CE 5101 Concrete Technology

and Forensic Engineering

Concrete Technology – Prof. SMA Nanayakkara

Forensic Engineering – Prof. WPS Dias

2020 June
1
 Contents
1. CONCRETE MATERIALS
Hydraulic cements
Aggregates
Water
Admixtures

2. MIX DESIGN OF NORMAL CONCRETE MIXES

Basic design requirements in mix design
DoE mix design method

3. FRESH AND HARDENED CONCRETE PROPERTIES

Fresh concrete
Early age concrete
hardened concrete

4. SPECIAL CONCRETES
High strength concrete
Self Compacting Concrete

2
 CONCRETE The most widely used construction material

Excellent durability/ Excellent resistance to water

Mouldability/ Ambient temperature-hardened material

Economical & readily available

One cannot design with and
Less energy input Compared with steel work with a material which
one does not understand
thoroughly
Utilization of Industrial byproduct

High-temperature resistance

Ability to work with reinforcing steel : coefficient of thermal

expansion of concrete has a similar value to that of steel
(steel 1.2 × 10−5; concrete 1.0–1.5 × 10−5).
3
 Normal Concrete
Types of
concrete High strength Concrete

High Performance Concrete

Self compacting concrete

Roller Compacted concrete

CONCRETE Pervious concrete (No fines Concrete)

Anti-washout Concrete

Lightweight concrete

Reactive Powder Concrete

Ultra high strength Concrete
Inorganic Polymer Concrete (Geopolymer) 4
What is High Performance Concrete ?

An engineered concrete in which

one or more specific characteristics
have been enhanced
through
the selection of materials and
proportioning its constituents

OPC, fly ash, silica fume,

ground granulated slags,
Materials
natural pozzolan, fibers,
chemical admixtures, etc
5
 Expected performance of HPC

Fresh Early age Hardened

concrete concrete concrete

hrs days >100 years

High High early

flowability strength • High strength
• High modulus of elasticity
High
deformability High Strength • High abrasion resistance

High • Low permeability and diffusion

segregation • Volume stability
resistance

High workability HPC High durability

6
 • Faster construction
• Homogeneous concrete in
High workability structure
• Greater freedom in design

SCC
HPC

Reduce
High Strength High rise buildings
section size

Application
&
Environment

Severe
High durability environmental Long service life
condition
7
Self Compacting Concrete

8
Application of SCC in Upper-Kotmale Hydropower Project

Sand Flushing Way (Steel Liner)

9
 Sand Flushing Way (Steel Liner)

SCC was used under Sand Flushing Way

10
11
Placing method of SCC
Sand Flushing Way
Steel Liner

4.5m3 bucket
Rebar

12
13
 History of Development of SCC

1986 – Proposed by Prof. H. Okamura of University of Tokyo, Japan

“ Development of High Performance Concrete (HPC) “
1988 – Development of first prototype HPC mix at UOT

HPC

SCC
Anti washout
concrete

15
Roller Compacted Concrete
Pavement (RCCP)
16
Pervious concrete

used in parking areas, areas with

light traffic, residential streets,
pedestrian walkways, Recharge
Reduces storm
the ground
water runoff
water
17
Fiber reinforced paving blocks
applicable for outdoor sports
surfaces

Supervised by Prof. S.M.A. Nanayakkara

G.K.B.M. Gannoruwa
Materials Engineer
Building Materials Research & Testing Division
National Building Research Organization
EXPERIMENTAL ……………………………………………...............................

Ordinary
Portland
Cement

Polyester Manufactured
Spandex Sand
Materials

Water Admixtures

Super-plasticizer
Viscosity modifier
19
 Significance of the Paving Block

▪ Ability to withstand for impact loads without

failure. Accordingly, the paving block has the
capability to absorb impact energy which gives
better foot comfort.
▪ Fabric embedded paving blocks are 100 times
water permeable than conventional concrete
paving blocks.
▪ Capability to facilitate better skid resistance,
while preventing slippery accidents under wet
conditions.
20
 Geopolymer
Flyash
NaOH
Na2SiO3

Cured at 60 C for 24 h

Strength – 66 MPa
Density – 1960 kg/m3

Strength at 26 days Self Compacting Mix Extrudable Mix

74.6 MPa

21
 Development of mechanically activated
coal-fired bottom ash based geopolymers

22
 Coal combustion process and generation of coal combustion waste

Selective
Catalytic
3 Nos. 300MW Reduction
Power plants

Steam turbine
Steam

Generator
2500 tons/day/plant
Source : Leaching of Coal
Combustion Products : Field and
Laboratory Studies, Chin Min
Fly ash Cheng, 2005

Nurochcholai thermal
power plant uses jet Bottom ash
pumps to extract
750 tons/day
bottom ash

Waste materials ?

75 tons/day
 Development of mechanically activated coal-fired
bottom ash based geopolymers

laboratory scale
ball mill
Coarse particles Fine powder

Property FA BA
Specific surface area / (cm2/g) 4195 3986
Density / (g/cm3) 2.27 2.34
 Durability Characteristics

Sulphate resistance of different BA

based GP mixes

Cured at 80 ⁰C
for 8 hrs
Geopolymer mortars of both the FA and the
BA have not undergone a significant
disintegration after 90 days when exposed
to 5% Na2SO4. Cured at 80 ⁰C
for 16 hrs

OPC has undergone a significant expansion

and total disintegration
Cured at 80 ⁰C
for 24 hrs
What is concrete?

Concrete Concretus “to grow together.”

(Latin)

Concrete = Filler + Binder

Composite
material
Non-Hydraulic Hydraulic Asphalt Polymer

26
 Concrete
= Filler
+ Binder

Nonhydraulic Hydraulic Asphalt Polymer

Nonhydraulic
Oldest
concrete
cement Lime
concrete

Gypsum Poor resistance

to water

lime mortar was used to

build the Great Wall
(220 BC)
Ancient Egyptian Pyramids of Giza
built with gypsum mortar - 3000 BC 27
Smeaton's Eddystone Lighthouse (1755–59)

Painting by John Lynn 28

Natural hydraulic lime
is produced by heating
(calcining) limestone Gain strength
that naturally
Hydraulic lime in water
containing siliceous
(clayey) impurities

Hydraulic binder
Smeaton's Eddystone Lighthouse (1755–59)

John Smeaton used a mortar prepared from a hydraulic

lime mixed with pozzolan .He made concrete by mixing
coarse aggregate (pebbles) and powdered brick and
mixed it with hydraulic lime, very close to the
proportions of modern concrete. The rebuilt Eddystone
Hydraulic Cement Lighthouse lasted for 126 years.

(Portland Cement)
led to the development of Portland cement
and thus modern concrete.
29
 Hydraulic Cement

Raw materials
crushing, grinding, and
Limestone + Clay blending

Main source
Main source of silica
of Calcium
(SiO2 + Al2O3 + Fe2O3 + H2O)
(CaCO3)
Wet process Dry process

Clinker Heat treatment

30
44km Arruwakkaru

31
 Sequence of reactions taking place during the formation of Portland cement clinker

1.5
Tonnes
of raw
materials

[Ref: Lea’s Chemistry of Cement

1 Tonne of Impure C2S Impure C3S and concrete - PC Hewlett]
clinker

+
0.5 Tonnes
of CO2

Coal burning
[Ref:[Sustainability of concrete- P.A. Aitcin]

0.37-.74 Tonnes 1 Tonne of

of CO2 0.9 – 1.25 Tonnes of CO2
clinker 32
 The chemical reactions taking place in the cement kiln system

3CaO.SiO2
2CaO.SiO2
Major constituents 3CaO.Al2O3
4CaO.Al2O3.Fe2O3
Limestone → CaO + CO2 Cement
Clinker
Clay→ SiO2 + Al2O3 + Fe2O3 + H2O
MgO
CaO (free lime)
Minor Constituents
Na2O
K2 O

Approximately 5% gypsum or calcium sulphate is pulverize the clinker to

usually interground with clinker in order to control the very fine particles with
early setting and hardening reactions of the cement. Gypsum
33
 Symbols used to write Portland cement chemical composition

Oxide

Major crystalline phases in Portland cement

Abbreviation

34
 Typical Composition of Clinker phases

[Ref: Taylor, H.F.W.: Cement Chemistry. Academic Press, London (1990)] 35

 Alite Crystals Belite Crystals C3A and C4AF Crystals
[Ref:[Binders for durable and Sustainable concrete- P.A. Aitcin]
36
 Determination of Chemical composition of Cement
SLS ISO 29581-1 Cement - Test methods - Part 1: Analysis by wet chemistry
SLS ISO 29581-2 Cement - Test methods - Part 2: Chemical analysis by X-ray fluorescence (XRF)

SiO2 Al2O3 Fe2O3 CaO MgO SO3 Na2O K20

Mineral Phases (C3S, C2S, C3A, C4AF)

Bogue
equations

37
Calculation of composition of Mineral Phases in cement by Bogue calculation

▪ Fast and cheap method (no special equipment is required)

▪ Bogue calculation is based on equilibrium conditions and does not
take into account minor elements.
▪ Clinker phase composition calculated by Bogue equations differs
in most cases from the true clinker composition

Determination of mineral phases by X-ray powder diffraction (XRD)

XRD is a rapid analytical technique used for phase

identification and quantification of a crystalline material

Fast, accurate, high degree of automation possible

Needs special equipment (expensive) Bruker's X-ray Diffraction
D8-Discover instrument
38
 CEMENT COMPOSITION C3S 45 ~ 65%,
C2S 15 ~ 30%
C3A 6 ~ 12%
C4AF 6 ~ 8%
Early strength
Moderate C3S Blaine - Specific surface area

reaction rate
Little contribution
C4AF to strength
C3 A
Slow reaction, Main
C2 S
contributor to late
strength

Cement particle size distribution

39
 Mineral Phase Characteristics

C 3S Light in colour.
Setting – Rapid (hours)
Gives early strength (days)
Heat of hydration – Medium ~ 500 J/g

Properties of C 2S Light in colour.

the major Hardens slowly.
mineral Setting –Slow (days)
Gives late strength (weeks)
phases of Heat of hydration – Low ~ 250 J/g
clinker
C 3A Light in colour.
Setting - Instantaneous.
Enhances strength of the silicates.
Heat of hydration – Very High ~ 867 J/g

C 4AF Dark in colour with little cementing value.

Setting –Very rapid (minutes)
Heat of hydration – Medium ~ 420 J/g
40
 Hydration of Portland cement

Exothermic Portland cement Products of

reaction (C3S, C2S, C3A, C4AF) + Water Hydration

K+ Ca2+

K+ H2O Na+

SO42- pH 13.4–13.8
Ca2+
SO42-
SO42-
Ca2+

SO42- K
+
Na+
Liquid Phase Cement particle
Composition of the liquid phase in cement paste at w/c = 0.65
Cement paste [Ref. Cement and Concrete Chemistry, Wieslaw Kurdowski] 41
 Hydration of Aluminates (C3A)

(AFt)

The aluminates C3A are known Monosulphoaluminate (AFm)

to hydrate at a much faster rate
than the silicates. In fact, C3A.CaSO4.12H2O
stiffening ( loss of consistency)
and setting ( solidification) are Monosulphoaluminate (Afm)
largely depends on hydration
reactions involving aluminates.
42
Setting of cement paste
Fig 2

43
 Hydration of silicates (C3S C2S)

2C3S + 6H → C3S2H3 + 3CH ( where CH = Ca(OH)2 , H = H2O )

2C2S + 4H → C3S2H3 + CH

Ultimate strength of high C3S cement would be lower than high C2S Ca(OH)2
cement since C3S would produce more CH than C2S .
Since CH is very weak it reduces strength of cement paste and also it can
get easily deteriorated in the presence of acidic and sulphate waters.
Self healing of cracks in concrete
Positive role of Ca(OH)2
Protection of the embedded reinforcement in concrete from corrosion
44
The silicates(C3S C2S), which
makes about 75 % of OPC, play
a dominant role in determining
hardening (rate of strength
development) characteristics.

stiffening ( loss of
consistency) and
setting ( solidification)
are largely depends on
hydration reactions of
C3 A

45
 Degree of hydration of mineral phases with time
Strength variation of pure mineral
phases with time

[Ref:Bogue, R.H. & Lerch, W., Hydration of Portland cement compounds. Ind.Engng Chem., 26(8) (1934), 837–47].

46
Phase composition of Hydrating cement paste

All mineral phases do not

react at the same rate

Ettringite

Monosulphate hydrate

dormant period

[Ref: Lea’s Chemistry of Cement and concrete - PC Hewlett 1988]

47
 Physical aspects of setting and hardening process

Cement Paste loss of water due to

early hydration reactions,
physical adsorption by ettringite and C-S-H,
evaporation

Stiffening
Beginning of
solidification, called the
solidification
initial set, marks the
Initial setting point in time when the
paste has become
Setting unworkable

Final setting
The time taken to
solidify completely
final set,
Hardening
strength gain with time is called
hardening
48
 Schematic description of structure formation in cement paste

Initial setting time Final setting time

Time
Fresh
Paste

Stiffening Setting Hardening

cement
Hydration
products 49
 Structure of hydrated cement

K+ Ca2+

K+ H2O Na+

SO42-
Ca2+
SO42-
SO42-
Ca2+

SO42- K
+
Na+
Liquid Phase Cement particle

Cement paste

50
 Pore size distribution in concrete

Capillary pores Entrapped Air

Gel Pores Entrained air

10-10 10-8 10-6 10-4 10-2

Gel Pores Pore radius (m)

Depends on w/c
Independent of w/c
C-S-H Structure

Structure of Hydrated
cement paste
Volume of products of hydration

Capillary pores

Physically
Hydrated cement or cement gel adsorbed
water
Water
Gel water

C-S-H Structure

Water in hydrated cement paste

Cement
Unhydrated
Cement • Combined water
• Gel water
• Capillary water
52
 Fully hydrated cement paste in closed system

Consider 100 g of cement and specific gravity of cement – 3.15

Absolute volume of unhydrated cement = 100/3.15 = 31.8 ml

According to work by T.C. Powers

Non evaporable water Physically or chemically combined water in

fully hydrated cement = 23% of mass of dry cement

Volume of non evaporable water (combined water) = 0.23 × 100 = 23 ml

Product of hydration
The solid products of hydration occupy a volume equal to the sum of volumes of
anhydrous cement and water less 0.254 of the volume of non-evaporable water

i.e. Volume of solid product = 31.8 + 0.23 × 100 (1-0.254) = 48.9 ml

Since porosity of product of hydration is 28 % , Volume of gel water Vg is given by

Vg/(48.9 + Vg) = 0.28 → Vg = 19.0 ml

Volume of product of hydration = 48.9 + 19.0 = 67.9 ml

0% hydration 100% hydration
Therefore total water in the mix = gel water + combined water
= 19.0 + 23.0 = 42 g = 42 ml
53
Total water in the mix = gel water + combined water = 19.0 + 23.0 = 42 g

Therefore Water/cement ratio by mass = 42/100 = 0.42

Volume of product of hydration = 67.9 ml

Original volume of cement and water = 31.8 + 42 = 73.8 ml

Therefore decrease in volume due to hydration = 73.8-67.9 = 5.9 ml

In a closed system (i..e. no water exchange with exterior) minimum w/c required

Product of hydration
for complete hydration is 0.42.

With the external supply of water

Full hydration of 100 g of cement will occupy 67.9 ml

For no unhydrated cement to be left and no capillary pores to be present, the original
mixing water should be approximately = 67.9-31.8 = 36.1 ml

0% hydration 100% hydration

Minimum w/c required for complete hydration with external supply of water = 0.36
54
 Heat of Hydration of cement

Portland cement
Exothermic reaction (C3S, C2S, C3A, C4AF) + Water Heat of Hydration

55
 Mineral Phase Characteristics

C 3S Light in colour.
Setting – Rapid (hours)
Gives early strength (days)
Heat of hydration – Medium ~ 500 J/g

C 2S Light in colour.
Hardens slowly.
C3S 45 ~ 65%,
Setting –Slow (days)
C2S 15 ~ 30%
Gives late strength (weeks)
C3A 6 ~ 12%
Heat of hydration – Low ~ 250 J/g
C4AF 6 ~ 8%
C 3A Light in colour.
Setting - Instantaneous.
Enhances strength of the silicates.
Heat of hydration – Very High ~ 867 J/g

C 4AF Dark in colour with little cementing value.

Setting –Very rapid (minutes)
Heat of hydration – Medium ~ 420 J/g
56
Rate of the heat evolution during the hydration of C3S Rate of the heat evolution during the hydration of C3A

Rate of the heat

evolution during the
hydration of Portland
cement

[Ref: Concrete, Mindess and

Young, 1981] 57
Heat of hydration of a cement paste determined by conduction calorimetry at 20°C.

Temperature
rise in concrete

dormant period
58
 Temperature rise in concrete

Excessive
Temperature
Rise in
Concrete at
Early Age

59
 Internal
restraint
Contraction due
tensile
to temp. drop
External stresses
Detrimental restraint
effects of
excessive Cracking
temperature rise Change in micro
structure of hydrated
in concrete at cement paste
early age due to Increase in Permeability
Reduction in Strength
heat of hydration
of cement

Change of composition of
DEF Cracking
hydrated products

DEF - Delayed Ettringite Formation 60

 Types of cements

Ordinary Portland cement Blended cements

Portland cement
+
ground granulated
blast furnace slag Materials with cementitious
(ggbs) OR
Fly ash,
pozzolanic properties Natural Pozzolans,
Silica fume
OR
Limestone fillers
powder 61
Ordinary Portland cement

use in most forms of concrete

Portland cement clinker construction and should be
specified where the special
+ properties of the other types,
Calcium sulphate such as low heat of
hydration, are not required.
+
Minor mineral additions (5%)

chemical compositions of C3S 45 ~ 65%,

OPC can vary depending C2S 15 ~ 30%
One or more of fly on the raw materials
ash, slag, pozzolana C3A 6 ~ 12%
used and manufacturing
or limestone C4AF 6 ~ 8%
process

62
Blended cements

Portland Slag cement

Portland Pozzolanic cement

Portland Limestone cement

63
 Ground Granulated Blast furnace Slag (ggbs)

Slag is a non-metallic product, consisting essentially of

silicates and aluminates, which is produced
simultaneously with iron in a blast furnace and which is
then granulated by rapid quenching.

limestone or
dolomite

granulated by rapid quenching 64

Finely ground granulated slag (ggbs)

Slag is neither a hydraulic binder, nor a pozzolanic material

When slag is mixed with water it does not harden nor does it combine directly with
the lime liberated by the C3S and C2S to form secondary C-S-H

Slag can be activated by lime and also by calcium sulphate, Potash (potassium
carbonate) or soda (Sodium carbonate)

Portland cement is a good catalyst for slag activation because it contains the
three main chemical components that activate slag: lime, calcium sulphate
and alkalis.

Slag may be blended with Portland cement to form a blended cement BS EN 15167-1:2006
Ground granulated blast furnace slag for use in
or concrete, mortar and grout.
Part 1 :Definitions, specifications and conformity
it may be added to the ingredients of a concrete batch as a replacement criteria
for cement Part 2 : Conformity evaluation
65
Pozzolans are defined as siliceous, or siliceous and aluminous materials which in themselves
possess little or no cementitious value but which will, in finely divided form and in the presence
of moisture, react chemically with calcium hydroxide to form compounds possessing
cementitious properties.

fly ash Natural silica fume

Pozzolans

known as pulverized fuel ash – It is a by-product of the

pfa is the ash precipitated manufacture of silicon and
electrostatically or Volcanic ash ferrosilicon alloys from high
mechanically from the exhaust purity quartz and coal in a
gases of coal fired power submerged arc electric
station plant furnace
66
 Coal combustion process and generation of coal combustion waste

Selective
Catalytic
300MW Reduction

Steam turbine
Steam

Generator
2500 tons/day
Source : Leaching of Coal
Combustion Products : Field and
Laboratory Studies, Chin Min
Fly ash Cheng, 2005
Nurochcholai thermal
power plant uses jet
pumps to extract Bottom ash
bottom ash 240 to 260 tons/day

Waste materials ?

25 tons/day 67
68
Ash pond
70
71
 Ash dump has
caused health,
economic, and
environmental
impacts

Effective utilization of waste-products

How to minimize the impacts ?
in eco-friendly manner

Environmental Foundation (Guarantee) Limited

https://efl.lk/
Effective utilization of waste-products in eco-friendly manner

Bottom ash Fly ash

75 tons/day 750 tons/day

73
 Chemical composition of
Fly ash
Fly Ash Composition Fly ash
LOI (%) 3.6
SiO2 (%) 50.8
Al2O3 (%) 29.8
Fe2O3 (%) 3.5
used as a component of blended cement
CaO (%) 7..5
MgO (%) 2.0
BS EN & SLSI standards
SO3 (%) 0.0
K2O (%) 0.9
used as a separate material added to the concrete batch. Na2O (%) 1.7
Cl- (%) 0

BS EN 450-1:2012 Fly ash for concrete

74
SLS 1247
Fly Ash

used as a component of blended cement

BS EN & SLSI standards

used as a separate material added to the concrete batch.

BS EN 450-1:2012 Fly ash for

concrete

77
Fly Ash

Used as a component of blended cement

BS EN & SLSI standards

Used as a separate material added to the concrete batch.

BS EN 450-1:2012 Fly ash for concrete

Used to manufacture Autoclaved aerated concrete blocks

BS EN 450-1:2005+A1:2007 : Fly ash for concrete: Part 1-
Definitions, Specifications and conformity criteria

Property
LOI
Chloride Content
SO3 Content
Free CaO Content
Soundness (mm)
Total CaO Content
Reactive SiO2 Content
The sum of the contents of SiO2 ,
Al2O3 and Fe2O3
Fineness
Total content of Alkalis
Carbon particles floating Dump in
Ash pond
Bleeding
6.00
5.00
4.00
3.00
2.00
1.00
0.00

Variation of Fly ash LOI - 1st of Oct 2018 to 24th of March 2019
 Bottom ash

Greener Building products

81
 Trace Elements concentration of Chemical composition of
bottom ash bottom ash

Observed Value Limiting value* Composition Bottom ash

Element Unit LOI (%) 3.3
Minimum Maximum Value
SiO2 (%) 49.0
As mg/kg 0.62 4.9 <11.3 Al2O3 (%) 26.5
Mg mg/kg 37.0 220.0 < 325,000 Fe2O3 (%) 5.6
Pb mg/kg <LDL(2ppm) < 107 CaO (%) 8.9
Cr mg/kg <LDL(2ppm) < 21 MgO (%) 1.8
Cd mg/kg <LDL(0.2ppm) < 5.2 SO3 (%) 0
Cu mg/kg <LDL(1.0ppm) < 2900 K2O (%) 0.5
Ni mg/kg <LDL( 2ppm)- 2 < 100 Na2O (%) 1.7
Se mg/kg <LDL ( 20ppb) < 1.3 Cl- (%) 0

* Limiting value specified in EPA, US in

uncontaminated soil used as fill material at regulated
fill operations
 Physical Properties of bottom ash

Property Bottom Ash River sand BS EN 13055

requirement for
lightweight aggregate
Loose bulk
density 600kg/m3 1450kg/m3 < 1200 kg/m3

Particle density 1500-1750 2600-2750 kg/m3 < 2000 kg/m3

kg/m3
Water 17-30% 0.4-1.0% -
absorption

Bottom Ash Lightweight aggregate

 Lightweight cement blocks

Application of Bottom ash Foam Concrete Blocks

Geopolymer Concrete
 Lightweight cement blocks with bottom ash

Mix proportion
Strength Density Cost per
River Crusher Bottom (MPa) (kg/m3) block (Rs)
Cement Chips
sand fines ash

1 0 0 3 4 4.6 1736 39.17

1 0 1 3 3 5.2 1764 42.97
1 0 2 1 3.5 4.2 1686 41.88
1 4 5 0 0 4.2 2038 44.26

Conventional cement block with river sand

10
Foam Concrete Blocks with Bottom ash

Material Description
Cement OPC Grade 42.5 R
Specific Gravity = 3.15
Specific Gravity = 1.7
Bottom Ash
Finer than 2.36mm
Preformed foam using an organic based
Foam
foaming agent. Foam Density= 40kgm -3

Dry density - 1000kg/m3

Strength 3.3-9.57MPa (7 days)
Drying shrinkage : 0.2%
(Typical range 0.1-0.35%)
 B o tto m A s h B a s e d G e o p o l y m e r C o n c r e t e

MIX PROPORTIONS Composition Bottom ash Slag

• Bottom ash - (Fineness - 20% retained on 45 micron sieve ) LOI (%) 3.2 3.3
SiO2 (%) 43.53 49.0
• GGBFS (slag) - (Fineness - 20% retained on 45 micron sieve)
Al2O3 (%) 24.4 26.5
• Concentration of alkaline materials Fe2O3 (%) 4.83 5.6
NaOH - 10mol/dm3 , 5 mol /dm3 CaO (%) 8.62 8.9
Ca(OH)2 = 5 mol/dm3 , 3 mol/dm3 MgO (%) 1.63 1.8
SO3 (%) 0 0
• Na2SiO3/NaOH molar ratio = 1.5
K2O (%) 0.48 0.5
• Alkali Activator/Bottom Ash (by weight):0.35 Na2O (%) 1.85 1.7
• Slag weight = 40% of total bottom ash weight Cl- (%) 0 0

Ambient temperature curing

 Compressive strength of alkali activated
bottom ash
Alkali activator
Alkali/ BA BA(%), Curing temp &
Mix ref [concentration
ratio Slag(%) duration
(mol/dm3)]
AT1 0.35 60,40 Amp.Temp NaOH [5]
AT2 0.35 60,40 Amp.Temp Ca(OH)2 [5]
AT3 0.35 60,40 Amp.Temp NaOH [5],Na2SiO3
AT4 0.35 80,20 Amp.Temp NaOH [5]
AT5 0.35 80,20 Amp.Temp Ca(OH)2 [5]

3 days 7 days 14 days 21 days 28 days

Com. Com. Com. Com. Com.
Mix Ref. Density Density Density Density Density
Strength 3 Strength 3 Strength 3 Strength 3 Strength
(kg/m ) (kg/m ) (kg/m ) (kg/m ) (kg/m3)
(N/mm2) (N/mm2) (N/mm2) (N/mm2) (N/mm2)
AT1 11.2 1965 15.3 1950 17.8 1962 18.5 1945 20.8 1927
AT2 6.5 1886 11.4 1895 14.9 1848 15.2 1854 18 1827 Needs more
AT3 30 2040 48 2100 59 2137 67 2078 72.4 2058 research
AT4 5.7 1980 7 1950 8.4 1942 9.8 1927 12 1869
AT5 5.2 1750 10.4 1832 13.7 1784 13.91 1749 14 1760
Pozzolans are defined as siliceous, or siliceous and aluminous materials which in themselves
possess little or no cementitious value but which will, in finely divided form and in the presence
of moisture, react chemically with calcium hydroxide to form compounds possessing
cementitious properties.

fly ash Natural silica fume

Pozzolans

known as pulverized fuel ash – It is a by-product of the

pfa is the ash precipitated manufacture of silicon and
electrostatically or Volcanic ash ferrosilicon alloys from high
mechanically from the exhaust purity quartz and coal in a
gases of coal fired power submerged arc electric
station plant furnace
89
 Silica fume

Silica fume is a by-product from the production of elemental silicon (Si) and ferro-silicon alloys. These metals and
alloys are produced in electric arc furnaces where, for example, in the case of silicon, quartz (SiO2) is reduced to the
metallic state Si.

90
▪ Referred to as silica dust, silica powder, silica flour or microsilica,
The name most commonly used is silica fume or condensed silica
fume.
▪ It consists of extremely fine spherical particles of amorphous
silicon dioxide (>85%) and possesses an exceedingly high specific
surface area which gives it an active pozzolanic characteristic.
▪ Silica fume is used as a supplementary cementitious material to
produce high strength concrete
▪ The high surface area of silica fume can increase the water
demand of the concrete mix and to optimise the benefits of silica
fume, high range water reducers (superplasticisers) are used to
maintain mixing water requirements at an acceptable level.

BS EN 13263:2005+A1:2009 :Silica fume for concrete:

Part 1: Definitions, requirements and conformity criteria
Part 2: Conformity evaluation

91
92
Chemical composition and physical properties of supplementary cementing materials

(Class F) (Class C)

[Ref: Developments in the Formulation and Reinforcement of Concrete, Sidney Mindess,2019] 93

 Classification of cements in various national standards

Sri Lanka Standards

SLS 107: – Specifications for Ordinary Portland Cement
SLS 1247: – Specifications for Blended Hydraulic Cements
SLS 1253:– Specifications for Portland Limestone cements
SLS 515 - Specifications for Masonry Cement

ASTM 1157 classification

Type GU – Hydraulic cement for general construction
Type HE – High early strength
Type MS – Moderate Sulphate resistance
Type HS – High sulphate resistance
Type MH – Moderate heat of hydration
Type LH – Low heat of hydration

AS 3972 classification
Type GP – General purpose Portland cement
Type GB – General purpose blended cement
Type HE – High early strength cement
Type SR – Sulphate resisting cement
Type SL – Shrinkage limited cement

European Standard EN 197-1: Cement- Composition, specifications and conformity criteria for common cements
94
 BS EN 197-1:
Cement-
Composition,
specifications and
conformity criteria
for common
cements

27 Products in the
family of common
cement

95
Sri Lanka Standard for Cements

SLS 107 - Ordinary Portland cement

(1971, 1982,1995, 2002, 2008 )

SLS 1247 – Blended Hydraulic

Cements (2003, 2008) Revised to bring
in line with
SLS 1253 –Portland Limestone current BS EN
cements (2003, 2008) standard for
cements
SLS 515 - Masonry Cement (BS EN 197-1)
(1981, 2002)

SLS 1697 - Portland-Composite

Cement (2021)
 OPC SLS 107

Portland slag cement

(Type 2) SLS 1247

Portland Pozzolanic
cement (Type 1)
SLS 1247

Portland limestone
cement SLS1253
97
 Classification of Blended cements
in SL Standards

Sri Lanka Standard

SPECIFICATION FOR BLENDED HYDRAULIC CEMENTS
(Second Revision)

SLS 1247 : 2014

98
SLS 1247 – Blended Hydraulic Cements
100
SLS 1697 –Portland composite cements

Equivalent Composition
Cement type cement
type in BS % (m/m)
Designatio Notation EN 197-1 Main constituents Minor
n Pozzolana Granulate Fly ash Limestone additiona
d blast 1 l
Clinker Natural Natural furnace Siliceous Calcareou constitue
calcined slag s nts

K P Q S V W L
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9) (10) (11)
Portland- CEM II/A-
PCC/ A-M 80 to 88 12-20 0 to 5
composite M
cement CEM II/B-
PCC/ B-M 65 to 79 21-35 0 to 5
M
1 Maximum limestone percentage is limited to 12%.

NOTE 1: In Portland-composite cements, PCC/A-M and PCC/B-M, the main constituents other than clinker shall be declared by notation of the
cement .

eg:Portland-composite cement containing in total a quantity of granulated blast furnace slag(S), siliceous fly ash(V) and limestone (L) of between
12% and 20% by mass has the notation as PCC/A-M(S-V-L).
 Masonry Cement

Portland cement clinker (minimum of 40%)

+
gypsum (calcium sulfate) and suitable inorganic materials such
as hydrated lime, limestone and pozzolans
+
Air-entraining agents, water-reducers (plasticisers) and water-
repellent substances

mortars of high workability and high water retentivity, but which have
lower strength and a lower rate of strength development than
Portland cement mortar

Suitable for masonry work

Not suitable for any form of concrete

102
Mechanical and Physical requirements of
OPC, BHC and PLC in SLS Standards

103
Properties of Cement

Strength

Setting time

Soundness

Chemical Composition

104
 Strength of cement

SLS 107 Method

Specimen size – 40 mm equivalent cube
derives from
40X40X160 mm
prisms
Mix proportion – 1:3 cement to sand

Sand : CEN standard sand

(natural sand graded
between 80μm to 1.6mm)
w/c – 0.5

105
 Loading arrangement for
flexural strength testing
Mould for preparation of
flexural test specimens

Jolting Apparatus for

compaction of mortar Jig for compressive strength
testing
106
 Initial and final Setting times

The initial and final setting times are determined by the Vicat apparatus which
measures the resistance of a cement paste of standard consistency to penetration
of a standard needle.

107
 Soundness of cement

free lime, magnesia (MgO) and calcium

sulphate (in excess of amount that can
react with C3A during setting) in cement
paste.

after a period of
undergo a large change in volume months or years
Cracking

The Le Chaterlier test method is used to measure the soundness of cement.

expansion < 10mm

108
Guidelines for usage of cement

109