JSS MAHAVIDYAPEETHA

JSS ACADEMY OF TECHNICAL EDUCATION, BANGALORE – 560060

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

CONCRETE TECHNOLOGY

MODULE-1: CONCRETE INGREDIENTS

CEMENT
 Why we need to study the properties of concrete
ingredients?
➢ Can we use wood to build a dam or a furnace?

➢ Can we use steel to lay a pavement?

➢ Or can we use asphalt to construct a building frame?

➢ The answer is obviously ‘No’

➢ How ever, we can use “concrete” to build all these elegantly.

 CONCRETE
➢ Concrete is weak compared to steel.

➢ It is also brittle. Yet, it is most widely used building

material. This is because of its versatility.

➢ It has desirable engineering properties.

➢ It can be made on site using easily available

materials.

➢ It can be moulded into any shape and the surface can

be textured and coloured for aesthetic purposes.

➢ Most importantly, it is produced with cost effective

materials.
 CONCRETE
➢ Concrete possess very good water resistant properties
and hence can be used in intake towers for drawing
water, dams and water tanks for storing, and canal
linings for transporting water.
➢ Structural elements are often built with reinforced
concrete. Examples are pile foundation, footings,
beams floors walls columns and roofs.
➢ Concrete is string and tough material.
➢ Reinforced concrete resists cyclones, earthquakes,
blasts and fires much better than timber and steel if
designed properly.
 CONCRETE
➢ When compared to wood or steel, concrete has an inherent fire resisting property.

➢ It regains its properties on cooling when the temperatures reached and the duration
of the fire are not abnormally high.

➢ Compared to many other engineering materials such as steel, rubber, etc., concrete
requires less energy input for its manufacture.

➢ Currently a large number of mineral admixtures, which are waste products of other
industries are being beneficially used in making quality concrete.
 CONCRETE
➢ Thus, from the consideration of energy and resource conservation and
sustainability of the environment, concrete is the most preferred material.

➢ Several materials are used to manufacture good quality concrete. It is important to

know the properties of cement, aggregate and water, as they impart strength and
durability to concrete.

➢ Of all the materials that influence the behaviour of concrete, cement is the most
important constituent, because it is used to bind sand and aggregate and it resists
atmospheric action.

➢ In this chapter , we will study the properties of all the major raw materials used to
make concrete.
 CEMENT
➢ Cement is a well known building material and has occupied an
indispensable place in construction works.

➢ Cements, in a general sense, are adhesive materials which are capable of

bonding together fragments or particles of solid matter into a compact
whole.
 HISTORY OF CEMENT
➢The history of cementing material is as old as the history of engineering
construction. Some kind of cementing materials were used by Egyptians,
Romans and Indians in their ancient constructions.
 HISTORY OF CEMENT
➢ The use of cementing materials is very old. The ancient Egyptians used
calcined impure gypsum.

➢ The Greeks and the Romans used Calcined limestone and later learned to
add to lime and water, sand and crushed stone or brick and broken tiles.
This was the first concrete in history.

➢ Ancient Romans were probably the first to use concrete- a word of Latin
origin based on hydraulic cement, that is a material which hardens under
water.
 HISTORY OF PORTLAND CEMENT
➢ The story of the invention of portland cement is however attributed to
Joseph Aspdin, a brick layer and a builder in Leeds, England

➢ Even though similar procedures has been adopted by other inventors.

➢ The term portland cement was first applied by Joseph Aspdin in his
British patent No 5022 on 21st October 1824.
 HISTORY OF PORTLAND CEMENT
➢ The term Portland was used because of the resemblance of portland stone,
a natural limestone quarried on the “peninsula of Portland in England”.
➢ This stone had an excellent hardened property and reputation for
performance.
HISTORY OF PORTLAND CEMENT
 HISTORY OF PORTLAND CEMENT
➢ In India, portland cement was first manufactures in 1904, near madras, by
the South India Industrial Ltd. But this venture was failed.
➢ Between 1912 and 1913, the Indian cement Co Ltd was established at
Porbandar (Gujarat) and by 1914 this company was able to deliver about
1000 tons of portland cement.
 CLASSIFICATION OF CEMENT
Cements may be classified into two groups.
1) Non-hydraulic cements are those which are either not able to set and
harden in water (e.g. non-hydraulic lime) or which are not stable in water
(e.g. plaster of Paris).
2) Hydraulic cements are able to set and harden in water, and give a solid
product which is stable in water.
“Portland cement” is, by far, the most important and widely used “hydraulic
cement”.
 “PORTLAND CEMENT”
➢ Portland Cement, by definition (BS-12), is a cementive material which is
obtained by intimately mixing together “calcareous or other lime-bearing
material” with, “argillaceous and/or other silica, alumina, or iron oxide”
bearing materials, burning them at a clinkering temperature and grinding
the resulting clinker.

➢ A few per cent of gypsum is added during grinding to regulate the setting
time of the cement.
 CHEMICAL COMPOSITION
➢ Portland cement consists mainly of Lime (CaO), Silica(Si02), Alumina
(Al203), and Iron oxide (Fe2 03).

➢ The combined content of the four oxides is approximately 90% of the

cement weight and they are generally referred to as the ‘Major oxides'.

➢ The remaining 10% consists of Magnesia (MgO), Alkali oxides (Na20 and
K20), Titania (Ti02), Phosphorus Pentoxide (P205), and Gypsum. These are
referred to as ‘Minor Constituents’.
➢ There has been a gradual change of
the composition of Portland cements
over the years. This change has been
mainly reflected in the increase in
lime content, and in the slight
decrease in silica content.
 CHEMICAL COMPOSITION
➢ The relative proportions of these oxide compositions are responsible for
influencing the various properties of cement.

➢ Table shows the approximate oxide composition limits of portland cement.

Table: Approximate oxide composition limits of ordinary Portland Cement.
Oxide Composition (% wt)
Lime (CaO) 60–67
Silica (SiO2) 17–25
Alumina (Al2O3) 3.0–8.0
Iron Oxide (Fe2O3) 0.5–6.0
Magnesia (MgO) 0.1–4.0
Alkali Oxides (Na2O + K2O,) 0.4–1.3
Titania (Tio2) 0.1-0.4
Phosphorus Pentoxide (P2O5) 0.1-0.2
Sulfur trioxide (SO3) 1.3–3.0
Gypsum is a soft sulfate mineral composed of calcium sulfate dihydrate, with the chemical formula
CaSO4
 CHEMICAL COMPOSITION
➢ The oxides present in the raw materials when subjected to high clinkering
temperature would result in the formation of

➢ Tricalcium Silicate (C3S),

➢ Dicalcium Silicate (C2S),

➢ Tricalcium Aluminate (C3A) and

➢ Tetra calcium Alumino Ferrite (C4AF).

➢ Studies using Optical Methods, X ray diffraction techniques, etc have confirmed
these conclusions and it is accepted that cement mainly consists of four
compounds C3S, C2S, C3A and C4AF.
CEMENT CHEMISTRY
 MANUFACTURING PROCESS OF CEMENT
➢ The cement manufacturing process can be divided into three distinct
stages as follows.
1. Raw material acquisition.
2. Clinker production in the kiln.
3. Cement grinding packing and distribution.
➢ The manufacturing plant is generally located near the source.
➢ The raw materials required for manufacture of Portland cement are
Calcareous materials such as limestone (or) chalk and Argillaceous
materials such as Shale (or) Clay.
 MANUFACTURING PROCESS OF CEMENT
➢ The process of manufacture of cement consists of grinding the raw materials,
mixing them intimately in certain proportions depending upon their purity and
composition and burning them in a kiln at a temperature of about 1300 to 1500°C,
at which temperature, the material sinters and partially fuses to form nodular
shaped clinker.

➢ The clinker is cooled and ground to fine powder with addition of about 3 to 5% of
gypsum. The product formed by using this procedure is Portland cement.
Ball Mill Rotary Kiln
Ball Mill
Ball Mill
Rotary Kiln
Rotary Kiln
CLINKER
 MANUFACTURING PROCESS OF CEMENT
➢ There are two processes known as “wet” and “dry” processes depending upon
whether the mixing and grinding of raw materials is done in wet or dry
conditions.
➢ For many years the wet process remained popular because of the possibility of
more accurate control in the mixing of raw materials. The techniques of
intimate mixing of raw materials in powder form was not available then.
➢ Later, the dry process gained momentum with the modern development of the
technique of dry mixing of powdered materials using compressed air.
 MANUFACTURING PROCESS OF CEMENT
➢ The dry process requires much less fuel as the materials are already in a dry state,
whereas in the wet process the slurry contains about 35 to 50 per cent water.

➢ To dry the slurry we thus require more fuel. In India most of the cement factories
used the wet process.

➢ Recently a number of factories have been commissioned to employ the dry process
method. Within next few years most of the cement factories will adopt dry process
system.
 WET PROCESS OF CEMENT MANUFACTURING
➢ In the wet process, the limestone brought from the quarries is first crushed to smaller
fragments.
➢ Then it is taken to a ball or tube mill where it is mixed with clay or shale as the case may be
and ground to a fine consistency of slurry with the addition of water.
➢ The slurry is a liquid of creamy consistency with water content of about 35 to 50 percent. The
slurry is pumped to slurry tanks or basins where it is kept in an agitated condition by means
of rotating arms with chains or blowing compressed air from the bottom to prevent settling of
limestone and clay particles.
➢ The composition of the slurry is tested to give the required chemical composition and
corrected periodically in the tube mill and also in the slurry tank by blending slurry from
different storage tanks.
 WET PROCESS OF CEMENT MANUFACTURING
➢ Finally, the corrected slurry is stored in the final storage tanks and kept in a homogeneous
condition by the agitation of slurry. The corrected slurry is sprayed on to the upper end of a
rotary kiln against hot heavy hanging chains.
➢ The rotary kiln is an important component of a cement factory. It is a thick steel cylinder of
diameter anything from 3 meters to 8 meters, lined with refractory materials, mounted on
roller bearings and capable of rotating about its own axis at a specified speed. The length of
the rotary kiln may vary anything from 30 meters to 200 meters.
➢ The slurry on being sprayed against a hot surface of flexible chain loses moisture and
becomes flakes. These flakes peel off and fall on the floor.
 WET PROCESS OF CEMENT MANUFACTURING
➢ The rotation of the rotary kiln causes the flakes to move from the upper end towards the lower
end of the kiln subjecting itself to higher and higher temperature. The kiln is fired from the
lower end. The fuel is either powered coal, oil or natural gas.
➢ By the time the material rolls down to the lower end of the rotary kiln, the dry material
undergoes a series of chemical reactions until finally, in the hottest part of the kiln, where the
temperature is in the order of 1500°C, about 20 to 30 per cent of the materials get fused.
➢ Lime, silica and alumina get recombined. The fused mass turns into nodular form of size 3
mm to 20 mm known as clinker. The clinker drops into a rotary cooler where it is cooled
under controlled conditions The clinker is stored in silos or bins.
 WET PROCESS OF CEMENT MANUFACTURING
➢ The cooled clinker is then ground in a ball mill with the addition of 3 to 5 per cent of
gypsum in order to prevent flash-setting of the cement.
➢ A ball mill consists of several compartments charged with progressively smaller hardened
steel balls.
➢ The particles crushed to the required fineness are separated by currents of air and taken to
storage silos from where the cement is bagged or filled into barrels for bulk supply.
Flow diagram of Wet process of Manufacture of Cement.
WET PROCESS OF CEMENT MANUFACTURING
WET PROCESS OF CEMENT MANUFACTURING
 DRY PROCESS OF CEMENT MANUFACTURING
➢ In the dry and semi-dry process the raw materials are crushed dry and fed in correct
proportions into a grinding mill where they are dried and reduced to a very fine powder.
➢ The dry powder called the raw meal is then further blended and corrected for its right
composition and mixed by means of compressed air.
➢ The aerated powder tends to behave almost like liquid and in about one hour of aeration a
uniform mixture is obtained.
➢ In the dry process, the raw meal, which has a moisture content of about 0.2% is passed
through a pre-heater, usually of a suspension type, that means that the raw meal particles are
suspended in the rising gases.
➢ Here the raw meal is heated to about 800o C before being fed in to the kiln.
 DRY PROCESS OF CEMENT MANUFACTURING
➢ The raw meal is fed direct into the kiln in the usual manner, on exit from the kiln, the clinker
is cooled the heat being used to preheat the combustion air.
➢ The cool clinker, which is characteristically black, glistening and hard is interground with
gypsum in order to prevent flash setting of the cement.
➢ The grinding is done in a ball mill consisting of several compartments with progressively
smaller steel balls, sometimes preceded by passing through a roll press. Once the cement has
been satisfactorily ground, it is ready for transport in bags or in bulk.
DRY PROCESS OF CEMENT MANUFACTURING
DRY PROCESS OF CEMENT MANUFACTURING
 HYDRATION OF CEMENT
➢ The oxides present in the raw materials when subjected to high clinkering
temperature would result in the formation of

➢ Tricalcium Silicate (C3S),

➢ Dicalcium Silicate (C2S),

➢ Tricalcium Aluminate (C3A) and

➢ Tetra calcium Alumino Ferrite (C4AF).

➢ Studies using Optical Methods, X ray diffraction techniques, etc have confirmed
these conclusions and it is accepted that cement mainly consists of four
compounds C3S, C2S, C3A and C4AF.
 HYDRATION CHEMISTRY OF CEMENT
➢ The reaction of cement when mixed with water is called “Hydration”.
➢ Both C3S and C2S make up nearly 75% of cement.
➢ The hydration of these compounds is responsible for the setting and
hardening of cement.
➢ In the presence of water, the silicates and aluminates form products of
hydration, which result in a hard mass over a period of time. This hard
mass is known as Hydrated cement paste.
➢ The hydration surface reaction commences immediately once the cement
comes n contact with water. It is an exothermic reaction.
➢ The cement grains become smaller as the reaction proceeds, which
produces hydration products. The hydration continues as long as heat and
moisture are available.
➢ All four Bogue compounds along with Gypsum are involved in the
hydration reaction and only a very small amount of water is needed for it.
 Bogue compounds
➢ Tricalcium Silicate (C3S),

➢ Dicalcium Silicate (C2S),

➢ Tricalcium Aluminate (C3A) and

➢ Tetra calcium Alumino Ferrite (C4AF).

 HYDRATION CHEMISTRY OF CEMENT
Hydration of C3S
The chemical reaction of C3S with water can be expressed as

C3S + Water C- S - H + C - H + Heat

Where
C – S – H = Calcium Silicate Hydrate

C–H = Calcium Hydrate

 C – S – H [Calcium Silicate Hydrate]
➢ Calcium silicate hydrate constitutes 50-60% of the solids in the paste.
➢ It forms a continuous binding matrix
➢ It is amorphous and fibrous and hence has a large surface area
➢ It is an important factor for the “Strength development of cement paste”.
 C – H [Calcium Hydrate]
➢ Calcium hydrate makes up about 20% of the solids in the paste. It exists in the
form of thick crystalline hexagonal plates and is embedded in the C- S- H
matrix.
➢ Its growth fills the pore spaces.
➢ It does not significantly contribute to strength.
➢ Its leaching causes white patches and efflorescence.
 Hydration of C2S
➢ The hydration of C2S is similar to the hydration of C3S.
➢ The same products are generated.
➢ However C2S reacts slowly and hence generates less heat.
➢ It contributes to strength development at later ages.
 Hydration of C3A
➢ This hydration reaction produces a substance called “Ettringite” as
follows.
C3A + Gypsum + Water Ettringite + Heat
C3A + Ettringite + Water MonoSulphoaluminate
➢ If the amount of gypsum is too little, C3A will react fast and can cause
a “Flash set”.
➢ On the other hand, too much gypsum will delay setting and cause
undue expansion.
➢ Ettringite is a crystalline and needle like substance.
➢ It constitutes about 10-20% of the solid content.
➢ It is a long, slender and prismatic crystal and is stable only in the
presence of Gypsum.
➢ It plays a minor role in strength development but contributes
considerably to “Durability”.
➢ Monosulphoaluminate is a
stable hydration product.

➢ It is fairly crystalline.

➢ It forms a thin irregular

plates clustered like a flower.

➢ Hence it fills the pores and

can reform Ettringite in the
presence of sulphate ions.
 Hydration of C4AF
➢ The hydration of C4AF is similar
to the hydration of C3A.
➢ The same products are generated.
➢ However C4AF reacts slowly and
hence generates less heat and
combines well with gypsum.
 Cement Hydration Summary
➢ The hydration of cement occurs at the surface of the grain. All the compounds
react simultaneously, a compound reaction takes place.
➢ The smaller grains hydrate first and the larger grains become smaller while they
hydrate. Some very large grains never hydrate completely.
➢ The hydration rate has the following hierarchy. C3A, C3S, C4AF and C2S.
➢ Ettringite is formed first, followed by C-H and C-S-H.
➢ There is no change in the total volume of the cement paste as a result of
hydration.
➢ After hydration, the paste composite consists of both the solid and water phases.
➢ Thus hydration is a chemical reaction. The Bogue compounds react to form C-S-
H, C-H, Ettringite, Monosulphoaluminate and heat.
➢ Calcium Silicate contributes to strength development and Calcium Aluminate
relates to setting.
 Cement Hydration Reactions

Table: Summary of Behaviour of Bogue compounds in cement hydration

Compound Symbol Reaction Strength Setting Heat
Time Development Time Evaluation
Tricalcium Silicate C3S Medium High Low High

Dicalcium Silicate C2S Slow Low/High Low Low

Tricalcium Aluminate C3A Fast Low High Very High

Tetracalcium C4AF Medium Low Medium Medium

Aluminoferrite
 Cement Hydration Reactions
➢ The Hydration reactions can be summarized as follows:
2C3S + 6H C3S2H3 + 3CH (120 Cal/g)
(Tricalcium silicate) (Water) (Calcium silicate hydroxide ) (Calcium Hydroxide)
Can also be written as
C3S + 6H C-S-H + 3CH (120 Cal/g)

2C2S + 4H C3S2H3 + CH (62 Cal/g)

(Dicalcium silicate) (Water) (Calcium silicate hydroxide ) (Calcium Hydroxide)
Can also be written as
C2S + 4H C-S-H + 3CH (62 Cal/g)

C3A + 26H + 3CSH2 C6A S3H32 (300 Cal/g)

(Tricalcium aluminate) (Water) (Calcium silicate hydrate-Gypsum) (Ettringite)
2C3A + C6A S3H32 + 4H 3C4A SH12
(Tricalcium aluminate) (Ettringite) (Water) (Calcium Monosulphoaluminate)

C4AF + 10H + 2CH C6AFH12

(Tetracalcium aluminoferrite) (Water) (Calcium Hydroxide) (Calcium aluminoferrite hydrate)
Fig: Solid and Fluid/Vapour Phases of the reaction products of hydration

Phase

Solid Fluid/Vapour

C-S-H Water

C-H Air Voids

Ettringite Capillary

Monosulphoaluminate Pores

Unhydrated Cement (Free Calcium)

 REDUCING THE CARBON FOOTPRINT OF CEMENT
➢ Cement is vital for a country’s economic development, the basic ingredient
required to build housing and infrastructure.
➢ The world cement market represented an estimated 3.7 billion tons in 2012,
with demand continuing to increase at 5-6% per year.
➢ However, cement manufacturing generates CO2 and the industry as a
whole represents around 5% of global CO2 emissions.
➢ Around 60% of these result from the transformation of limestone at high
temperatures – ‘Decarbonation’ – to produce clinker, the basic component
of cement.
➢ Approximately 40% are generated from the energy used in the burning
process.
REDUCING THE CARBON FOOTPRINT OF CEMENT
 REDUCING THE CARBON FOOTPRINT OF CEMENT
There are three main ways to reduce CO2 emissions associated with cement
production:
➢ Increasing energy efficiency by optimizing processes and modernizing factories :
Introducing new cement plants using the best available technology or upgrading old
plants.
➢ Substituting fossil fuels with other energy sources: Alternative fuels such as
biomass, tires and industrial waste can be used to replace fossil fuels in cement
kilns. This allows not only a reduction in the consumption of fossil fuels but also
the safe disposal of waste that would otherwise be incinerated or land filled.
➢ Using additives in cement to develop a large range of products according to their
application: Natural products such as Pozzolanic or industrial by-products such as
fly ash (a by-product of coal-fired power stations) or slag (a by-product of the steel
industry) can be used in the cement production process as cement additives. These
decarbonated additives have hydraulic binding qualities and can be used to produce
less carbon-intensive cements
 TYPES OF CEMENT
1. Ordinary Portland Cement
2. Rapid Hardening Cement
3. Extra Rapid Hardening Cement
4. Sulphate Resisting Cement
5. Portland Slag Cement (PSC)
6. Quick Setting Cement
7. Super Sulphated Cement
8. Low Heat Cement
9. Portland Pozzolana Cement
10.Air-Entraining Cement
11.Coloured Cement (White Cement)
12.Hydrophobic cement
13.Masonry Cement
14.Expansive Cement
15.IRS-T 40 Special Grade Cement
16.Oil-Well Cement
17.High Alumina Cement
1. Ordinary Portland Cement
➢ Ordinary Portland cement (OPC) is by far the most important type of cement.
➢ Prior to 1987, there was only one grade of OPC which was governed by IS 269-
1976.
➢ After 1987 higher grade cements were introduced in India.
➢ The OPC was classified into three grades, namely 33 grade, 43 grade and 53
grade depending upon the strength of the cement at 28 days.
➢ When tested as per IS 4031-1988. If the 28 days strength is not less than 33N/mm2,
it is called 33 grade cement, if the strength is not less than 43 N/mm2, it is called
43 grade cement, and if the strength is not less then 53 N/mm2, it is called 53
grade cement.
The manufacture of OPC is
decreasing all over the world in view
of the popularity of blended cement
on account of lower energy
consumption, environmental
pollution, economic and other
technical reasons.
 2. Rapid Hardening Cement (IS 8041–1990)
➢ This cement is similar to ordinary Portland cement. As the name indicates it
develops strength rapidly and as such it may be more appropriate to call it as high
early strength cement.
➢ The rapid rate of development of strength is attributed to the higher fineness of
grinding (specific surface not less than 3250 sq. cm per gram) and higher C3S and
lower C2S content.
➢ A higher fineness of cement particles expose greater surface area for action of
water and also higher proportion of C3S results in quicker hydration.
➢ Consequently, rapid hardening cement gives out much greater heat of hydration
during the early period.
➢ Therefore, rapid hardening cement should not be used in mass concrete
construction.
Rapid Hardening Cement (IS 8041–1990) cont…
The use of rapid hardeing cement is recommended in the following situations:
a) In pre-fabricated concrete construction.
b) Where formwork is required to be removed early for re-use elsewhere,
c) Road repair works,
d) In cold weather concrete where the rapid rate of development of strength reduces
the vulnerability of concrete to the frost damage.
 2. Extra Rapid Hardening Cement (IS 8041–1990)
➢ Extra rapid hardening cement is obtained by intergrinding calcium chloride with
rapid hardening Portland cement.
➢ The normal addition of calcium chloride should not exceed 2 per cent by weight
of the rapid hardening cement.
➢ It is necessary that the concrete made by using extra rapid hardening cement should
be transported, placed and compacted and finished within about 20 minutes.
➢ It is also necessary that this cement should not be stored for more than a month.
Extra rapid hardening cement accelerates the setting and hardening process.
 Extra Rapid Hardening Cement (IS 8041–1990)
➢ A large quantity of heat is evolved in a very short time after placing.
➢ The acceleration of setting, hardening and evolution of this large quantity of heat
in the early period of hydration makes the cement very suitable for concreting in
cold weather.
➢ The strength of extra rapid hardening cement is about 25 per cent higher than
that of rapid hardening cement at one or two days and 10–20 per cent higher at 7
days.
➢ The gain of strength will disappear with age and at 90 days the strength of extra
rapid hardening cement (or) the ordinary portland cement may be nearly the
same.
3. Sulphate Resisting Cement (IS 12330–1988)
➢ Ordinary Portland cement is susceptible to the attack of sulphates, in particular to
the action of magnesium sulphate.
➢ Sulphates react both with the free calcium hydroxide in set cement to form
calcium sulphate and with hydrate of calcium aluminate to form calcium
sulphoaluminate.
➢ Their expansion within the frame work of hardened cement paste, results in
cracks and subsequent disruption.
➢ Sulphate attack is greatly accelerated if accompanied by alternate wetting and
drying which normally takes place in marine structures in the zone of tidal
variations.
Sulphate Resisting Cement (IS 12330–1988)
➢ The use of sulphate resisting cement is recommended under the following
conditions:
a) Concrete to be used in marine condition;
b) Concrete to be used in foundation and basement, where soil is infested with
sulphates;
c) Concrete used for fabrication of pipes which are likely to be buried in marshy
region or sulphate bearing soils;
d) Concrete to be used in the construction of sewage treatment works.
4. Portland Slag Cement (PSC) (IS 455–1989)
➢ Portland slag cement is obtained by mixing Portland cement clinker, gypsum and
granulated blast furnace slag in suitable proportions and grinding the mixture to
get a thorough and intimate mixture between the constituents.
➢ It may also be manufactured by separately grinding Portland cement clinker,
gypsum and ground granulated blast furnace slag and later mixing them intimately.
➢ In addition, it has low heat of hydration and is relatively better resistant to
chlorides, soils and water containing excessive amount of sulphates or alkali
metals, alumina and iron, as well as, to acidic waters, and therefore, this can be
used for marine works with advantage.
Portland Slag Cement (PSC) (IS 455–1989)
➢ To remedy the sulphate attack, the use of cement with low C3A content is found to
be effective. Such cement with low C3A and comparatively low C4AF content is
known as Sulphate Resisting Cement.
The major advantages currently recognised are:
(a ) Reduced heat of hydration;
(b ) Refinement of pore structure;
(c ) Reduced permeability;
(d ) Increased resistance to chemical attack..

Eastern Scheldt storm surge barrier (Neeltje Jans) in the

province of Zeeland
5. Quick Setting Cement
➢ This cement as the name indicates sets very early. The early setting property is
brought out by reducing the gypsum content at the time of clinker grinding.
➢ This cement is required to be mixed, placed and compacted very early.
➢ It is used mostly in under water construction where pumping is involved.
➢ Use of quick setting cement in such conditions reduces the pumping time and
makes it economical.
➢ Quick setting cement may also find its use in some typical grouting operations.
7. Super Sulphated Cement (IS 6909–1990)
➢ Super sulphated cement is manufactured by grinding together a mixture of 80-85
per cent granulated slag, 10-15 per cent hard burnt gypsum, and about 5 per cent
Portland cement clinker. The product is ground finer than that of Portland
cement.
➢ This cement has high sulphate resistance. Because of this property this cement is
particularly recommended for use in foundation, where chemically aggressive
conditions exist.
➢ As super-sulphated cement has more resistance than Portland blast furnace slag
cement to attack by sea water, it is also used in the marine works.
➢ Other areas where super-sulphated cement is recommended include the fabrication
of reinforced concrete pipes which are likely to be buried in sulphate bearing soils.
8. Low Heat Cement (IS 12600-1989)
➢ It is well known that hydration of cement is an exothermic action which produces
large quantity of heat during hydration.
➢ Formation of cracks in large body of concrete due to heat of hydration has
focussed the attention of the concrete technologists to produce a kind of cement
which produces less heat or the same amount of heat, at a low rate during the
hydration process.
➢ Cement having this property was developed in U.S.A. During 1930 for use in mass
concrete construction, such as dams, where temperature rise by the heat of
hydration can become excessively large.
➢ A low-heat evolution is achieved by reducing the contents of C3S and C3A which
are the compounds evolving the maximum heat of hydration and increasing C2S.
9. Portland Pozzolana Cement (IS 1489–1991)
➢ Portland Pozzolana cement (PPC) is manufactured by the intergrinding of OPC
clinker with 10 to 25 per cent of pozzolanic material (as per the latest amendment,
it is 15 to 35%).
➢ A pozzolanic material is essentially a silicious or aluminous material which while
in itself possessing no cementitious properties, which will, in finely divided form
and in the presence of water, react with calcium hydroxide, liberated in the
hydration process, at ordinary temperature, to form compounds possessing
cementitious properties.
➢ The pozzolanic materials generally used for manufacture of PPC are calcined clay
(IS 1489 part 2 of 1991) or fly ash (IS 1489 part I of 1991). Fly ash is a waste
material, generated in the thermal power station, when powdered coal is used as a
fuel.
Portland Pozzolana Cement (IS 1489–1991)
➢ Portland Pozzolana cement produces less heat of hydration and offers greater
resistance to the attack of aggressive waters than ordinary Portland cement.
➢ It is particularly useful in marine and hydraulic construction and other mass concrete
constructions. Portland Pozzolana cement can generally be used where ordinary
Portland cement is usable.
➢ However, it is important to appreciate that the addition of Pozzolana does not
contribute to the strength at early ages.
➢ Strengths similar to those of ordinary Portland cement can be expected in general
only at later ages provided the concrete is cured under moist conditions for a sufficient
period.
➢ A few of the disadvantages are that the rate of development of strength is initially
slightly slower than OPC. Secondly reduction in alkalinity reduces the resistance to
corrosion of steel reinforcement.
➢ But considering the fact that PPC significantly improve the permeability of concrete,
increases the resistance to corrosion of reinforcement. The setting time is nominally
longer
10. Air-Entraining Cement
Air-entraining cement is not covered by Indian Standard so far. This cement is made
by mixing a small amount of an air-entraining agent with ordinary Portland cement
clinker at the time of grinding.
The following types of air-entraining agents could be used:
(a) Alkali salts of wood resins.
(b) Synthetic detergents of the alkyl-aryl sulphonate type.
(c) Calcium lignosulphate derived from the sulphite process in paper making.
(d) Calcium salts of glues and other proteins obtained in the treatment of animal hides.
Air-entraining cement will modify the properties of plastic concrete with respect to
workability, segregation and bleeding. It will modify the properties of hardened
concrete with respect to its resistance to frost action.
11. Coloured Cement (White Cement IS 8042–1989)
➢ For manufacturing various coloured cements either white cement or grey Portland
cement is used as a base.
➢ The use of white cement as a base is costly. With the use of grey cement only red
or brown cement can be produced.
➢ Coloured cement consists of Portland cement with 5-10 per cent of pigment. The
pigment cannot be satisfactorily distributed throughout the cement by mixing, and
hence, it is usual to grind the cement and pigment together.
➢ The process of manufacture of white Portland cement is nearly same as OPC. As
the raw materials, particularity the kind of limestone required for manufacturing
white cement is only available around Jodhpur in Rajasthan, two famous brands of
white cement namely Birla White and J.K. White Cements are manufactured near
Jodhpur.
Coloured Cement (White Cement IS 8042–1989)
➢ The raw materials used are high purity limestone (96% CaCo3 and less than 0.07%
iron oxide).
➢ The other raw materials are china clay with iron content of about 0.72 to 0.8%,
silica sand, flourspar as flux and selenite as retarder. Sea shells and coral can also
be used as raw materials for production of white cement.
➢ The properties of white cement is nearly same as OPC. Generally white cement is
ground finer than grey cement.
12. Hydrophobic Cement (IS 8043-1991)
➢ Hydrophobic cement is obtained by grinding ordinary Portland cement clinker
with water repellant film-forming substance such as oleic acid, and stearic acid.
➢ The water-repellant film formed around each grain of cement, reduces the rate of
deterioration of the cement during long storage, transport, or under unfavourable
conditions.
➢ The film is broken out when the cement and aggregate are mixed together at the
mixer exposing the cement particles for normal hydration.
➢ The film forming water-repellant material will entrain certain amount of air in the
body of the concrete which incidentally will improve the workability of concrete.
Hydrophobic cement (IS 8043-1991)
➢ The properties of hydrophobic cement is nearly the same as that ordinary Portland
cement except that it entrains a small quantity of air bubbles.
➢ After grinding, the cement particle is sprayed in one direction and film forming
materials such as oleic acid, or stearic acid, or pentachlorophenol, or calcium
oleate are sprayed from another direction such that every particle of cement is
coated with a very fine film of this water repellant material which protects them
from the bad effect of moisture during storage and transportation.
➢ The cost of this cement is nominally higher than ordinary Portland cement.
13. Masonry Cement (IS 3466 : 1988)
➢ Masonry cement is a type of cement which is particularly made with such
combination of materials, which when used for making mortar, incorporates all the
good properties of lime mortar and discards all the not so ideal properties of
cement mortar.
➢ This kind of cement is mostly used, as the name indicates, for masonry
construction.
➢ It contains certain amount of air-entraining agent and mineral admixtures to
improve the plasticity and water retentivity.
14. Expansive cement
➢ Concrete made with ordinary Portland cement shrinks while setting due to loss of
free water. Concrete also shrinks continuously for long time. This is known as
drying shrinkage.
➢ Cement used for grouting anchor bolts or grouting machine foundations or the
cement used in grouting the prestress concrete ducts, if shrinks, the purpose for
which the grout is used will be to some extent defeated.
➢ There has been a search for such type of cement which will not shrink while
hardening and thereafter. As a matter of fact, a slight expansion with time will
prove to be advantageous for grouting purpose.
➢ This type of cement which suffers no overall change in volume on drying is
known as expansive cement. Cement of this type has been developed by using an
expanding agent and a stabilizer very carefully.
15. IRS-T 40 Special Grade Cement
➢ IRS-T-40 special grade cement is manufactured as per specification laid down by
ministry of Railways under IRST40: 1985.
➢ It is a very finely ground cement with high C3S content designed to develop high
early strength required for manufacture of concrete sleeper for Indian Railways.
➢ This cement can also be used with advantage for other applications where high
early strength concrete is required.
➢ This cement can be used for prestressed concrete elements, high rise buildings,
high strength concrete.
16. Oil-Well Cement (IS 8229-1986)
➢ Oil-wells are drilled through stratified sedimentary rocks
through a great depth in search of oil.
➢ It is likely that if oil is struck, oil or gas may escape through
the space between the steel casing and rock formation.
➢ Cement slurry is used to seal off the annular space between
steel casing and rock strata and also to seal off any other
fissures or cavities in the sedimentary rock layer.
➢ The cement slurry has to be pumped into position, at
considerable depth where the prevailing temperature may be
up to 175°C.
➢ The pressure required may go upto 1300 kg/cm2. The slurry
should remain sufficiently mobile to be able to flow under
these conditions for periods upto several hours and then
hardened fairly rapidly.
➢ It may also have to resist corrosive conditions from sulphur
gases or waters containing dissolved salts. The type of
cement suitable for the above conditions is known as Oil-
well cement.
17. High Alumina Cement (IS 6452 : 1989)
➢ High alumina cement is obtained by fusing or sintering a mixture, in suitable
proportions, of alumina and calcareous materials and grinding the resultant
product to a fine powder.
➢ The raw materials used for the manufacture of high alumina cement are limestone
and bauxite. These raw materials with the required proportion of coke were
charged into the furnace.
➢ The furnace is fired with pulverised coal or oil with a hot air
blast. The fusion takes place at a temperature of about 1550-
1600°C.
➢ The cement is maintained in a liquid state in the furnace.
Afterwards the molten cement is run into moulds and cooled.
➢ These castings are known as pigs. After cooling the cement
mass resembles a dark, fine gray compact rock resembling
the structure and hardeness of basalt rock.
 TESTING OF CEMENT
Testing of cement can be brought under two categories:
1. Field Testing
2. Laboratory Testing
 FIELD TESTING OF CEMENT
➢ It is required to check the quality of cement before, it is used for any projects.
➢ If the cement is used for minor works and for Arbitary knowledge, cement can be
subjected to field tests which are adopted as follows.
The following are the quality tests on cement at construction site:

1. Date of packing
2. Colour test
3. Presence of lumps
4. Adulteration test
5. Temperature test
6. Float tests
7. Smell test
8. Strength test
9. Setting test
1. Date of packing
➢ Strength of cement reduces with time, so it is important to check the
manufacturing date of the cement.
➢ Generally, the cement should be used before 90 days from the date of
manufacturing.
2. Colour test
➢ The cement should be uniform in colour.
➢ In general the colour of cement is grey with a light greenish shade.
3. Presence of lumps
➢ The cement should be free from any hard lumps.
➢ Such lumps are formed by the absorption of moisture from the
atmosphere.
➢ Any bag of cement containing such lumps should be rejected.
4. Adulteration test
➢ The cement should feel smooth when touched or rubbed in between
fingers.
➢ If it is felt rough, it indicates adulteration with sand.
5. Temperature test
➢ If the hand is plunged into a bag of cement, it should be cool and not
warm inside the cement bag.
➢ If hydration reaction takes place inside the bag, it will become warm.
6. Float test
➢ If a small quantity of cement is thrown in a bucket of water, the
particles should float for some time before it sinks
7. Smell test
➢ Make a thin paste of cement with water. The paste should feel stick
between the fingers.
➢ If the cement is adulterated, the paste gives an earthy smell.
8. Strength test
➢ A block of cement 25 mm ×25 mm and 200 mm long is prepared and
it is immersed in water for 7 days.
➢ It is then placed on supports 15 cm apart and it is loaded with a
weight of about 34 kg.
➢ The block should not show signs of failure.
9. Setting test
➢ A thick paste of cement with water is made on a piece of glass plate and it
is kept under water for 24 hours.
➢ It should set and not crack.
 LABORATORY TESTING OF CEMENT
➢ If a sample of cement satisfies the field tests it may be concluded
that the cement is satisfactory.

➢ The field tests do not really indicate that the cement is really good
for important works.

➢ For using cement in important and major works it is incumbent on

the part of the user to test the cement in the laboratory to confirm the
requirements of the Indian standard specifications with respect to its
physical and chemical properties.
 LABORATORY TESTING OF CEMENT
The following tests are usually conducted in the laboratory
1. Fineness Test
2. Setting time Test
3. Strength Test
4. Soundness Test
5. Specific Gravity Test
6. Heat of Hydration Test
7. Chemical Composition Test
1. Fineness Test
➢ Since hydration starts at the surface of the cement particles, it is the total
surface area of cement that represents the material available for
hydration.
➢ Thus, the rate of hydration depends on the fineness of cement particles,
and for a rapid development of strength a high fineness is necessary.
➢ The term “Fineness or fineness of grinding” refers to the average size of
the cement particles.
➢ A higher fineness means a more finely ground cement smaller particles.
➢ The significance of fineness lies in the fact that it affects several
technically important properties of cement and concrete.
➢ For instance, the higher the fineness, the higher compressive strengths are
developed at early ages.
Fineness of cement is tested in two ways:
1. By Sieving
2. By determining the specific surface (total surface area of all
the particles in one gram of cement) by air-permeability
apparatus.
Generally Blaine’s air Permeability apparatus is used.
a) By Sieving
➢ Weigh correctly 100 grams of cement and take it on a standard IS sieve
(90 Microns).
➢ Break down the air set lumps in the sample with fingers. Continuously
sieve the sample giving circular and vertical motion for a period of 15
minutes. Mechanical sieving devices may also be used.
➢ Weigh the residue left on the sieve.
➢ This weight shall not exceed 10% for ordinary cement.
b) Air Permeability Method (Blaine’s Method)
➢ The fineness of cement is measured as specific surface.
➢ Specific surface is expressed as the total surface area in square meters of
all the cement particles in one kilogram of cement.
➢ The higher the specific surface is the finer cement will be.
➢ Principle of air permeability method is in observing the time taken for a
fixed quantity of air to flow through compacted cement bed of specified
dimension and porosity.
2. Standard Consistency Test
➢ For the determination of the initial setting time, the final setting time,
soundness test and strength, neat cement paste of a standard consistency
has to be used.
➢ Therefore, it is necessary to determine for any given cement, the water
content which will produce a paste of standard consistency.
➢ Consistency is determined by the Vicat apparatus, which measures the
depth of penetration of a (10 mm) diameter plunger under its own weight,
when the depth of penetration reaches a certain value (5 mm to 7 mm), the
water content required gives the standard consistency of between 26 to 33
(Expressed as a percentage by mass of dry cement).
3. Setting Time
➢ Cement when mixed with water forms paste which gradually becomes less
plastic, and finally a hard mass is obtained.
➢ In this process of setting a stage is reached when the cement paste is
sufficiently rigid to withstand a definite amount of pressure. The time to
reach this stage is termed as “Setting time”.
➢ The time is reckoned from the instant when water is added to the cement.
➢ The setting time is dived into two parts, namely, the “Initial setting time”
and the “Final setting time”.
 Setting Time
➢ The time at which the cement paste looses its plasticity, it is termed as the
“initial setting time”. For an ordinary portland cement, the initial setting
time should not be less than 30 Minutes.
➢ The time taken to reach the stage when the paste becomes a hard mass is
known as the “Final setting time”.
➢ For an ordinary portland cement, the final setting time should not be more
than 600 Minutes or 10 Hours.
 False Set
➢ A phenomenon of abnormal premature hardening within a few minutes
of mixing the water is termed as “False set”.

➢ However, not much heat is evolved and remixing the paste without water,
restores the plasticity and then the cement sets in the normal manner with
no appreciable loss of strength.

Flash Set
➢ The reaction of C3A with water is very rapid, which leads to immediate
stiffening of the paste, this phenomenon is known as “Flash set”.
➢ During this phenomenon large amount of heat is produced and further
mixing can’t dispel the rigidity in freshly mixed portland cement paste.

➢ This phenomenon can be prevented by adding proper proportion of

gypsum to cement clinker during grinding.
a) Initial Setting Time
➢ The Vicat apparatus is used to determine the setting time of cement.
➢ A paste of 300 g of cement made with 0.85 times the amount of water required
for a paste of normal consistency is filled in the mould.
➢ The lower end of the rod of the Vicat apparatus is fitted with a needle 1 mm in
cross section or dia. This needle is brought in contact with the surface of the paste
and released.
➢ The initial setting is said to have taken place when the needle fails to penetrate
beyond a point 5 mm to 7 mm above the glass plate kept at the base. The time
taken from the instant water is added to the cement to the moment the needle fails
to penetrate (5 mm to 7 mm) is the “Initial setting time”.
b) Final Setting Time
➢ For determining the final setting time the 1 mm square needle is replaced
by the Final set needle. This needle has an annular attachment around the 1
mm square needle, projecting 0.5 mm below it.
➢ The final setting is considered to have take place when the attachment
fails to make any impression on the surface whereas the square needle
makes one.
➢ The time taken from the instant water is added to the cement to the
moment the circular attachment fails to make any impression on the
surface of the cement paste is known as “Final setting time”. For ordinary
portland cement, the final setting time should not be more than 10 hours
or 600 minutes. The test is performed in an air conditioned room with 90%
humidity and a temperature of 25o-29o C.
4) Soundness Time
➢ It is essential for cement concrete to not undergo large changes in volume
after setting. Change in volume is termed as Unsoundness, and can cause
cracks, undue expansion and disintegration of cement concrete.
➢ The unsoundness is due to the presence of free lime and magnesia in the
cement. The free lime hydrates very slowly, because it is covered by the
thin film of cement which prevents direct contact between lime and water.
➢ After the setting of cement, the moisture penetrates into the free lime
resulting in its hydration. Since slaked lime occupies a larger volume, the
expansion takes place resulting in severe cracking. The unsoundness due to
the presence of magnesia is similar to that of lime.
 Soundness Time
➢ The unsoundness may be reduced by:
1. Limiting the Mgo content to less than 0.5%.
2. Fine grinding.
3. Allowing the cement to aerate for several days and
4. Thorough mixing.
 Soundness Time
➢ This test is carried out with the help of the Le Chatelier's apparatus or by
using Autoclave tests.
➢ Le Chatelier's apparatus consists of a split brass cylinder to which two
pointers are attached, one on each side of the split.
➢ Cement paste prepared with 0.78 times the water required to prepare a
paste of normal consistency and 100 g of cement is filled in the mould and
placed on a glass plate. Another glass plate is placed on top of the mould
and held down.
➢ The whole assembly is immediately placed in a water bath maintained at a
temperature of 27-32oC. After 24 hours, the distance between the pointers
is measured and the mould is transferred to Le Chatelier's water bath and
heated in water to boiling temperature for 1 hour.
➢ After cooling, the increase in the distance between the pointers is noted.
This increase should not be more than 10 mm for cement.
5. Strength Test
➢ The compressive strength of hardened cement is the most important of all
the properties. Therefore, it is not surprising that the cement is always
tested for its strength at the laboratory before the cement is used in
important works.
➢ Strength tests are not made on neat cement paste because of difficulties of
excessive shrinkage and subsequent cracking of neat cement.
➢ Strength of cement is indirectly found on cement sand mortar in specific
proportions. Standard sand is used for finding the strength of cement, it
shall conform to IS : 650-1991.
➢ For thus purpose, one part by weight of cement is mixed with three parts
by weight of standard sand in dry conditions. To this dry mixture [1:3]
water is added as per the formula.
➢ P= Pn/4 +3.0, where P is the % of water by weight of the dry materials.
➢ Three cubes each are tested in a compression testing machine after 3 days
and then 7 days.
Strength Test
5. Specific Gravity Test
➢ Specific gravity is normally defined as the ratio between the mass of a given
volume of material and mass of an equal volume of water. One of the methods of
determining the specific gravity of cement is by the use of a liquid such as water-
free kerosene which does not react with cement.
➢ A specific gravity bottle may be employed or a standard Le-Chatelier flask may be
used.
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