1

FIRE TECHNOLOGY AND ARSON INVESTIGATION OXYGEN (Oxidizing Agent)

A colorless, odorless gas and one of the compositions of
FIRE air which is approximately 21% percent by volume.
is a rapid, self sustaining oxidation process
accompanied by the evolution of heat and light Oxygen sources: Oxygen
of varying intensity. Requirements
 Is an active chemical reaction that takes 1. 21% of normal oxygen 1. 12% no fire
place between fuel, heat and oxygen in 2. 78% nitrogen 2. 14% flash point
the form of light and noticeable heat. 3. 1% other gases 3. 21% fire point
 A chemical reaction, visible active phase
of combustion. Self-sustaining process FUEL- is the material or substance being oxidized or
that emit light and heat as a by product of burned in the combustion process.
the reaction
 It is an oxidation taking place with a rate WHAT ARE THE SOURCES OF FUEL?
rapid enough to produce heat and light 1. Solid- molecules are closely packed together
Technology – a branch of knowledge that deals with Ex: wood
industrial arts and sciences. It is the application of 2. Liquid- molecules are loosely packed
such knowledge that is used to produce the
Ex: gasoline
material necessity of society.
ELEMENTS OF FIRE 3. Gas- molecules are free to move
Ex: Natural and manufactured gas
The Fire Triangle General Categories of Fuel

1. Solid Combustible Materials – includes

Oxygen organic and inorganic, natural or synthetic,
and metallic solid materials.
Heat 2. Liquid Combustible Materials – includes all
flammable liquid fuels and chemicals.
3. Gaseous Substances – includes those
toxic/hazardous gases that are capable of
Fuel ignition.

HEAT- is the energy component of the fire tetrahedron.

Fuel – is anything that will burn when heated with When heat comes into contact with a fuel, the energy
sufficient oxygen. supports the combustion reaction.
Oxygen –aids in combustion; comes from the
atmosphere we breathe; the atmosphere contains: Types of Energy (common sources of heat)
21% oxygen, 78% nitrogen and 1% impurities. 1. Chemical Energy
Heat – source of ignition 2. Electrical Energy
3. Nuclear Energy
TETRAHEDRON OF FIRE 4. Mechanical Energy

The Fire Tetrahedron

1. Chemical Energy
Oxygen Heat - it is the most common source of heat in
combustion reactions. When any combustibles is in
contact with oxygen oxidation occurs. The reaction of
this process results in the production of heat.
ex. Heat generated from burning match, self
heating (spontaneous heating)
Fuel 2. Electrical Energy- electrical energy can generate
Chain Reaction temperature high enough to ignite any combustible
materials near the heated area.
Ex.
- a geometric representation of what is required for 1. over current or overload
fire to exist, namely, fuel, an oxidizing agent, heat, 2. Sparking
and an uninhibited chemical reaction. 3. static
4. Lightning
For combustion to occur, four components are
necessary: 3. Nuclear Energy - Nuclear heat energy is
 Oxygen (oxidizing agent) generated when atoms either split apart (fission)
 Fuel or combine (fusion)
 Heat Ex. a. fission heats water to drive steam turbines and
 Self-sustained chemical reaction produce electricity
Each component of the tetrahedron must be in b. solar energy is a product of a fusion reaction
place for combustion to occur. Remove one of the four
components and combustion will not occur. If ignition 4. Mechanical Energy- an energy created by friction and
has already occurred, the fire is extinguished when one compression
of the components is removed from the reaction. a. Heat of friction- is the movement of two
surfaces against each other, thus produced sparks.
b. Heat of compression- heat is generated when a
gas is compressed in a container or cylinder.
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SELF-SUSTAINED CHEMICAL REACTION 4. Flash Fire – better known as dust explosion.

Combustion is a complex reaction that requires a fuel (in This may happen when the metal post that is completely
the gaseous or vapor state), an oxidizer, and a heat covered with dust is going to be hit by lightning. The dust
energy to come together in a very specific way. Once particles covering the metal burn simultaneously thus
flaming combustion or fire occurs, it can only continue creating a violent chemical reaction that produces a very
bright flash followed by an explosion.
when enough heat energy is produced to cause the
continued development of fuel vapors or gases.
Scientists call this type of reaction a “chain reaction”. A
chain reaction is a series of reactions that occur in 3 STAGES OF FIRE
sequence with the result of each individual reaction 1. Incipient phase
being added to the rest. 2. Free burning phase
3. Smoldering
Fire Development 1. Incipient phase- initial stage of fire
When the four components of the fire tetrahedron come Characteristics
together, ignition occurs. For a fire to grow beyond the - normal room temperature
first material ignited, heat must be transmitted beyond - oxygen plentiful
the first material to additional fuel packages. - thermal updraft rise accumulates at
IGNITION higher point
- temperature at 1000 F
Ignition describes the period when the four elements of
- Producing (C02, CO, SO2, water vapor
the fire tetrahedron come together and combustion and other gases)
begins 2. Free-burning phase
GROWTH - a phase of burning in which materials or structures are
Shortly after ignition, a fire plume begins to form above burning in the presence of adequate oxygen.
the burning fuel. As the plume develops, it begins to Characteristics
draw or entrain air from the surrounding space into the - fire has involved more fuel
column. - oxygen supply has depleted
FLASHOVER - heat accumulates at upper area
Flashover is the transition between the growth and the - temperature exceeds 1,330 F
fully developed fire stages and is not a specific event - Area is fully involved
such as ignition. Flashover occurs when a room or other 3. Smoldering- final phase of burning wherein flame
area is heated enough that flames sweep over the entire ceases but dense smoke and heat completely fill
surface. the confined room.
FULLY DEVELOPED Characteristics:
The fully developed fire stage occurs when all - Flames may die and leave only glowing embers or
combustible materials in the compartment are involved super heated fuel under pressure with little oxygen.
in the fire. - Intense heat will vaporize lighter fuel components,
DECAY such as hydrogen and methane, increasing the hazard. -
As the fire consumes the available fuel in the Temperature throughout the building is very high and
compartment, the rate of heat released begins to normal breathing is not possible.
decline. - Oxygen deficiency may cause backdraft.
Dangerous Behavior of Fire
MODES OF HEAT TRANSFER
Fire is so fatal when the following conditions Heat is by-product of combustion that is of significant
occurred: importance to the firefighter. It is heat that causes fire to
sustain its combustion and, more important, to extend.
1. Backdraft – it is the sudden and rapid Conduction- is heat transfer within solids or between
(violent) burning of heated gases in a confined area that contacting solids.
occurs in the form of explosion. This may occur because Convection- is heat transfer by the movement of
of improper ventilation. If a room is not properly liquids or gasses.
ventilated, highly flammable vapors maybe accumulated Radiation- is heat transfer by electromagnetic
such that when a door or window is suddenly opened, waves.
the room violently sucks the oxygen from the outside Temperature – is the measurement of the degree of
and simultaneously, a sudden combustion occur, which thermal agitation of molecules, the
may happen as an explosion (combustion explosion). hotness or coldness of a material.
2. Flashover – it is the sudden ignition of
accumulated radical gases produced when there is FLAME CONTACT- Heat can be transferred from one
incomplete combustion of fuels. It is the sudden burning body to another by direct flame contact.
of free radicals, which is initiated by a spark or flash
produced when temperature rises until flash point is
PROPERTIES OF FIRE
reached.
1. Physical properties
When accumulated volume of radical gases
2. Chemical Properties
suddenly burns, there will be a very intense fire that is
1. Physical properties
capable of causing flames to jump at a certain distance
a. Specific gravity- the ratio of the weight of a solid or
in the form of fireball. Fireballs can travel to a hundred
substance to the weight of an equal volume of
yards with in a few seconds.
water.
4. Biteback - a fatal condition that takes place
b. Vapor density- the weight of volume of pure gas
when the fire resists extinguishment
compared to weight of a volume of dry air at the
operations and become stronger and bigger
same temperature and pressure.
instead.
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c. Vapor pressure- the force exerted by the molecules

on the surface of the liquid at the equilibrium.
d. Temperature- the measure of the thermal degree
of the agitation of molecules of a given substance;
the measure of the molecular activity within the c. Based on Smoothness
substance. 1. Laminar Flame – when a
e. Boiling Point- the constant temperature at which particle follows a smooth path
the vapor pressure of the liquid is equal to the through a gaseous flame.
atmospheric pressure. 2. Turbulent Flame – are those
f. Ignition temperature- the minimum temperature to having unsteady, irregular flows.
which the substance in the air must be heated in As physical size, gas density or
order to initiate or cause self-contained velocity is increased, all laminar
combustion without addition of heat from outside gas flows tend to become
sources. turbulent.
g. Fire point- the temperature at which the material
will give off ample vapors to keep burning.
h. Flash point- the temperature at which the material CLASSIFICATION OF FIRE
is not hot enough to keep burning, but still gives I. Based on Cause
off enough vapors to cause a flame across the II. Based on Burning Fuel
surface.
Pyrolysis - is the thermal decomposition of materials at I. Base on Cause
elevated temperatures in an inert atmosphere. It a. Natural fire / providential
involves the change of chemical composition and b. Accidental fire
is irreversible c. Intentional Fire / Incendiary
d. Undetermined
2. Chemical Properties
a. Endothermic reaction- are changes whereby II. Classification of fire base on burning fuel
energy is absorbed or is added before the 1. Class A Fuels – they are ordinary
reaction takes place. combustible materials that are usually made
b. Exothermic reaction- reactions or changes that of organic substances such as wood and
releases or give off energy wood-based products. It includes some
c. Oxidation- a chemical change in which combustible synthetic or inorganic materials like rubber,
material and an oxidizing material react leather, and plastic products.
d. Combustion or flame- the manifestation of fire is in 2. Class B Fuels – materials that are in the
its gas-phased combustion. A matter that is form of flammable liquids such as alcohol,
produced by fire. acidic solutions, oil, liquid petroleum
products, etc.
Types of Flames: 3. Class C Fuels – they are normally fire
resistant materials such as materials used
a. Based on Color and Completeness on electrical wiring and other electrical
of Combustibility of Fuel appliances.
1. Luminous Flame – is orange- 4. Class D Fuels – they are combustible
red, deposit soot at the bottom metallic substances such as magnesium,
of a vessel being heated due to titanium, zirconium, sodium and potassium.
incomplete combustion and has 5. Class E Fuels
a low temperature. – flammable gases such as LPG, LNG, etc. This
2. Non-Luminous Flame – is blue, will also creates violent reaction.
there is complete combustion of
fuel and has relatively high Extinguishing Agents
temperature. 1. Class A – water (all agents)
2. Class B – foam/carbon dioxide (all agents)
b. Based on Fuel and Air Mixture 3. Class C – carbon dioxide/powder (never use water,
soda acid and foam)
1. Premixed Flame – is 4. Class D – special powder
exemplified by a Bunsen-type 5. Class E – all agents
laboratory burner where Extinguishment of Fire using Fire Extinguisher
hydrocarbon (any substance
containing primarily carbon and Methods of Extinguishment
hydrogen) is thoroughly mixed 1. Cooling – heat absorption.
with air before reaching the 2. Separation – the removal of the fuel.
flame zone. 3. Smothering – by expelling oxygen
2. Diffusion Flame – is observed 4. Inhibition or the interruption of chemical chain
when gas (fuel) alone is forced reaction
through a nozzle into the Strategies Used in firefighting
atmosphere which diffuse in the 1. Locate the fire
surrounding atmosphere in 2. Confine the fire
order to form a flammable 3. Extinguish the fire
mixture. The candle flame is an 4. Exposures
example of diffusion flame Factors to be considered in extinguishment
governed purely by molecular 1. Time
diffusion, and the flame of the 2. Weather (temperature, humidity, wind)
oxyacetylene torch. (diffused – 3. The fire ( ex. Extent, location, bldg construction,
dispersed, widely spread) contents involved)
4. Occupancy
5. Ventilation (used for clearing the bldg of smoke and
gases)
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ARSON- consists of the willful and malicious burning of

all kinds of buildings and structures including personal
properties.

Types of Ventilation
a. Vertical ventilation- it must be worked from the top
to bottom.
b. Cross or horizontal ventilation- use if gases have not
INVESTIGATION - it is an art that deals with the identity
reached the higher level through the opening of
windows. and location of the offender and provides evidence of his
c. Mechanical force ventilation- a method whereby a guilt in criminal proceedings.
device such as smoke ejector is utilized to remove faster Elements of Arson
excessive heat and dense smoke. a. Actual burning took place
b. Actual burning is done with malicious intent.
c. The actual burning is done by person(s)
ADDITIONAL BASIC TACTICS USED IN
legally and criminally liable.
EXTINGUISHING FIRE
1. Rescue- any action taken by the firefighters to remove LAW AND JURISPRUDENCE
occupants/ persons from building/ hazards to a safety
place. The law on arson in the Philippines is
2. Overhaul- a complete and detailed checked of the covered by Articles 320 to 326 of the
structures and materials involved in the fire to make sure Revised Penal Code, as amended by PD
that every spark and ember has been extinguished and No. 1613, PD No. 1744, and Sec. 50 Rule
to have assurance against re-ignition. VIII IRR of RA 6975 which provides that
3. Salvage- an action taken by the firefighters in the Bureau of Fire Protection (BFP) shall
preventing excessive damage by fire, water with the use have the power to investigate all causes
of salvage cover or by removing materials out from the of fires and, if necessary, file the proper
burning building. complaint with the City/Provincial
prosecutor who has jurisdiction over arson
Ladder operations cases.
Types of ladder
1. Ground ladders (10 to 55 ft. long) The Law of Arson
2. Aerial ladders 1. Article 320 – 326 of the Revised Penal Code
Purposes of ladders defines Arson its forms and penalties.
a. for rescue 2. PD 1613 – Amending the Law on Arson. Defining
b. to stretch line into a fire building the Prima Facie Evidence of Arson.
c. Provide ventilation by giving access to places that are 3. PD 1744 – Amending Article 320 of RPC.
hard to reach Imposing death penalty to arsonist.
Forms of ground ladders *But after the EDSA Revolution 1, death penalty
a. Wall was abolished by then President Corazon C. Aquino.
b. Extension
4. RA 7659 – An act to impose death penalty on
c. Hook or straight ladder
certain heinous crimes, amending for that
d. Attic ladder
purpose the Revised Penal Code. As amended,
Wall Ladder
other special laws, and for other purposes.
STRAIGHT LADDER – 12 TO 16 feet or the most
common is 14 feet. 5. RA 6975 Sec. 54 – Which provides that the Fire
Hydraulic Aerial Ladders Bureau shall have the power to investigate all
causes of fires and if necessary file the
Articulating Boom Ladder
proper complaint with the City/Provincial
LADDER TERMINOLOGY Prosecutor who has jurisdiction over the
1. Bed ladder- the lowest section of an extension case.
ladder
What Constitutes Arson?
2. Fly ladder- the top section of an extension ladder
3. Butt- the bottom end of a ladder 1. Burning-
4. Heel- the part of the ladder that touches the ground 2. Willfulness – means intentional and implies that
5. Halyard- a rope or cable used to raised the fly the act was done purposely and intentionally.
ladder 3. Malice – denotes hatred or ill will or a desire for
6. Pawl or dog- the mechanism located at the end of revenge. Deliberate intention of doing unjustified harm
the fly ladder that locks to the bed ladder for the satisfaction of doing it.
7. Rung- the cross member of the ladder that is used 4. Motive – is the moving cause which induces the
for climbing commission of a crime. Something that leads or
8. Top or tip- it is the top part of the ladder influences a person to do something.
9. Hooks- part of a ladder that is used to hook over a 5. Intent – is the purpose or design with which the
roof peak, sills, or walls where the heel does not rest on act is done and involves the will. An essential element of
a foundation. (roof type ladders) crime, motive is not.
10. Stops- made of metal or wood blocks used to Methods of Proof in Arson
prevent the fly of an extension ladder from extending out
further from the ladder. 1. Burning – that there was fire that may be
11. Guides- light metal strips of an extension ladder shown by direct testimony of complaint,
that guides the fly ladder while it is being raised or firemen responding to the crime, other
lowered. eyewitnesses. Burned parts of the building
may also indicate location.
ARSON INVESTIGATIVE GUIDE AND PROCEDURES 2. Criminal Design – must show that it was
wilfully and intentionally done. The presence
of incendiary devices, flammables such as
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gasoline and kerosene may indicate that the their characteristics and oftentimes, arsonists are
fire is not accidental. trapped because of this tell tale signs.
3. Evidence of Intent – When valuables were 5. Objects that appear to be foreign to the scene
removed from the building before the fire, ill- such as cans, candles, matches, explosives, electrical
feeling between the accused and the appliances such as irons, heating elements, clocks,
occupants of the building burned, absence radios, flammables, etc.
of effort to put off fire and such other
indications.

Stages in the commission of Arson

6. Charring pattern may indicate fire characteristics.
Attempted Arson The fact that the fire feeds on combustible while
In attempted arson, it is not necessary that there be a propagating itself, indicates that the char will
fire before the crime is committed. No hard and fast rule generally be deepest from where the fire
is laid down by the law as to the requirements for originates. When a fire is extinguished quickly,
attempted arson. the charring is only slightly below the surface.
Fire burning for a longer period of time will
The peculiar facts and circumstances of a particular indicate a char that is deep and pronounced.
case should carry more weight in the decision of the These facts are most apparent in the charring of
case. Thus, a person intending to burn a wooden wood as a fire burns.
structure, collects some rags, soaks them in gasoline
and places them beside the wooden wall of the building. 7. Evidence of forcible entry or lack of same may be
When he is about to light a match to set fire to the rags, important depending on the circumstances at the
he is discovered by another who chases him away. time of the fire.
If the investigator determines there was no forcible
entry and finds that the building was secured prior
to discovery of the fire, he can reasonably suspect
The crime committed is attempted arson, because the there is possibility that the person who sets the fire
offender begins the commission of the crime directly by entered the building with a key.
overacts (placing the rags soaked in gasoline beside the Doors and windows showing signs of forced entry
may point to arson preceded by burglary or arson
wooden wall of the building and lighted a match) but he
by someone without a key to the premises.
does not perform all the acts of execution (the setting of
the fire to the rags) due to the timely intervention of
another who chases away) the offender.
Motives of Arson
Frustrated Arson Motive is the moving cause which induces a person to
In frustrated arson, the fact of having set fire to some commit a crime.
rags and jute sacks soaked in kerosene oil and placed Is Motive Necessary to be Proven in Criminal
near the partition of the entire soil of an inhabited house, Proceedings?
should not be qualified as a consummated arson, in as -No. motive is not necessary to be proven in
much as no part of the house had begun to burn, criminal proceedings but once motive is shown,
although fire would have started in the said partition had then intent can easily established.
it not been extinguished on time. The crime committed -In the crime of arson, the distinction between
was frustrated arson. motive and intent is clearly defined. INTENT is a material
Consummated Arson element of arson while motive is not. INTENT is the
The offender did in fact set fire to the roof of the house purpose of design with which the act is done and
and said house was partially burned. The crime was involves the will while MOTIVE is what induces the
consummated arson, notwithstanding the fact that the
criminal.
fire afterwards extinguished for once it has been started,
the consummation of the crime of arson does not
depend upon the extent of the damage caused. Setting Motive Can Be Established By:
fire to the contents of a building constitutes the 1. Economic Gain
consummated crime of setting fire to a building even if
no part of the building was burned. A. Insurance fraud with the assured directly benefiting:
a. Desire to move – the premises may no longer be
Basis of Liability in Arson: desirable because of the condition of the building, the
1. Kind and character of the building, whether of fact that the quarters are outgrown or because of the
public or private ownership. locality.
2. Its location, whether in an uninhabited place or in b. Disposing of Merchandise – the stocks on hand
a populated place may have lost value by reason of the seasonal
3. Extent of damage caused; and nature of the business, obsolete, insufficient
4. The fact of its being inhabited or not. supply of materials necessary to complete the
contracts, overstock in the absence of
Some of the Arson Evidence that the Investigator expected order or a changing market.
c. Property Transaction – the business itself may no
should seek at the Fire scene are the following:
longer be desirable because of impending liquidation,
1. Unusually rapid spread of the fire. settlement of an estate of which it is a part, the need for
2. Where it originates? cash, prospective failure, the comparatively greater
3. Separate fires – when two or more separate fires value of the land, or the comparatively greater value of
break-out within a building, the fire is certainly the insurance benefits.
suspicious. B. Profit by the Perpetrator other than the assured:
4. Unusual odors – the odor of gasoline, alcohol, Insurance agents wishing business
kerosene and other inflammable liquids are indicated by
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Insurance adjusters desiring to adjust a loss by 2. Gases such as acetylene, butane, CO, natural
securing a contract gas, etc. These are common gases resulting in
Business competitors fires from explosion. When these gasses mix
Persons seeking jobs as protection personnel with
Salvagers air possesses excellent ignition and when present in an
Contractors wishing to rebuild or wreck enclosed area can lead to explosion.
3. Solids such as chlorates, perchlorates,
chromates, nitrates, permanganates – are typical
families of oxidizing agents which give off oxygen on
decomposition thus aiding in combustion.

2. Concealment of Crime
The arsonists may set fire to a building in order to Prima Facie Evidence of Arson
conceal a projected or past crime. He may wish to divert - If the fire started simultaneously in more than one part
attention in order to loot the burning premises or steal in of the building or establishment.
other places. The burning may be for the purpose of - If substantial amount of flammable substances or
destroying evidences. materials are stored within the building not necessary in
3. Punitive Measure the business of the offender nor for household use.
 An arsonists may use fire as a means of - If gasoline, kerosene, petroleum or other flammable or
punishing another person for reason of jealousy, combustible substances or materials soaked therewith or
hatred or revenge. containers, thereof, or any mechanical electrical,
4. Intimidation or Economic Disabling chemical or electronic contrivance designed to start a
 The fire may be used as a weapon of the fire, or ashes or traces of any foregoing are found in the
saboteurs, to intimidate or to disable ruins or premises of the burned building or property.
economically as a step on forced submission of - If the building or property is insured for substantially
demands. more than its actual value at the time of the issuance of
5. Pyromania – is the uncontrollable impulse of a policy.
person to burn anything without motivation. - If a demand for money or other valuable consideration
Pyromaniacs usually do not run away from the was made before the fire in exchange for the distance of
scene of the crime, usually alone and feel satisfied the offender or for the safety of the person or property of
watching the flame. the victim.
- If during the lifetime of the corresponding fire insurance
Types of Pyromaniacs policy more than two fire have occurred in the same or
other premises owned or under the control of the
a. Abnormal Youth – Epileptics, imbeciles and offender and/or insured.
morons may set fire without knowing the - If shortly before the fire a substantial of the effects and
seriousness of the act. stored in building or property had been withdrawn from
b .The Hero Type – a person may set fire on a the premises except in the ordinary course of business.
building, subsequently pretends to discover it and turn in
the alarm so that he will appear a hero to the public. A Definition of terms
person may burn a building and endeavor to achieve
spectacular rescue in order to attract the attention of Abatement - Any act that would remove or neutralize a
spectators. fire hazard.
Administrator - Any person who acts as agent of the
c. Alcoholics and Drug Addicts – persons who owner and manages the use of a building for him.
subject themselves to intense artificial stimulants such Blasting Agent - Any material or mixture consisting of a
as narcotics sometimes develop a strong urge toward fuel and oxidizer used to set off explosives.
incendiaries.
d. Sexual Deviates – some sex perverts derive Cellulose Nitrate Or Nitro Cellulose - A highly
sexual stimulation from setting a fire and watching the combustible and explosive compound produced by
flame. Frequently, he is chronic masturbator who the reaction of nitric acid with a cellulose material.
stimulates and enhances his sexual gratification by Cellulose Nitrate Plastic (Pyroxylin) - Any plastic
means of arson. substance, materials or compound having
6. Public Disturbance - an offender may resort to cellulose nitrate (nitro cellulose) as base.
arson as a means of a public disturbance Combustible, Flammable or Inflammable - Descriptive of
because a fire attracts people and destruction materials that are easily set on fire.
causes confusion that gives rise to attendant Combustible Fiber - Any readily ignitable and free
problems that divert police attention. burning fiber such as cotton, oakum, rags, waste
7. Vandalism – is a general term denoting intentional cloth, waste paper, kapok, hay, straw, Spanish
burning to destroy properties. moss, excelsior and other similar materials
commonly used in commerce.
In determining motive, a fire investigator Combustible Liquid - Any liquid having a flash point at or
concentrates on three major factors: above 37.8_C (100_F).
1. Points of origin of the fire Corrosive Liquid - Any liquid which causes fire when in
2. Modus operandi of the arsonist contact with organic matter or with certain
3. Identify of persons who might benefit from the chemicals.
fire. Curtain Board - A vertical panel of non-combustible or
Incendiary Materials- are materials used to start a fire. fire resistive materials attached to and extending
They are combustible; fuels. below the bottom chord of the roof trusses, to
divide the underside of the roof into separate
1. Arson Chemicals (liquids) – are incendiary compartments so that heat and smoke will be
materials often used by arsonists as accelerants. directed upwards to a roof vent.
Possess excellent properties. Examples: alcohol, Cryogenic - Descriptive of any material which by its
benzene, gasoline, kerosene. nature or as a result of its reaction with other
 7

elements produces a rapid drop in temperature of uses or produces materials which are likely to
the immediate surroundings. cause fires or explosions.
Damper - A normally open device installed inside an air Horizontal Exit - Passageway from one building to
duct system which automatically closes to restrict another or through or around a wall in
the passage of smoke or fire. approximately the same floor level.
Distillation - The process of first raising the temperature Hose Box - A box or cabinet where fire hoses, valves
in separate the more volatile from the less volatile and other equipment are stored and arranged for
parts and then cooling and condensing the fire fighting.
resulting vapor so as to produce a nearly purified Hose Reel - A cylindrical device turning on an axis
substance. around which a fire hose is wound and connected.
Duct System - A continuous passageway for the
transmission of air.

Dust - A finely powdered substance which, when mixed Hypergolic Fuel - A rocket or liquid propellant which
with air in the proper proportion and ignited will consist of combinations of fuels and oxidizers
cause an explosion. which ignite spontaneously on contact with each
Electrical Arc - An extremely hot luminous bridge formed other.
by passage of an electric current across a space Industrial Baking And Drying - The industrial process of
between two conductors or terminals due to the subjecting materials to heat for the purpose of
incandescence of the conducting vapor. removing solvents or moisture from the same,
Ember - A hot piece or lump that remains after a material and/or to fuse certain chemical salts to form a
has partially burned, and is still oxidizing without uniform glazing the surface of materials being
the manifestation of flames. treated.
Finishes - Materials used as final coating of a surface for Jumper - A piece of metal or an electrical conductor
ornamental or protective purposes. used to bypass a safety device in an electrical
Fire - The active principle of burning, characterized by system.
the heat and light of combustion. Occupancy - The purpose for which a building or portion
Fire Trap - A building is unsafe in case of fire because it thereof is used or intended to be used.
will burn easily or because it lacks adequate exits Occupant - Any person actually occupying and using a
Fire Alarm - Any visual or audible signal produced by a building or portions thereof by virtue of a lease
device or system to warm the occupants of the contract with the owner or administrator or by
building or firefighting elements of the presence or permission or sufferance of the latter.
danger of fire to enable them to undertake Organic Peroxide - A strong oxidizing organic compound
immediate action. Fire Door - A fire resistive door which releases oxygen readily. It causes fire when
prescribed for openings in fire separation walls or in contact with combustible materials especially
partitions. under conditions of high temperature.
Fire Hazard - Any condition or act which increases or Overloading - The use of one or more electrical
may cause an increase in the probability of the appliances or devices which draw or consume
occurrence of fire, or which may obstruct, delay, electrical current beyond the designed capacity of
hinder or interfere with firefighting operations and the existing electrical system.
the safeguarding of life and property
Fire Lane - The portion of a roadway or public way that Owner - The person who holds the legal right of
should be kept opened and unobstructed at all possession or title to a building or real property.
times for the expedient operation of firefighting Oxidizing Material - A material that readily yields oxygen
units. in quantities sufficient to stimulate or support
Fire Protective And Fire Safety Device - Any device combustion.
intended for the protection of buildings or persons Pressurized Or Forced Draft Burning Equipment - Type
to include but not limited to built-in protection or burner where the fuel is subjected to pressure
system such as sprinklers and other automatic prior to discharge into the combustion chamber
extinguishing system. and/or which includes fans or other provisions for
the introduction of air at above normal atmosphere
Fire Safety Constructions - Refers to design and pressure into the same combustion chamber.
installation of walls, barriers, doors, windows, Public Assembly Building - Any building or structure
vents, means of egress, etc. integral to and where fifty (50) or more people congregate,
incorporated into a building or structure in order to gather, or assemble for any purpose.
minimize danger to life from fire, smoke, fumes or Public Way - Any street, alley or other strip of land
panic before the building is evacuated. These unobstructed from the ground to the sky, deeded,
features are also designed to achieve, among dedicated or otherwise permanently appropriated
others, safe and rapid evacuation of people for public use.
through means of egress sealed from smoke or Pyrophoric - Descriptive of any substance that ignites
fire, the confinement of fire or smoke in the room spontaneously when exposed to air.
or floor of origin and delay their spread to other Refining - A process where impurities and/or deleterious
parts of the building by means of smoke sealed materials are removed from a mixture in order to
and fire resistant doors, walls and floors. It shall produce a pure element of compound. It shall also
also mean to include the treatment of buildings refer to partial distillation and electrolysis.
components or contents with flame retardant Self-Closing Doors - Automatic closing doors that are
chemicals. designed to confine smoke and heat and delay the
Flash Point - The minimum temperature at which any spread of fire.
material gives off vapor in sufficient concentration Smelting - Melting or fusing of metallic ores or
to form an ignitable mixture with air. compounds so as to separate impurities from pure
Forcing -A process where a piece of metal is heated metals.
prior to changing its shape or dimensions. Sprinkler System - An integrated network of hydraulically
Fulminate - A kind of stable explosive compound which designed piping installed in a building, structure or
explodes by percussion. area with outlets arranged in a systematic pattern
Hazardous Operation/Process - Any act of which automatically discharges water when
manufacturing, fabrication, conversion, etc., that activated by heat or combustion products from a
fire.
 8

Standpipe System - A system of vertical pipes in a wasn't part of the suite of human behaviors until about
building to which fire hoses can be attached on 300,000 to 400,000 years ago. They believe that the
each floor, including a system by which water is earlier sites are representative of the opportunistic use of
made available to the outlets as needed. natural fires.
Vestibule - A passage hall or antechamber between the
outer doors and the interior parts of a house or Terrence Twomey published a comprehensive
building. discussion of the early evidence for the human control of
Vertical Shaft - An enclosed vertical space of passage fire at 400,000 to 800,000 years ago. Twomey believes
that extends from floor to floor, as well as from the that there is no direct evidence for domestic fires
base to the top of the building. between 400,000 and 700,000 years ago, but he
believes that other, indirect evidence supports the notion
of the controlled use of fire.

The discovery of fire, or, more precisely, the controlled

use of fire, was one of mankind's first great innovations. Indirect Evidence
Fire allows us to produce light and heat, to cook plants
and animals, to clear forests for planting, to heat-treat Twomey's argument is based on several lines of indirect
stone for making stone tools, to keep predator animals evidence. First, he cites the metabolic demands of
away, and to burn clay for ceramic objects. It has social relatively big-brained Middle Pleistocene hunter-
purposes as well. Fires serve as gathering places, as gatherers and suggests that brain evolution required
beacons for those away from camp, and as spaces for cooked food. Further, he argues that our distinctive
special activities. sleep patterns (staying up after dark) are deeply rooted
and that hominids began staying in seasonally or
The Progress of Fire Control permanently cool places by 800,000 years ago. All of
this, says Twomey, implies effective control of fire.
The human control of fire likely required the cognitive
ability to conceptualize the idea of fire, which itself has Gowlett and Richard Wrangham argue that another
been recognized in chimpanzees; great apes have been piece of indirect evidence for the early use of fire is that
known to prefer their foods cooked. The fact that our ancestors Homo erectus evolved smaller mouths,
experimentation with fire occurred during the early days teeth, and digestive systems, in striking contrast to
of humanity should come as no surprise. earlier hominids. The benefits of having a smaller gut
could not be realized until high-quality foods were
available all year long. The adoption of cooking, which
Archaeologist J.A.J. Gowlett offers this general outline softens food and makes it easier to digest, could have
for the development of fire use: opportunistic use of fire led to these changes.
from natural occurrences (lightning strikes, meteor
impacts, etc); limited conservation of fires lit by natural
occurrences; use of animal dung or other slow-burning Hearth Fire Construction
substances to maintain fires in wet or cold seasons; and
finally, kindled fire. A hearth is a deliberately constructed fireplace. The
earliest examples were made by collecting stones to
Early Evidence contain the fires, or simply by reusing the same location
again and again and allowing the ash from previous fires
to accumulate. Hearths from the Middle Paleolithic
The controlled use of fire was likely an invention of our period (about 200,000 to 40,000 years ago) have been
ancestor Homo erectus during the Early Stone Age (or found at sites such as the Klasies River Caves in South
Lower Paleolithic). The earliest evidence of fire Africa, Tabun Cave in Israel, and Bolomor Cave in
associated with humans comes from Oldowan hominid Spain.
sites in the Lake Turkana region of Kenya. The site of
Koobi Fora contained oxidized patches of earth to a
depth of several centimeters, which some scholars Earth ovens, on the other hand, are hearths with banked
interpret as evidence of fire control. The and sometimes domed structures built of clay. These
Australopithecine site of Chesowanja in central Kenya types of hearths were first used during the Upper
(about 1.4 million years old) also contained burned clay Paleolithic period for cooking and heating and
clasts in small areas. sometimes for burning clay figurines. The Gravettian
Dolni Vestonice site in the modern Czech Republic has
evidence of kiln construction, although construction
Other Lower Paleolithic sites in Africa that contain details did not survive. The best information on Upper
possible evidence of fire include Gadeb in Ethiopia Paleolithic kilns is from the Aurignacian deposits of
(burned rock), and Swartkrans (burned bones) and Klisoura Cave in Greece.
Wonderwerk Cave (burned ash and bone fragments),
both in South Africa.

The earliest evidence for controlled use of fire outside of

Africa is at the Lower Paleolithic site of Gesher Benot Fuels
Ya'aqov in Israel, where charred wood and seeds were
recovered from a site dated 790,000 years old. Other Relict wood was likely the fuel used for the earliest fires.
evidence has been found at Zhoukoudian, a Lower Purposeful selection of wood came later: hardwood such
Paleolithic site in China, Beeches Pit in the U.K., and as oak burns differently than softwood such as pine,
Qesem Cave in Israel. since the moisture content and density of a wood all
affect how hot or long it will burn.
An Ongoing Discussion
In places where wood was not available, alternative fuels
Archaeologists examined the available data for such as peat, cut turf, animal dung, animal bone,
European sites and concluded that habitual use of fire seaweed, and straw were used to build fires. Animal
 9

dung was likely not consistently used until after animal

domestication led to the keeping of livestock, about
10,000 years ago.