, etc

Algae, microscopic plants, vegetable

Labeo rohita Cypriniformes Herbivorous
matters, detritus, sand and mud, etc.

They mainly feed on aquatic plants and

Osphronemus goramy Anabantiformes Herbivorous
algae.

They mainly feed on aquatic plants and

Oreochromis mossambicus Cichliformes Herbivorous
filamentous algae.

They voraciously feed on aquatic

Ctenopharyngodon idella Cypriniformes Herbivorous
vegetation.

Hypopthalmicthys molitrix Cypriniformes Plankton feeder Unicellular algae, rotifers, decaying

 Scientific Name of Fish Order Name Feeding Habits Food Types

microorganisms, detritus, etc.

Microscopic plants, Algae, rotifers,

Catla catla Cypriniformes Plankton feeder
insects, crustaceans, etc.

Algae, decaying plants, and animal

Cirrhinus cirrhosus Cypriniformes Omnivorous
matters, detritus and mud, etc.

Algae, decaying organic matter, insects,

Tor putitora Cypriniformes Omnivorous
rotivers, protozoans, etc.

Macro vegetation, filamentous algae,

Tor tor Cypriniformes Omnivorous
mollusks, sands and muds, etc.

Algae, macro-vegetation, insects,

Cyprinus carpio Cypriniformes Omnivorous
rotifers, crustaceans, etc.
Concluding Remarks

Food and feeding pattern of fish is very important factor that helps to choose the fish type for cultivation. It helps to avoid clash for getting food
among them in different water levels. Fishes are carnivorous, herbivorous or omnivorous however a large portion of them are exceptionally
adaptable in their feeding habits and use the promptly available diet. Just a few fish groups are strictly herbivorous or carnivorous and the
available food helps to decide if it will be eaten by the fish.
Advantages of Fish Farming:
1. Fish provides high quality animal protein for human consumption.

2. A farmer can often integrate fish farming into the existing farm to create additional income
and improve its water management.

3. Fish growth in ponds can be controlled: the farmers themselves select the fish species they
wish to raise.

4. The fish produced in a pond are the owner’s property; they are secure and can be harvested
at will. Fish in wild waters are free for all and make an individual share in the common catch
uncertain.

5. Fish in a pond are usually close at hand.

6. Effective land use: effective use of marginal land e.g. land that is too poor, or too costly to
drain for agriculture can be profitably devoted to fish farming provided that it is suitably
prepared.

Methods of Fish Farming:

Fish farming may range from ‘backyard’ subsistence ponds to large scale industrial
enterprises. Farming systems can be expressed in terms of input levels.

1. In extensive fish farming, economic and labour inputs are usually low. Natural food
production plays a very important role, and the system’s productivity is relatively low.
Fertiliser may be used to increase fertility and thus fish production.

2. Semi-intensive fish farming requires a moderate level of inputs and fish production is
increased by the use of fertiliser and/or supplementary feeding. This means higher labour and
feed costs, but higher fish yields usually more than compensate for this.

3. Intensive fish farming involves a high level of inputs and stocking the ponds with as
many fish as possible. The fish are fed supplementary feed, while natural food production
plays a minor role. In this system, difficult management problems can arise caused by high
fish stocking densities (increased susceptibility to diseases and dissolved oxygen shortage).

The high production costs force one to fetch a high market price in order to make the fish
farm economically feasible.
 Aquatic Weeds and Control Management
Aquatic Weeds:
It is unanimously accepted that the main concern of the commercial fish farm is the
profitability. One of the prime difficulties is uncontrolled growth of aquatic weeds. The
control of aquatic weeds in almost all the systems of aquaculture is a problem noticed all over
the world. The weeds problems are more in aquatic systems of tropical and semitropical
countries like India and then in the western countries.

The weeds can be defined as unwanted and undesirable plants that are adopted to grow and
reproduce under aquatic conditions.

Limited growth of aquatic plants may be useful in the maintenance of water quality and
may serve as shelter and substrate for food organisms in water but their uncontrolled
growth may cover the surface of the water of the pond resulting large numbers of
problems, which are mentioned below:
1. The penetration of the light will not be adequate and thus affect the productivity of fish
production.

2. The nutrients in the water, which is generated by fertilizing the pond, will be consumed
more by plants, and fish will not get the sufficient nutrients, hence it will badly affect the
growth and production rate of the cultured species.

3. Blooms of the algae often results in the depletion of oxygen (as a result of dead and
decaying algal mass that quantity of oxygen production will be reduced) causing anoxia (less
quantity of oxygen) for the fishes cultured in the pond.

Dissolved oxygen (DO) is the parameter for water quality and reflects the physical and
biological processes prevailing in the water. To maintain good fish population in the fish-
pond, the DO should be around 6.0 mg/lit.

4. Fishing with nets will be difficult. It will be a problem for cage fisheries also as the algae
will stick to the cages.

Common aquatic weeds comprise both filamentous and single cells algae.

They have been divided according to look, 1996 & Naithani, 1990 as follows:

A. Floating Weeds:
They are free floating with their leaves over the surface of water while roots are under water.
The most common are Eichornia, Azolla and Pistia (Fig. 26.1).
B. Emergent Weeds:

They possess roots which are present in the soil of the water while their leaves or shoots are

present over the surface of water, e.g. Utricularia Nymphaea, Trapa, Myriophyllum, Otella,
Vallisneria etc. (Fig. 26.2).

C. Submerged weeds are those weeds, which are completely submerged under water, but

their roots are present in the soil of the pond. The common examples are Hydrilla and Naja.

The Ceratophyllum and Utricularia also come under the category of submerged weeds but
their roots are not present in the soil and the roots are free floating (Fig. 26.3).
D. Marginal weeds, grow on the sides of the pond and are rooted in the waterlogged soil.
The common marginal weeds are Typha and Phargmites (Fig. 26.4).

E. Filamentous algae, form mats in the marginal area or scum in the main water body. The
most common filamentous algae in the ponds are Spirogyra and Pithophora.

F. Planktonic algae proliferate very rapidly and form algal bloom in water. The most
common example is Microcystis and Anabaena.

Control Management of Aquatic Weeds:

Following are the methods for the control of weed:
1. Manual
2. Mechanical
3. Chemical
4. Biological
5. Control by intra-specific competition.

1. Manual Method:
The manual method is the most convenient, cheap and easy in India and in the developing

nations, since there the labour is cheap. It is not long lasting because the weeds grow again as
it is difficult to eradicate the weeds completely.

The emergent and marginal weeds are removed by pulling them with hand. They are kept

under check by cutting their floating roots repeatedly. The floating weeds are removed either
by hand or wire-coirs nylon-nets.

For the clearing of rooted submerged weeds simple methods like hand-pull bottom rakes,

bamboo poles with toothed pronged can be used. Repeated removal, combined with
biological or chemical method, may be continued to control the weed.

2. Mechanical Methods:
The mechanical methods are many; their application depends upon different size of lakes.

They are different if they are used for extensive fish farms. For moderate fish farm of 100 ha,

the most common method is the weed cutter. It is used for removal of submerged and
emergent weeds.

The weed cutters are either flat-bottomed boat fitted with cutting beams or other cutting

devices. Amphibious boats fitted with weed-cutting devices are especially convenient for use
in shallow ponds and enclosures. It may appear easier to remove algal growths such as musk
grass (Charra) but it is difficult to remove the clumps completely by this mechanical method.

3. Chemical Methods:
The following is the list of chemicals used for the eradication of the weed. The use of these

chemicals has adverse effect on the fish growth indirectly because these chemicals badly

effect aquatic organisms which are food of the fish. Some of the herbicide and weedicide,
chemical used are Sodium arsenite, xylene, 2, 4 dichlorophenoxy acetic acid (2, 4 D), etc.
4. Biological Control of Aquatic Weed:
There are large numbers of biological control methods. The use of herbivorous fishes and

other aquatic animals has been used for biological control of weeds. The biological control of

aquatic weeds is easy and popular and is achieved by fishes those are phytophagus or
herbivorous fishes.

The most common fishes are Ctenopharyngodon idella (grass carp) Carassius carassius,

Carassius auratus, Tilapia mossambicus. These fishes consume aquatic weeds as their food.
These fishes are having strong pharyngeal teeth and, therefore, could macerate plant material.

Hypophthalmichthys molitrix feeds on phytoplankton. It is reported that grass carp could

consume about 19.9 metric tons of water weed and could produce about 195 kg of fish flash.

It can thus control growth of aquatic weed very efficiently. The aquatic weed can be used as
feed for fishes. It can also be used as protein for human consumption.

The following parts of the weeds are used as food for human use:
lpomea aquatica, young leaves and stem, leaves.

Marsilea species, flowers, leaves and rhizome.

Nymphia species, seeds.

Euryale ferox are used for human consumption.

Weeds are also used as the source of energy and biogas.

The common weeds are water hyacinth. The cow dung and water hyacinth are mixed in the
ratio of 1:1.

Waste Water Treatment:

Some aquatic plants such as Scirpus lacustris, Ceratophyllum demersum, Spirodella
polyrhiza and Lemna minor are used in waste-water treatment.

Aquatic Weeds are used in Pulp:

Some aquatic weeds are used in pulp, paper and fibre industry. There are some other uses of
weeds. They are used for the construction of huts, etc.
 Fisheries: Types of Fisheries and it Economical Importance
Fisheries: Types of Fisheries and it Economical Importance! Fish are aquatic, cold blooded
and craniate vertebrates belonging to the super class Pisces under phylum Chordata.

Fishery is a kind of industry which is concerned with the catching, processing or selling of
fish, shellfish (molluscs, each has a shell in two halves, used for food, e.g., mussels, oysters,
etc.) and crustaceans.

Economic Importance of Fish:

(i) Fish as food:
The fish flesh is an excellent source of protein, has very little fat, carries a good amount of
minerals and vitamins A and D and rich in iodine. Above all man can digest it easily. Some
important edible fish of India are given in the Table 9.7 & 9.8.

(ii) Fish for controlling diseases:

Diseases like malaria, yellow fever and other dreadful diseases that are spread through
mosquitoes can be controlled. Larvivorous fish eat larva of mosquito. The important
larvivorous fish are Gambusia, Panchax, Haplochitus, Trichogaster, etc.

(iii) Scientific value:

Some fish like the lung fish are of zoological importance because of their discontinuous
distribution and anatomical features.

(iv) Aesthetic value:

A large number of fish are cultured in aquarium for their beauty and graceful movements.
The important aquarium fish are Macropodus, Trichogaster, Carassinus (gold fish) and
Pterophyllum (angel fish).

(v) Fishery Bye-products:

(a) Fish oil:It is extracted from the liver of the sharks, sawfishes, skates and rays and has
medicinal value. These mainly include cod liver oil and shark liver oil.

(b) Fish Manure:The fish waste after the extraction of oil, is used as fertilizers,

(c) Fish Glue:It is a sticky product, obtained from the skin of the cod and is used as gum.

(d) Isinglass:It is a gelatinous substance, obtained from the air bladder of perches, Indian
Salmons and cat fish used in the preparation of special cement and in the clarification of wine
and beer,
(e) Shagreen: The skin of sharks and rays, which has pointed and sharp placoid scales are
used in polishing the wood and other materials. It is also used for covering the jewellery
boxes and swords,
(f) Leather:
A highly durable type of leather is prepared from the skin of sharks and rays,

(g) Artificial pearls:

The silvery boney scales of cypnmids (a type of fish) are used in the manufacture of artificial
pearls especially in France.

(vi) Employment:
Development of fishing industry generates more employment opportunities.

(vii) Source of Income:

The fishing industry has brought a lot of income to the farmers in particular and the country
in general. Now we can talk about “Blue Revolution” (fish production) on the same lines as
‘Green Revolution’ (for producing enough food for all).

Types of Fisheries:
There are two main types of fisheries: Inland fisheries and marine fisheries.

Inland or Fresh Water Fisheries:

Inland fishery deals with the fishery aspects of waters other than marine water. Potentially,
the vast and varied inland fishery resources of India are one of the richest in the world. They
pertain to two types of waters, namely, the fresh and the brackish. The former includes the
country’s great river systems, an extensive network of irrigation canals, reservoirs, lakes,
tanks, ponds, etc.

The estuaries, lagoons and mangrove swamps constitute the brackish type of water. In
pisciculture (culture fisheries), which generally pertains to small water bodies, the fish seed
has to be sown, tended, nursed, reared and finally harvested when grown to table size. In the
case of capture fisheries, which pertain to the rivers, estuaries, large reservoirs, as well as big
lakes, man has only to reap without having to sow some important edible fresh waterfishes of
India are given in the table 9.7.
Table 9.7. Important Edible Fresh Water Fishes of India:

Name Name

1. Rohu (Labeo rohita) 5. Mangur (Clarias batrachus)

2. Calbasu (L. calbasu) 6. Singhi (Heteropneustes fossilis)

3. Catla (Catla catla) 7. Malli (Wallago attu)

4. Singhara (Mystus 8. Mirgala (Cirrhinus mrigala)

seenghala)

Types of Breeding:
According to the mode of breeding there are two categories, natural breeding and induced
breeding.

(i) Natural Breeding (Bundh breeding):

The natural bundhs are special types of ponds where natural water resource conditions are
managed for the breeding of culturable fish. These bundhs are constructed in large low-lying
areas to accumulate large quantity of rain water. These bundhs are having an outlet for the
exit of excess rain water.

(ii) Induced Breeding:

In artificial method of fertilization ova from the females and the sperms from the males are
taken out by artificial mechanical process and the eggs are got fertilized by the sperms.
Different methods are used for induced breeding. Here induced breeding by hormones
method is briefly described. The gonadotropin hormone (FSH and LH) secreted by pituitary
gland influences the maturation of gonads and spawning in fishes. In India, Khan (1938)
successfully induced Cirrhinus mrigala to spawn by injecting mammalian pituitary hormone.

(iii) Composite Fish Farming:

It is found that if few selected species of fish are stocked together in proper proportion in a
pond, total production of fish is increased many times. This mixed farming is called
composite farming. It has some advantage-compatible species do not harm each other, all
available areas are fully utilised, no competition among different species is found and fish
may have beneficial effect on each other. Catla catla, Labeo-rohita and Cirrhina mrigala are
surface feeder, column feeder and bottom feeder respectively and are used for composite
farming.
Marine Fisheries:
Marine fishery deals with the fishery aspects of the sea water or ocean.

Table 9.8. Important Edible Marine Fish of India:

1. Bombay duck 7. Mackerel (Rastrelliger)

(Harpodon sp)

2. Eel (Anguilla sp) 8. Flying Fish (Exocoetus)

3. Hilsa (Hilsa) 9. Ribbon Fish (Trichiurus)

4. Pomfret (Stromateus) 10. Tuna (Thunnus)

5. Salmon 11. Seer Fish (Scomberomorus)

(Aluitheronema)

6. Sardine (Sardinella)

Hilsa migrates from the sea to the river for breeding.

Fish Diseases Caused by Parasites and Pathogens:

1. Bacterial Diseases:
Two bacterial diseases are very important.

(i) Abdominal dropsy of Carps is caused by Aeromonas punctuata.

(ii) Furunculoris of Salmons and trout’s is caused by Aeromonas salminicida.

2. Viral Diseases:
Economically most important is the viral haemorrhage septicaemia (VHS) of rainbow trouts.

3. Protozoan Diseases:
Main protozoan diseases are caused by Costia, Myxobolus and Trypanosoma.

4. Fungal Diseases:
The gill rot (branchyomyces) of carps involves the attack of Saprolegnia on the gills of carps.

5. Worm Diseases:
Worms of four groups are parasites on fish. The flatworms (trematodes), tapeworms
(cestodes), round worms (nematodes) and thorny-headed worms (acanthocephalans).
6. Common Ectoparasites:
Two ectoparasites of fish are most important, the fish lice (Argulus, Lernaea and Ergasilus)
and the fish leech (Piscicold). Both parasites weaken fish by feeding on its blood.

Aquaculture / fishing industries in India

Aquaculture is a non-traditional investment due to its poor beta correlation with
publicly listed stocks and bonds. Though investment in aquaculture could be
risky, investors who spend time educating themselves about the industry and its
inherent hazards can be rewarded handsomely. Let us know more about
aquaculture stocks in India

Aquaculture Industry in India

Aquaculture is the commercial cultivation of fish, shellfish, and seaweed. It is
distinct from wild-caught or caught fisheries, which take species straight from
seas, estuaries, and freshwater rivers and lakes. Aquaculture is currently the
fastest-growing source of food generation on the planet. Aquaculture, now a Rs
19 billion sector, shows enormous promise for meeting rising global demand for
further sustainable types of protein while safeguarding marine habitats.
Furthermore, regarding freshwater consumption, CO2 emissions, and land
utilization, aquaculture has higher resource-use efficiency and a lower
environmental impact than conventional meat production. On the other hand,
aquaculture confronts hurdles due to possible negative consequences on
ecosystems, effects on wild species, and dangers to water quality.
List of the top aquaculture companies in India

Apex Frozen Foods Ltd.

Apex Frozen Foods is one of India's biggest fishery companies. Its one of the
top exporters and manufacturers of shrimp that is prepared and ready to boil, the
firm began operations in 1995. Companies like Bay Harvest, BayPremium, and
Bay Fresh are the owners of Apex Frozen Foods. This company's annual sales
are 871 crores, and they profit roughly 50 crores from those sales.

Avanti Feeds Ltd.

A leading fish farming company in India, Avanti Feeds Ltd, is situated in
Andhra Pradesh. The business is ISO-certified and has two units of seafood
processors, including five shrimp feed production units. In three years, this
company's revenues have increased by 21.69%.
Coastal Corporation Limited
The shrimp products from Coastal Corporation Limited are used by millions of
people in China, Korea, Russia, and many other nations. With a capitalization of
234.90 crores, Coastal Co. Ltd. is one of India's leading agricultural companies.
The company boasts about the cutting-edge technology it uses for everything
from processing to sourcing, offering adulterated and higher-grade shrimp to the
worldwide market, and packaging.

Adinath Bio Labs

This business was started in 1985 by A K Jai, based in Kolkata. Adinath Bio-
Labs, Ltd. produces chemicals and medicinal raw materials for the
pharmaceutical and aromatic industries, but it is mainly a pharmaceutical
manufacturer. The essential goods, which Adinath Bio-Labs specialises in, are
liquids like menthol and peppermint oil.

Waterbase Ltd.
When it was established in 1993, Waterbase Ltd was the country's first fully
integrated aquaculture business—using technical support by LUXE, one of the
top shrimp and fish feed providers worldwide. Leading academic institutions
and worldwide aquaculture organisations joined Forces with the business.
Several industry specialists have developed industry-wide best practices in
animal healthcare coverage, agriculture, research, product design, and product
design.

Uniroyal Marine Exports

The non-government organisation Uniroyal Marine Export Limited was
established on August 21, 1992. It is a publicly traded business listed with the
Ernakulam Registrar of Companies. This firm works to produce, prepare, and
preserve foods, including fish, meat, fruits, and vegetables. The authorized
share capital for this firm is Rs. 80,000,000, while the paid-up capital is Rs.
64,795,000.

BKV Industries
The business is now known as BKV Industries Ltd.; its previous name was
Bommidala Aquamarine Limited. This business was converted into a public
limited corporation to support aquaculture-related industrial initiatives. The firm
is regarded to be one of the world's most successful and innovative shrimp
farming operations. For more than 40 years, the Bommidala dynasty has pushed
its firm in various industries.
Conclusion
Aquaculture is among the world's most valued and sought-after food
commodities, paving the way, including its environmental agenda and
innovative approach to addressing world food security for future generations.
As a booming sector that employs more than 33% of the seafood industry,
aquaculture is expected to overtake fishing and become the principal source of
seafood supply for human food globally. And many experts believe that there
are many growth opportunities in this sector. As a result, investors may benefit
from investing in aquaculture stocks.

Premier Fisheries Research Institutes in India

1. CIFRI : Central Inland Fisheries Research Institute, Barrackpore, West
Bengal (The oldest premier research institute in the field of Inland fisheries, in
India).

2. CIBA : Central Institute of Brackishwater Aquaculture, Chennai, Tamil Nadu

3. CIFE : Central Institute of Fisheries Education, Mumbai, Maharashtra.

4. CIFT : Central Institute of Fisheries Technology, Kochi, Kerala

5. CIFA : Central Institute of Freshwater Aquaculture, Kaushalyganga,

Bhubaneswar, Odisa.

6. CMFRI : Central Marine Fisheries Research Institute, Kochi, Kerala

7. NBFGR : National Bureau of Fish Genetic Resources, Lucknow, Uttar

Pradesh

8. NRCCF : National Research Centre on Coldwater Fisheries, Bhimtal,

Nainital, Uttarakhand.