Man-Nature Relationship

UNIT 15 MAN-NATURE
RELATIONSHIP
Structure

15.0 Introduction
15.1 Man’s Place in Nature
15.2 Srsti/Universe and Its Attributes
15.3 Components of Environment
15.4 Vegetation and the Animal World
15.5 Popular and Classical Traditions: Representations of Environment
15.6 Pollution (Pradushana):Traditional Concerns
15.7 Summary
15.8 Exercises
15.9 Suggested Reading

15.0 INTRODUCTION
Since ancient past concern for environment has been an integral part of
Indian intellectual and popular traditions. This concern for environment
is not something which has come to us from the West as is usually
projected. It is indigenously visible in the cultural patterns, religious
practices and social norms and needs careful delineation.

This Unit provides you with an insight into various traditions of Indian
philosophy with regard to its vision of the environment. Indian philosophy
has always considered environment as an organic living entity. Traditions
have stressed a participatory life with environment. Humans have been
seen as one component of this wider reality i.e., environment. They are
created by the elements of environment and they finally dissolve in the
environment. Here we must stress that Indian philosophical traditions
are pluralistic in nature, therefore, we cannot reduce our examination to
any single philosophical tradition. Yet a practical approach is to focus
on the major philosophical traditions and take up manifestations of
environment therein for a detailed study.

Since Srsti/Universe figures in almost all the traditions as a representation

of nature, we discuss the concept of Srsti as visualised in Indian
philosophy and its relationship with the humans in detail and also take
up a discussion on, and the integration of, various components of
environment with the living forms in this Unit. The significance of popular
and classical traditions in promoting prudent attitudes towards
environment is also part of our discussion. Finally we take up the notion
of Pradushana of environment i.e. pollution of environment and discuss
the treatment of this concept in philosophical traditions keeping in view
the role played by human activities. 5
Indian Philosophy &
Environment 15.1 MAN’S PLACE IN NATURE
The Indian tradition places man alongside other creatures of the animal
world and the world of vegetation. This is a significant feature and we
would prefer to dilate on the subject further.

Man enjoys no pristine position though a whole lot of privileges get

accrued to man through his intellect. Actually man’s place in nature/
environment is two fold – physical and the spiritual. The physical
relationship entails interaction with all the other living things and non-
living objects that are part of the environmental surroundings. The spiritual
relationship, on the other hand, requires a set of the rules of conduct to
be followed by man. These rules of conduct specify the duties and
obligations towards other living species. The guiding principle in both
relationships is that the environment should not be endangered due to
the activities of man. There is an element of ethics involved in this and
man’s place in environment/nature is located within the realm of this
ethics.

The treatment given to the issue – man’s place in nature – in Indian

philosophical traditions too distinguishes between the physical and the
spiritual or psychical, as suggested in some treatises. Since the physical
relationship is principally determined by those requirements that sustain
existence, such as food and living environment, it is a relationship of
providing for the material needs. However, material needs and material
wealth are two separate notions and these are clearly demarcated in the
treatment of man’s physical relationship with environment. Unlike the
techno-modern objective of mastering environment for extracting the
maximum of material resources, the Indian tradition lays great emphasis
on inculcating environmental ethics encouraging preservation, protection
and conservation of nature.

The psychical or spiritual relationship transcends the material world. In

a beautiful verse from Kathopnishad the idea is clearly described:
‘Higher than the senses (and their objects) is the mind, more excellent
than the mind (manas) is intellect (sattvam); above the intellect soars
the great soul (mahatma) and more excellent than the great one is the
unmainfested (avyakta). And higher than the unmanifested is the soul
(purusa here) which is all-pervading and without sense’ (Cf. Kapila
Vatsyayan, ‘Indian View of Environment As A Part of Indian Aesthetics’
in Creativity and Environment, ed. Vidya Niwas Misra, Sahitya Akademi,
New Delhi, 1992, p.25). Evidently man is conceived in Indian tradition
as representing a microcosm of the larger universe which is the
macrocosm. Interestingly the two – micro and macro-cosm – constantly
exchange their forms. Thus fire of the nature becomes speech as it
enters the mouth; the sun becomes sight as it enters the eyes; wind
becomes breath by entering the nostrils; the annual herbs and regents of
the forest become hairs as they enter the skin; the moon enters the heart
and becomes mind. It also indicates man’s and nature’s interdependence
as also the reality that the two can be comprehended completely only in
6
a state of union. The following verse from Atharvaveda illustrates the Man-Nature Relationship
point nicely:

O earth! Pleasant be thy hills and snow clad mountains and thy
woodlands on the earth-brown, black, ruddy and of all colours – the
firm earth, the earth protected by the deity (Indra), upon this earth I
– unconquered, unslain, unwounded, have set my foot.

15.2 SRSTI/UNIVERSE AND ITS ATTRIBUTES

The configuration of environment in Indian thought is expansive enough
to include the entire Universe within itself rather than being locative or
temporal in character. A more commonly used word for this is Srsti. In
Indian thought Srsti is conceived as a living mechanism where humans
along with Pasu, Paksi and Vanaspati, are one of the many living
creatures and non-human forms are not the lifeless entity as the physical
matter alone. The concept of Srsti has been elaborated in terms of its
mobility where humans relate with Srsti continuously and the concept is
therefore continuously redefined. Here one can read an attempt at trying
to understand and relate to the greater ‘whole’ of the nature. In this
process emphasis on adaptation has been one of the guiding principles
for an interaction between human and natural world.

Indian philosophical traditions have visualized Srsti as a creation of the

Almighty and so is the case with humans. As both are the creation of
God, there is greater stress on maintaining cordial relations between
these two in particular and among other components of Srsti in general.
At the same time man has been considered as the most intelligent creature
and therefore it is imperative upon humans to ensure a peaceful co-
existence with other living creatures as well as with non-living material
world.

The creation of Srsti, in the Indian philosophical tradition, is a concept

that can be broadly categorized in four groups. An element of history
seems to order the groups. We can begin with the Vedic theory as
elaborated in the Vedanta and Sankhya traditions, followed by Upnisadic
theory. The third theory is termed as Puranic traditions and lastly is the
tradition as enumerated in the Gita as part of Mahabharta.

Indian philosophical traditions have developed a cosmic vision that is

cyclic in nature. The cycle begins with creation and is followed by
continuance that finally culminates in destruction; and then a new cycle
begins. It suggests that every material object/creature is perishable with
the possibility of regeneration. The fragility of the environment has also
been carefully stressed in such discourses. Traditional thoughts have
proposed a set of Trinity i.e., the Creator, the Preserver and the Destroyer.

The Vedic tradition traces the origin of Srsti from Hiranyagarbha which
is golden embryo. The God from his will deposited the seed of creation
in a cosmos that was in a state of chaos. This seed became the golden
germ, from which was born the Brahma or the creator himself. It is
7
Indian Philosophy & interesting to note that Brahma is identified as the Purusa who is all -
Environment
pervading and is the supreme reason for all subsequent creations. This
Purusa is also distinct from all that he created. The Rigveda also
speculates on the world beyond the moment of creation. Several different
names attributed to the creator indicate that the origin of the world is
not unidirectional inspite of the fact that origin is always attributed to
the God or creator. This also includes a feminine creation of the world.
A verse of Rigveda locates the cause of creation in Aditi:

The Divinity (Aditi) is the Heaven, mid-region, the mother, the father,
the son. The divinity is all deities, five classed men, and all that is
born and will be born.

“The above Vedic theory was further expounded by Bhartrhari” say

Dwivedi and Tiwari. The sage “discussed the Vedas and Puranas as
visualizations of the divine power in Vedic words. A number of Rigveda
hymns are in worship of inspired speech (Vak), considered a creation of
God” (O.P. Dwivedi and B.N. Tiwari, Environmenal Crisis and Hindu
Religion, New Delhi, 1987, p.15).

Upanasadic theory of creation suggests that Purusa creates matter out

of itself and then enters it as the first born.

Purusa Prajapati, creates the waters, enters into them as an egg in

order to be born from them, and issues forth from them as Brahma.
(Satapatha Brahman,6.1.1)

The beginning is traced with Him as lone creature who, to combat the
solitude, transformed himself into man and woman which became the
carrier of his progeny. Likewise he transformed himself into other
elements such as earth, water, animals, etc.

The Puranic theory considers Brahma as Svayambhu, who is born at

his will. No other cause is responsible for his birth. Brahma being
desirous of progeny, created waters first. He deposited in the waters a
seed out of which nara was born and was called Narayan. While lying
on the Ocean (Ksir Sagar) a golden egg arose from his navel which gave
birth to Brahma. He then divided the egg and made earth and heaven.
From that moment on the creation of all things began to take place.
(Brahma Purana 137-40 as cited by Dwivedi and Tiwari, op.cit, p.17).

The theory of creation, according to Gita, has been most elaborately

expounded in the Santiparva of Mahabharata. Yudhishthiva and Bhishma
converse about the Srsti and the process of its creation: “Yudhishthir
asked Bhisma Pitamaha – How was the world created? What was the
position of creatures at the time of Pralaya? Who is the maker of the
sea, sky, mountain, clouds, Agni, air and other things of the world? How
are all creatures made, how cleanliness and impurity emerged, and how
dharma (religion) and adharma came into existence. In reply Bhisma
said – God is the form of Srsti. He created the one out of the one-
thousandth part of his body, and that Purusa became known as Manas
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Purusa” (Mahabharata, Moksaparva, 182.1-3 as cited by Dwivedi and Man-Nature Relationship
Tiwari, op.cit. p.19).

Further “The Father of all creatures, God, made the sky. From sky he
made water and from water he made fire (Agni) and air (Vayu). From
fire and air, Prithvi (earth) came into existence. Mountains are his bones,
Earth is the flesh, Sea is the blood, Sky is his abdomen. Air is his breath,
Agni is his Teja, rivers are nerves. The sun and moon which are called
Agni and Soma are the eyes of Brahma. The upper part of the sky is his
head, Prithvi (earth) is his feet and direction (Disa) are the hands”
(Mahabharata, Moksaparva, 182.14-19, op.cit.).

Gita sums up the situation by declaring that the Brahma, created the
Srsti and decided to protect it and to rectify its malfunctioning by
appearing as Vishnu in various incarnations to set things right.

As stated in the beginning Srsti is created to provide a stage to all its

creatures to perform their assigned roles and then vanish into oblivion.
In this process the supreme power undertakes to create Srsti, maintains
it and then annihilates the entire creation. The universe thus remains
completely dependent on the will of the supreme power. Krishna tells
Arjuna in Gita:

The whole cosmic order is under me. By my will it is manifested again

and again and by my will it is annihilated at the end.

The chief attribute of Srsti is that it is illusionary, yet when it assumes

a physical form the matter gets shaped into seven cardinal elements and
five gross material elements. The creatures and vegetation emerging out
of this creation receive eleven senses and the three major qualities – the
quality of Sata, the quality of Raja, and the quality of Tama. All living
creatures are infested with one of the three qualities and are in turn
administered under the laws of God. Consciousness is another important
attribute which the living creatures receive at the time life is breathed
into them by God. Srsti is thereafter permitted to run itself.

It is now evident that the creation of Srsti and its attributes have a slight
variation in the four theories discussed above. One may legitimately
probe the reason for this difference. The vedic deities are generally
classified according to their natural characteristics. The division available
from Rigveda classifies them as below:

l Celestial Deities : Dyaus, Varuna, Mitra, Surya, Savitr, Pusan, the

Asvins, and the Goddesses Usas (dawn) and Ratri
(night);
l Deities of : Indra, Apam, Napat, Rudra, Maruts, Vayu,
Atmosphere Parjanya, Apas (the waters);
l Terrestrial Deities: Prithvi, Agni, Som (Cf. Dwivedi & Tiwari, op.cit.
p.14).

9
Indian Philosophy & The four theories give precedence to one of the three attributes of
Environment
nature in the act of Supreme manifestation in the form of Srsti, hence
the difference. The difference is in the material cause of the universe
not in its essence. Rigveda reflects on this essence aptly:

He is one, but the wise call him by different names; such as Indra,
Mitra, Varuna, Agni, Divya – one who pervades al the luminous bodies,
the source of light, Suparna – the protector and preserver of the
universe; whose works are perfect; Matriswa – powerful like wind;
Garutman – mighty by nature.

15.3 COMPONENTS OF ENVIRONMENT

Earth with the attributes of smell (Gandha),
water with the quality of viscosity (Sneha),
fire with the quality of energy (teja),
sky with the quality of sound (sabda),
air (vayu) with the quality of touch (sparsa), and
all the Mahatattvas-let all these elements bless our mornings.

This verse from Vamanpurana makes it evident that in Indian thought

environment has been visualized as an organic entity where all or most
of the components are connected with each other in a complex web of
inter-relationship. This thought also perceives that there is life in all
kinds of material or things. Thus existence of any of its components
in isolation is inconceivable. The emphasis on mutual dependence has
been the guiding philosophy of existence in Indian tradition. There cannot
be any dichotomy between the numerous components of environment.
Mutuality is considered beneficial both for the environment and for the
individual elements of its constituent parts.

It has been proposed that in creating the Srsti Brahma, the Almighty,
shapes primal matter into eight tattvas (elements): earth, water, fire, air,
sky, mind, intelligence, and ego of which first five are considered basic
elements. Almost at the same time the evolution of animal and human
world gives rise to the emergence of five senses: sight, hearing, touch,
taste and smell. The essential components of environment are the tattvas
and the senses. Aitareya Upnishada provides the details of the process
of their evolution:

He is Brahma, he is Indra, he is Parjapati, he is all gods,

He is the five elements, earth, air, space, water and light or
fire,
He is the tiny living objects and is similar to them,
He is seed of one kind or another,
He is those born from the egg, born from the womb, born from
sweat, born from sprout,
He is the horse, cattle, people and elephants,
He is everything that lives, that moves and flies and which is
motionless.
10
This verse is quite illustrative of the process of creation as well as the Man-Nature Relationship
compositional features of Srsti. The genesis has been attributed to
processes that are multiple in character; the objects of creation have
been defined as composed of terrestrial, aqueous and avian categories;
the amplitude, ranging from minuscule to mammoth has been accounted
for; and the cardinal five elements reiterated.

To further illustrate the characteristics of five basic elements of Srsti

we provide a glimpse into their nature and significance as described in
the treatises. There is a chronology of appearance that begins with sky.
Sky is considered to be the first among all the five elements. It is also
known by terms like, Dyauh, Svah, Akasa, and Kham. As we come to
water, that is next in importance, we find Rigveda considering water
great and all-pervading. Water is considered to be propitious and the
enhancer of power:

The waters are propitious, the water verily are the enhancer of power.
These waters, truly, do support Agni and Soma. May the readily flowering,
strong sap of the honey-drops (water) come to me, together with life’s
breath and lustre.

(Rigveda, 3.13.5)

The source of water and the qualities of water have been especially
stressed in the Atharvaveda:

O Man! may the waters from the snowy hills be peace giving
to thee. May the spring waters bring calmness to thee. May the
swift flowing waters be pleasant for thee. So may the rainy
waters be a source of tranquillity to thee.

O Man! Sweet be the waters of the oasis upto thee and so may
be the waters of the pool. May the waters dug from the earth
(i.e., wells) be sweet, as well as those stored in tanks.

(Atharveda, 19.2.1-2)

This verse from Atharvaveda is significant from another point of view.

It invokes the propitiatory attributes of water and proposes that these be
bestowed on Man. It thus brings Man at the centre of Srsti and places
at least one of the five cardinal elements at the disposal of the Man. The
relationship of interdependence is missing and its place is acquired by
the features of appropriation even if in rudimentary form. Water is
ascribed several qualities. In a text called Yuktidipika we get these
qualities described in the form of a list: Viscosity, firmness, radiance,
brightness, delicacy, gravity, cold, protection, purity, progeny or union
are the qualities of water.

These qualities are communicable and depending on the nature of the

object the effect shows.

Philosophical traditions of India give the next (third) position to (Air)

Vayu. It is also considered as prana of all the living creatures. It has 11
Indian Philosophy & been suggested that the body of all the living creatures can be sustained
Environment
only as long as the prana inhabits it:

All these creatures enter with the breath (prana) (into the body), and
with the breath (prana) they again depart out.

(Chandogyaa Upanishad, 1.11.5)

The prana is both a psychic as also a cosmic principle that is it is not

only the breath of life in men but also the universal breath of life that
prevails throughout nature.

Next to follow is energy visible as agni Fire. Agni is equated with the
Sun-the ultimate source of energy. It is accepted as the source of rains
and its relation to rains has been clearly brought out in Satapatha
Brahaman:

From Agni is born steam, from steam the cloud and from the cloud
rain.

Agni is also treated as a vehicle of carrying the sacrificial offerings

made to God. It is accepted as mouth of the all-pervading Parmatma
(the Supreme Atman/consciousness).

The last of the Panch Tattva has been Earth (Prithvi) which is attributed
feminine qualities and treated as the mother of all living beings. Prithvi
needs to be worshipped as it bears the material base of our sustenance.

Atharvaveda says

The earth which possesses oceans, rivers and other bodies of water,
and which gives us land to produce food grains and on which human
being depend for their survival, continue to possess these for all of
us.

Further:

May she, our motherland, on whom grow wheat, rice and barley, on
whom are born five races of mankind, homage to her, nourished by
the cloud, and loved by the rain, …may God, the lord of life, make
our motherland, who beareth all precious things in her womb, pleasant
to us on every side.

(Atharvaveda, 12.1.42-43)

The special significance given to Prithvi is easily forthcoming from

these two verses. It is recognized most unambiguously that Prithvi as
mother provides all the necessary means of the sustenance of life. It
should therefore be prayed so that the resources do not dwindle and it
should be revered so that the value of these resources is not obliterated
from our thought.

It is also important to note that in this tradition the fruits of the earth
12
and its bounties are not declared as the sole belonging of the humans. Man-Nature Relationship
In fact they are for all forms of life to use and get from them the
benefits. The following verse from Atharvaveda illustrates this point:

Born on thee, on thee move mortal creatures;

Thou bearest them- the biped and the quadruped.

In this tradition the five components of environment, also known as

Pancha Mahabhutas, are considered essential for the emergence, growth
and continuance of the universe. They maintain a peaceful co-existence.
The resultant order of nature/environment becomes a ground for a complex
interaction of numerous living and non-living entities. The environment, as
the life sustaining ambience, commands a sense of respect.

15.4 VEGETATION AND THE ANIMAL

WORLD (VANASPATI AUR PASU –
PAKSHI)
Even if there is only one tree full of flowers and fruits in a
village that place becomes worthy of worship and respect.

(Mahabharata, Adiparva, 138.25)

Trees have been attributed a place of reverence in Indian tradition. The

importance given to trees can be assessed from the fact that plants and
trees have been seen as epitomising God’s existence. Vanaspati as the
creation of God and embodying Him has been a common description:

From Him the seas and the mountains all,

From Him roll rivers of every kind,
And from Him all herbs, the essence too,
Whereby that inner soul dwell in beings.

(Mundakapanisad, 2.1.9)

Rigveda offers prayer to God for the purpose of making plants and
herbs plentiful with beneficial properties:

May the plants and herbs be sweet. May the heavens, the waters
and the mid regions be all sweet. May the producer of grains
and vegetables be sweet.

Trees are placed equivalent to Humans in significance and importance in

so far as the Srsti is concerned:

Just like a tree, the prince of the forest,

So the man is, in truth,
His hairs are leaves,
His skin resembles the external bark,
Out of his skin streams forth the blood,
Like the juice or the sap out of the tree,
It flows out from the wounded man, 13
Indian Philosophy & Like the sap of the tree, when it is cut,
Environment The flesh is comparable to the wood,
The sinews are like the inner bark,
The strong bones are like the inner core of the wood,
The marrow resembles the marrow (pitt) of the tree.

(Brhandarankya Upaniasad, 3.9.28)

Any kind of intentional damage to the trees/ vanaspati has been

condemned in the traditions as trees are considered living creatures.
Chandogaya Upnisad says:

When one, O dear one, cuts this big tree here at the root, it trickles
sap, because it lives. … if life departs from the whole tree, the whole
tree withers or dries up, Therefore O dear one, you should mark this.

Similarly,

The cutting of all these trees is condemned. Except for the reason of
sacrifice, trees should never be cut, particularly in rainy season.

(Skanda Purana, 20.83)

Reverence for the trees as an ancient tradition, was based on the belief
that every tree had a Vriksh Devta. It was offered water in the morning
which ensured continuous care of the trees. Different trees have been
identified with different deities to stress the notion of worship.

Traditions with respect to the animal world have been similar to that we
witnessed for the vanaspati. Moreover it included the humans who were
not accorded any priority over other creatures. The central concern was
for life forms and all the living beings were given equal treatment. Animal
world had been classified in terms of their mobility, origin, features,
attributes etc. The term Jangama was used to denote the animals and
they were classified in terms of their mode of generation:

l Jarayuja (producing living young)

l Swedaja (born like ant),
l Ayonija (non-womb born like worms),
l Andaja (egg-born), and
l Jalaja (water born like fish).

Animals were attributed different qualities. Animals and birds were

believed to possess a certain intelligence and the power to predict future
climatic or atmospheric changes as well as the ability to foretell events,
good or bad for an individual or with respect to nature.

Since life forms were treated with care, killing of animals was prohibited
and it was believed that such an act was liable to incur God’s wrath:

14
 The Yatudham (killer of animal) who fills himself with the flesh Man-Nature Relationship
of man, and he who fills himself with the flesh of horses or of
other animals, and he who steals the milk of cows– Lord cut off
their hands with thy flame.

(Rigveda, 10.87.16)

To further stress the vulnerability of animals and to offer them protection,

different animals were identified as the modes of transportation of
different Gods. For example lion is the vahana (vehicle) of Durga,
Indra rides elephant, Siva has bull as his conveyance, Saraswati travels
on swan and Vishnu prefers eagle for transportation purposes.

The Indian textual tradition assumes that, like the rest of the material
world, humans are also made up of elements which at death disintegrate
and dissolve into nature. At the most general level the five tattvas or
elements that dissolve into nature at the time of death are: Earth, Water,
Fire, Air, Sky.

15.5 POPULAR AND CLASSICAL

TRADITIONS: REPRESENTATIONS OF
ENVIRONMENT
The nature/environment in India is represented by two different but related
traditions – the popular and classical. While the reflections of the popular
traditions are more visible in practice, the classical or textual tradition
offers a complete and systematic analysis of the universe.

It is an interesting fact that the popular tradition is mostly preserved in

oral, non-textual form in an uncodified manner. Oral traditions thus
constitute a basic method by which we come to know about the knowledge
which has not been organised and codified. They also help us to
understand those societies for which we have very limited textual
information. Day-to-day practices and methods carry the glimpses of
ancient past. In oral tradition in India, environment has been perceived
in a symbiotic relationship with the humans where environment is
also considered as a living organism which breathes, feels, and
possesses sensory perceptions. Various components of environment in
this relationship either acquire or have been accorded special positions.
At times these special considerations are also ritualized.

The trees and animals are one of the basic components of popular folk
tales which are part of the popular oral traditions in India. Moreover
various attributes of animals are also identified and are used as if they
are natural sensory characteristics. The flora has been part of the themes
of different stories. It is always kept in mind that human survival is
possible only with the conservation of entire flora and fauna. This
understanding is also reflected in the religious practices as different
animals and plants are worshipped at different times so as to ensure
their survival.
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Indian Philosophy & Popular traditions consider nature as a reality of which man is an
Environment
inseparable part at all levels. The myths do not give man a unique position
in so far as his origin or his position with respect to other creatures is
concerned. It is generally believed in the popular tradition that knowledge
came to humans from birds and animals. Man is not the creator of
knowledge. Cosmic intelligence is considered to be self existent and
source of all knowledge.

The classical traditions are naturally more tilted towards philosophical

expositions on environment. In these traditions the world was divided
into two halves: the sky and the earth. There also existed a world beyond
the sky and another below the earth. The five cardinal elements overlap
in the formation of this world and so is the matter with the other world.
This explains how biological and social, both aspects of human life were
placed in an integral vision of environment in the ancient Indian traditions.

The classical traditions conceive environment as a system with complex

inter- relationships of numerous living and non-living entities. Even the
non-living organic world has been perceived as a living creature with a
soul. It was a very significant concept as it placed man as equal to every
other element of our environment as has been repeatedly stressed. To
highlight the importance of various components of environment, various
rituals have been institutionalized. These rituals ensured that we treated
even the non-living world with great care and maintained a harmony with
it. For example fire is conceived as messenger of God. Earth has been
considered as mother goddess. Sky is worshipped as father.

The non-human living world has been given great attention in Indian
philosophic thought. There is a whole tradition of anthropomorphism,
where various kinds of plant and animal lives have been ascribed special
position. The ancient tradition of worship of Pashupati Mahadev is one
such example. The tales of Panchtantra may also be cited as another
composition that highlights the special position given to non-human
living world. Animals are given human characteristics of not only language
but also faculty of feeling and intellect. The objective of the tales is to
give lessons to mankind by highlighting the problems through animal
world’s characteristics. Different attributes of animals have been
identified and are very beautifully utilized in these tales. Indian
philosophical thought also highlights the numerous species of flora and
fauna and their special position vis-à-vis environment. This all–
encompassing view is a great achievement.

The same enveloping view finds reflection in man’s visual expression of

perceived reality. The Indian tradition looks at this perceived reality as
imbibing three composite aspects, each involved in the other and each
orienting the other. The order of priority goes like this;

l the first place is for pratibha or inspired vision,

l the second is for vyutpatta or studious equipment of the creator, and
l the last being abhayasa or assiduous practicing.
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It is while explaining the details of the second that the theoreticians find Man-Nature Relationship
an occasion to take environment into their consideration. The term they
use for it is loka which means the world in all its infinite variety of
living and non-living beings.

In Indian philosophy it is generally believed that each creative act comes

from direct contact with prakriti (nature). The language of the artistic
manifestation evolves through the visual and audio perceptions of the
objects in nature. Even the smallest sprout in nature becomes the artist’s
greatest joy. In celebrating nature nothing is considered as useless. The
art form becomes a living entity, a part of the self, family, village and
that way, the environment, as a whole.

The dance of Shiva is a perfect iconographical statement of ecology. His

emblems are Agni and deer. His locks are the forests. He hides within
himself Ganga (water). His hair adorns the sun and the moon. His
garlands are the snakes. He wears the tiger skin. He brings to this world
the cosmic rhythm of his damaru in the incessant process of cyclic
creation, degeneration and regeneration and finally of enlightenment.
His energy is Sakti. Without her he is incomplete. She herself, the
daughter of the Himalayas, must undergo penance and austerities. The
emphasis here is on discipline and austerity, with greater integration of
environment.

15.6 POLLUTION (PRADUSHANA):

TRADITIONAL CONCERNS
Traditionally, the environmental vision in India has been conceived in
terms of a universe which is a creation of God and therefore, a definite
set of rules seems to govern the universe. These rules are there for
every living creature to follow, however, humans being more intelligent,
were expected to adhere to the rules more vigorously. We have read
above how it was expected of man to follow ethics for righteous path.
Traditional Indian thought awards man the role of a steward/ guardian to
take care of all the creatures of the earth. Adherence to the pious
practices and ethics is considered as an act to ensure the continuance of
order and flourishing of civilisation.

For one who lives by eternal law,

The winds are full of sweetness;
The rivers pour sweets;
So may plants be full of sweetness for us.
Sweet be the night and sweet the dawns;
Sweet be our Father Heaven to us.
For us may the forest tree be full of sweetness,
Full of sweetness the sun,
And full of sweetness the kine for us.
(Rigveda, 1.90.6-8)

In this situation a violation of the peaceful co-existence among the

creatures or material world was considered as pradushan. The prime 17
Indian Philosophy & cause of pradushan has been identified as human greed and selfishness.
Environment
Polluted Srsti has been described in the following terms: It seems that
all stars, planets, moon, sun, air, Agni and nature or directions have been
polluted. Seasons also appear to work against the nature, Prithvi in spite
of being full of its virtues has lost its rasa in all medicinal plants.
Medicinal plants are without original qualities and have been polluted.
When such pollution will occur human beings will suffer from diseases.
Due to pollution of seasons, several types of diseases will crop up and
they will ruin the country. Therefore, collect the medicinal plants before
the beginning of terrible disease and change in the nature of Prithvi”
(Charaka Samhita, Vimansthan, 3.2 as cited by Dwived & Tiwari, op.cit.
p.79).

The source of pradushana has been explained in terms of non-adherence

to the set norms of cleanliness, violation of maryada (code of conduct),
etc. Cleanliness was greatly stressed in the traditional thoughts.
Cleanliness of body and mind are stressed as a weapon to ward off
pradushan: Unless the body is kept scrupulously clean and free from
toxic or morbid material, the procedures for revitalising and strengthening
it will not be efficacious as the dirty clothes will not take proper colour.
(Charaka Samhita, 8.17, as cited by Dwived & Tiwari, op.cit, pp.80-81).

Indian traditional thought stressed on the prohibition of any such activity

which had the impact of disturbing the natural symphony or causing
contamination of any of the elements of the earth. Anybody violating
general norms of cleanliness and hygiene was liable to be cursed. Clearly
tampering with the environment to generate disharmony was pradushana.

15.7 SUMMARY
We now know that resources exist within Indian philosophical tradition
for the elaboration of man-nature relationship. There is great emphasis
on man’s integral relatedness to nature, its elements and the animal and
plant life. The environment in which man lives is not an alien environment.
He has always to consider it his own, where he is like all other beings
but endowed with special faculty of self-reflection and speech. Indeed
man is constantly seen as an embodiment of the elements and forces of
nature and constantly in relationship to animal and plant life. This gives
the world a different character from what is implied in the modern idea
of progressive evolution.

15.8 EXERCISES
1) Write an essay explaining the place attributed to man in Indian
philosophical doctrine.
2) Explain the creation and characteristics of Srsti as exposed in Indian
philosophy.
3) Is there a difference between popular and classical traditions of
environmental representation in Indian philosophy? Comment.
18
4) Examine the concept of pradushana in Indian thought.
 Man-Nature Relationship
15.9 SUGGESTED READING
O.P. Dwivedi & B.N. Tiwari, Environmental Crisis and Hindu Religion,
New Delhi, 1987.
R. Carson, The Sea Around Us, New York, 1951.
R. Carson, Silent Spring, New York, 1962.
R. Mash, The Rights of Nature, Madison, 1989.
Madhav Gadgil and Ramchandra Guha, This Fissured Land: An Ecological
History of India, Delhi, 1992.
Vidya Niwas Mishra(ed),Creativity and Environment, Sahitya Akademi,
New Delhi, 1992.
Wernes Wolfgang (ed.) Aspects of Ecological Problems and Environmental
Awareness in South Asia, New Delhi, 1993.

19
Indian Philosophy &
Environment UNIT 16 CONSERVATION THROUGH
AGES
Structure

16.0 Introduction
16.1 Understanding Conservation
16.2 Indian View of Conservation
16.3 Conservation Practices in History
16.4 Summary
16.5 Exercises
16.6 Suggested Reading

16.0 INTRODUCTION
The conservation of environment is a subject of serious and wider
concerns. We are however inadequately equipped to deal with this
concern in the absence of any significant documentation of the subject
in the textual tradition of India. We have however attempted to piece
together the available evidence for examining the significance of
conservation and for giving you a brief history of conservation practices
in this unit.

The idea of conservation is probably as old as the human existence but

the use of the term in the contemporary writings is relatively recent.
Moreover, the environmental problems, in recent decades, have attracted
a lot of popular and governmental interest. Environmental matters are
becoming a critical part of the political discourse in almost every country.
The viability of human survival in the wake of an ever- increasing pollution
of the earth is becoming a matter of concern for humans. Recent times
have witnessed an increase in the popular awareness with respect to the
consequence of global environmental degradation and have noted the
necessity for conservation. We hope the problem of conservation will
be seriously examined and will pave the way for examining the concept
of sustainable development and bio-diversity protection.

16.1 UNDERSTANDING CONSERVATION

Conservation of environment does not and cannot have a universally
accepted definition. Generally conservation is considered as protection
of wild nature where as few see it as an attempt to stress the prudent use
of already stressed natural resources. In fact as the human concern about
nature has grown so have the definitions evolved. Generally most accepted
definition presented at the World Conservation strategy by the
International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources
is that of “the management of human use of the biosphere so that it may
20
yield the greatest sustainable benefit while maintaining its potential to Conservation Through Ages
meet the needs and aspirations of future generations.”

Although we do not equate biodiversity conservation with the complete

preservation of all species nor the maintenance of the environmental
status quo, we are concerned with the current rates of resource
exploitation and habitat modification which may be leading to an
excessive biodiversity loss. Thus conservation is not simply preservation
of wild nature or biodiversity but it also encompasses the larger issue of
the usage of natural resources. At the same time it also implies
preservation of some level of biodiversity that is essential to the
functioning of the ecosystems and the survival of the mankind along
with other living creatures.

It is generally believed that nature has its own way of functioning and
there is an unsaid balance maintained by nature between humans and its
resources. It is only now that greater exploitation of natural resources is
disturbing this natural balance. This has forced environmentalists to argue
for the conservation of environmental systems and the diversity of
species. It has been further supported by those who have become
disillusioned with the course of development. The debate has larger
political dimension and it is believed that Northern countries (Developed
Countries) after developing their industry and in the process destroying
the natural balance are now forcing the Southern countries (Developing
countries) to not develop in the name of conservation of environment and
natural resources in particular. It has been pointed out that the level of
energy consumption enjoyed by Northern countries is not tenable in the
absence of sufficient natural resources. This view was most vehemently
argued at the U.N. Conference on the human environment in Stockholm
and Northern environmentalists were shocked in 1972 by the positions
taken by the South.

Politics apart, it is a matter of concern that all are threatened by the decay
of global life support systems. Historically, people in industrialized
countries have not perceived the importance of environmental conservation
the same way as the people in developing countries have done. North
Americans, due to their cultural history, have to glorify nature to decry
its defilement and to propose “back to – nature” type solution. As a
consequence of their colonial history, Third World people have tended
to be much more concerned with the social origins and human
consequences of environmental degradation. It is now being argued that
environmental leaders and scientists from North and South should learn
from each other through repeated discussions and team work. The 1987
report of the World Commission on Environment and Development
reflects both views. There is a new synthesis arising among world political
leaders as well. Among the populace the differences between North and
South are diminishing. Northern workers are becoming more politically
active with respect to the danger their work has on environments, while
Southern people are gaining a broader understanding of the importance
of ecological systems and processes for economic development.
21
Indian Philosophy & Conservation is essential for the survival of humans as well as life forms
Environment
on earth. Existence of life forms on earth has been made possible by a
very complex combination of interaction among innumerable factors. The
most important among these factors being the atmosphere, which
represents availability of air (oxygen), water, sun, land forms in particular
and numerous other materials. It is presumed that any large scale
disturbance in the availability or functioning of any of the components
of environment would lead to environmental decay and ultimately cause
extinction of life. Therefore, conservation of not only the quantity of the
components but also the quality of the components is also very important.
As such plants are considered as the primary producers but their relevance
with respect to generation of oxygen cannot be undermined. Therefore,
any factor which hampers the growth of plant life on earth will lead to
the paucity of oxygen and will disturb the proper functioning of
environment. At the same time we must be careful to note that till date
we are not able to identify numerous other factors that also influence the
environment.

Certain aspects of conservation, such as the prevention of pollution, have

more narrow but immediate importance. There are numerous examples
of the serious effect of pollution in air, water, or soil on human health
and survival. Moreover, it is now being realised that impact of pollution
on humans can not be treated in isolation and we have to extend our
concern to other life forms also.

Another related but equally relevant aspect of conservation has been its
economic value. Mostly it has been realised in terms of the cost to the
humans. Although the floating plants of the ocean, the microscopic
phytoplankton, are of little direct economic value to the humans their
elimination from the food chain would sooner or later destroy the world’s
marine life and eliminate fisheries – the major source of food for large
sections of humanity. The same is applicable to an unrestrained cutting
of forest for petty gains. The deforestation would ultimately not only
influence the food chain but also lead to depletion of oxygen in the
atmosphere. Short term economic consideration will ultimately lead to
disruption of the functioning of environment and any rectifying measure
will be capital intensive, defeating the basic purpose.

Similarly, along with economic considerations of conservation, we must

realise the irreparable damage being caused to the aesthetics of
environment. Greater the human technological penetration in the
functioning of different components of environment it is difficult to
explain the real nature of environment to larger population and urban born
in particular.

Conservation is also of great scientific value. Because relatively little is

known about the past, present and possible future of the earth, we need
to preserve some part of our natural environment to conduct the scientific
research in the pristine environment. Moreover, there are still numerous
undiscovered materials/natural resources waiting for scientific
investigations. Any possibility of elimination or pollution of any such
22 natural resource will deprive humans of its possible benefits.
 Conservation Through Ages
16.2 INDIAN VIEW OF CONSERVATION
Cutting across historical, philosophical debates, the one principle which
underlies and provides unity in Indian philosophy as also continuity of
vision and perception is the assertion that Man is only one among all
living matter. Man’s life depends upon and is conditioned by all that
surrounds him and sustains him, namely, inanimate, mineral and animate,
aquatic, vegetative, and gaseous life. It is therefore, Man’s duty to
constantly remind himself of the environment and the ecology.

In the Indian world view, as also of other ancient civilizations and cultures,
life on earth emerges from the eternal waters that hold the potency of
fires. Perhaps we have not pondered over the significance of the myth.
While on surface myth has a dream like structure, its meaning and value
lies in its pointing at the natural phenomenon. Indian science and
philosophy and thus culture develop on the postulate of the perpetual
movement of creation, degeneration, and regeneration of the cosmos.

The traditional society is structured on a four fold control system that

orders human life, its subsistence and desires. Life is ordered into four
successive stages (ashramas) from learning and performing to gradual
indifference and final withdrawal. Although seemingly opposed in
character, these primal desires stand in an organic and interactive
relationship to one another. This fourfold ordering of life is called
purusartha, that is, the making of a cultural person (purusha). At a
higher level of consciousness, the cultural person is transformed into a
cosmic person.

The Indian theory of nature and ecology is enormously affected by the

theory of creation which recognizes that every element, object and living
being in the universe is created by the same Supreme Being; and the
man has no special dominion over nature. The early Indian socio-
religious systems enshrine respect for nature in the following basic
elements:

l faith in a supreme power,

l non-dualistic view of this supreme being, and
l a set of rules defining duties in consonance with cosmic order.

The early scriptures of India provide useful references ascribing practical

conservation tips that directly relate with this enshrined respect for nature.
Vedas, Upanishads, Puranas and other scriptures give detailed
descriptions of trees, plants and wildlife along with their importance to
the community. Trees have been considered as an essential part of Indian
homes. Significance of plants and trees to human life is further
exemplified in Varah Puran which advocates regular plantation as a means
to achieve heaven. In Matsyapurana and Padmapurana also there is a
description of great plantation ceremony – Vriksha Mahotsave. In
Matsyapurana plantation of a tree has been equated with progeny of ten
sons.
23
Indian Philosophy & Indians accept nature as divinity; and as such various trees and plants are
Environment
used in religious ceremonies and worship. Some trees and plants are
considered so sacred that it is assumed that particular Gods and/or
Goddesses have made their abode in them. In Narsimha Puran tree has
been personified as God (Brahma) itself. Atharvaveda considers Peepal
tree as abode of various Gods. Names of various trees and their
associations with God and Goddesses are:

l Ashoka Buddha, Indra, Vishnu, Aditi etc.

l Peepal Vishnu, Laxmi, Vana Durga etc.
l Tulsi Vishnu, Krishna, Jagannath, Laxmi etc.
l Kadamba Krishna
l Ber Shiv, Durga, Surya, Laxmi
l Vata Brahma, Vishnu, Shiv, Kal, Kubera, Krishna, etc.

The various trees and plants are not only worshipped but cutting green
trees has also been prohibited and punishments prescribed for the
offender. Indian society had been very much aware of the fact that
indiscriminate destruction of plants and forests would result in diseases
and pollution of the atmosphere.

One of the early historical evidence of this nature comes from the
inscriptions engraved on pillars and rocks at the behest of Ashoka, the
famous Mauryan Emperor in the third century BC.

The Ashokan inscriptions were put up at centres of population and

pilgrimage where crowds of people would gather and read them, and
receive the inscription of their messages of morality. One of this pillar
edits, No.V found at Rampurwa in Bihar and issued by him in 243 BC
provides elaborate injunctions relating to environment. This edict may
even be taken as one of the earliest historical record focusing on
conservation practices to be followd by people in general. The text of
this edict reads as below (English translation):

Thus saith king Priyadarsi, Beloved of the Gods.

Twenty-six years after my coronation, I have declared the following

species of animals exempt from slaughter, viz., parrots, mainas, ruddy
geese, wild geese, nandimukhas gelatas, bats, mango-tree ants,
terrapins, boneless fish, vedaveyakas, gangapuputakas, skate-fish,
tortoises and porcupines, leaf-hares, twelve-antler stags, bulls set at
liberty, household vermin, rhinoceroses, white pigeons, village pigeons
and all the quadrupeds which are neither useful nor edible.

Those she-goats, ewes and sows, which are either pregnant or milch,
are not to be slaughtered, nor their young ones which are less than
six months old. Cocks are not to be caponed. Husks containing living
beings should not be burnt. Forests much not be burnt either uselessly
or in order to destroy living beings. The living must not be fed with
24 the living.
At the three Chaturmasis and at the full-moon of the month of Tishya, Conservation Through Ages
for three days in each case, viz., the fourteenth and fifteenth of one
fortnight and the first of the next, and invariably on every fast day,
fish is exempt from slaughter and should not be sold. And on the same
days, not only these but also other species of beings should not be
killed in the elephant-forests and in the fisher-men’s preserves.

On the eighth of each fortnight and on the fourteenth and fifteenth,

on the tishya and Purnarvasu days, on the three Chaturmasi days and
on every auspicious day, bulls are not to be castrated. And he-goats,
rams, boars and such other animals as are usually castrated should
not be castrated on those days. Horses and bullocks should not be
branded on the Tishya and Punarvasu days, on the Chaturmasis and
during the fortnights associated with the Chaturmasis.

Up to the time when I completed twenty-six years after my coronation,

the release of prisoners has been ordered by me twenty-five times
during the period in question.

(D.C. Sircar, Inscriptions of Asoka, New Delhi, 1957, pp 64-5).

The text of this edict is self-explanatory. It gives a list of creatures which

were declared protected and it was forbidden to slaughter them. Injury
to living creatures in other ways was also prohibited. The conservation
of forests was earnestly propagated. Forests as the living abode of a
variety of creatures would help protect a variety of species. The
injunctions concerning fish were invoked perhaps with a view to protect
them during the breeding season. For its date which is as early as the third
century BC the edict is unparalleled in propagating conservation ethics.
(Cf. Radha Kumud Mookerji, Asokan Inscriptions: A Commentary,
Allahabad, 1942).

The Indian culture, in ancient and medieval times, provided a system of

moral guidelines towards environmental preservation and conservation.
Environmental ethics as propounded by ancient scriptures and the seers
continued to exist in society and was practiced by not only common man
but even by rulers and kings. These principles were properly knitted with
the Indian way of life. Even very minor things creating environmental
problems were dealt with giving proper solutions.

We have several examples from medieval Rajasthan highlighting the

concern for environment. The attitude towards nature is apparent in the
teachings of sects like Bishnois. The founder of the Bishnoi sect,
Jambhoji (AD 1451-1536) prescribed twenty-nine rules for his followers.
Most of these suggested maintenance of harmony with the environment,
such as the prohibition on cutting green trees and animal slaughter.

Jambhoji’s teachings, which were congruent with the interests of the

common man, became immensely popular. The number of his followers
increased manifold but primarily in the arid regions of Bikaner and
Jodhpur. His sect became so influential that the rulers of these states were
25
Indian Philosophy & forced to respect his sermons. Maharaja Ajit Singh issued a parwana
Environment
(official order), restraining the cutting of green trees in 1754 vs./AD
1698. Anup Singh, king of Bikaner prohibited cutting of green trees in
the villages dominated by Bishnois in 1752 vs./AD 1696. Similarly, in
1878 vs./AD 1821, Man Singh, the king of Jodhpur, issued a similar order
with respect to the khejari tree. King Takht Singh in 1900 vs./AD 1843
extended the scope of this legislation by prohibiting slaughter of any
animal in the villages dominated by vaishnoi.

The founder of the Bishnoi sect was not alone in attempting to influence
conduct towards living beings via religious and ethical transformation.
Another popular saint, Jasnathji (AD 1482-1506) a contemporary of
Jambhoji also endorsed such a viewpoint. His followers were known as
Jasnathi. Like his contemporary, Jasnathji was also aware of the
importance of the preservation of environment. In his teachings, the jal
tree, which formed the natural vegetation of the region, was accorded
special protection. These teachings became popular in the region, which
had traditionally sustained goat and sheep rearing. Conservation of green
vegetation and prohibition on the slaughter of animals seemed to be an
attempt towards protecting their livelihoods. However, restrictions
through religious and official sanctions question the older assumptions
of prudent use of natural resources and environmental conservation as
supposedly practiced by traditional societies.

16.3 CONSERVATION PRACTICES IN

HISTORY
Conservation has a chequered history. It has, in the long and coiled
process, concerned itself with natural ecosystems and the animal world.
Modern attitudes and practices about conservation have evolved largely
in the context of the socio-economic mores of western society. These
attitudes have been influenced by the political and economic upheavals
that western society has undergone. Western notions of conservation have
been mainly guided by the philosophical foundations of Judeo-Christian
position about man and nature. Two ideas constitute the core of this
position:

l the right of exploitation of nature by man, unfettered by any serious

ethical consideration; and
l the responsibility of stewardship.

The fundamental Judeo-Christian belief holds that nature was created to

serve the human race. Hence, the exploitation of nature is a natural
legitimate pursuit. This view does not endow the environment and its
inhabitants with protective spirits that prohibit exploitation.

Starting with the voyages of discovery in the fifteenth century, the

influence of European culture was spread over the world. By the
seventeenth century Europeans were equipped with an increasingly
powerful technology and a growing ability to modify large areas of the
26
earth. During this period the attitudes of explorers and colonists were Conservation Through Ages
oriented more toward immediate personal aggrandizement of the lands
they visited and settled than toward any concern for the long-term health
and productivity of the newly discovered countries. Soil erosion as well
as the destruction of natural vegetation and wildlife accompanied the
spread of European colonization. During the same period, however, some
conservation ideas and practices were also being promoted. Forest
conservation, for example, developed sound beginnings because of the
disappearance of natural forests as a result of the increasing demand for
wood fuel for industrial uses. Also a general interest in and concern for
wildlife was developing.

The nineteenth century, however, witnessed unusually severe environmental

exploitation and destruction. In Africa many forms of wildlife were
hunted to extinction, and most of the larger mammals were reduced to
numbers that endangered their survival. Even the larger predatory animals
were nearly exterminated, and some of them subsequently became
extinct. Many types of birds that once had occurred in great abundance
were wiped out. Logging and fires combined to menace the once
luxurious forests. Livestock populations were allowed to increase to levels
far above what the natural forage could support. The process of over
foraging damaged the range lands to such a degree that they have not yet
recovered. The grasslands were overgrazed and native vegetation was
eliminated.

By the middle decades of nineteenth century biology was undergoing a

revolutionary change in its view of the natural world i.e. the replacement
of a static, creationist view of life by an evolving mechanistic view. This
change is best exemplified by the emergence of the theory of evolution
by natural selection, presented jointly by Charles Darwin and Alfred
Wallace. The concept of natural selection replaced the creationist view
of the original living species with a mechanistic process of interaction
within nature. The evolutionary view also opened the eyes of many to
the fact that change in the environment, including changes caused by
humans, could bring about the extinction of many kinds of organisms,
as the fossil record demonstrated.

It could have been predicted that the modern conservation movement

would have its beginnings not in the settled lands of the Old World but
in those areas of the New World where, within the memory of a single
generation, there had been extreme changes in the landscape and similar
changes in the abundance of wildlife. Conservation as a national
movement was initiated by U.S. President Theodore Roosevelt and his
immediate advisers. Roosevelt’s chief forester, Gifford Pinchot, is
credited with having first used the term “conservation” in its present
context.

World War II, suddenly diverted attention from conservation issues. It also
initiated an era of unparalleled economic expansion and explosive growth
of technology and human population. The result was exponential growth
in the pollution of air, land and water by chemicals and chemical wastes.
27
Indian Philosophy & The emerging situation was frightening. The attention of world community
Environment
to the issues related with conservation of environment was bound to be
attracted by it. In the post-war scenario serious attention was paid to the
issue. It was seriously realised that the global commons were being
increasingly threatened by a wide variety of real and potential
environmental problems.

Since 1950s environmental issues have been catapulted on to the centre

stage of global politics. International organisations are now seriously
involved and an elusive consensus on a global action plan is being
attempted. These developments shall be discussed in detail in Block 7.

16.4 SUMMARY
Various developmental activities are rapidly destroying nature and its
finely maintained and fragile balance and interdependence created over
million of years. But by destroying nature society is creating a basis for
self destruction. The destruction of nature has gathered speed in the last
two decades, and we are fast heading towards a complete devastation and
destruction of ecology. We are not on the brink of disaster; we have
already entered the realm of disaster. Man by his thoughtless acts is fast
turning the globe into a large garbage heap.

Much of his recent industrialization and agrarian development was ill

conceived, and continues to be so. Man and society have ruthlessly robbed
nature and have made a desert of the earth. But the worst crime man and
society continue to commit is to deprive the planet of its deep-fresh-
cover of dense forests, those forests that sustain man and all the living
beings and provide them with the life giving oxygen. Virtually every state
and country is involved in this criminal act – an act against the humanity.
Some people do it for profit, others in the name of providing basic
necessities of live, still others purely for pleasure.

Conservation is essential to human survival. Because life depends upon

he proper functioning of the biosphere – the relatively narrow zone of
air, water, soil, and rock in which all life on earth exists – the ultimate
purpose of conservation is to maintain the biosphere in a healthy
operating condition. Although it is known that green plants supply oxygen
to the atmosphere, that plants and animals recycle nutrients, and that plants
and animals help maintain the fertility of soils, many of the elements that
contribute to the proper functioning of the biosphere have not yet been
identified. Because mankind lives with such environmental uncertainties,
an attitude of care and protection toward the earth’s living resources is
necessary.

The ecological situation has become quite critical today, so critical that
if we do not take urgent steps, things will go out of control and beyond
redeem. Man’s various activities in all fields of daily life, particularly the
industrial and agricultural ones, are rapidly destroying nature. By
destroying ecology, man is creating conditions for self destruction. What
28 must we do? Obviously the question of protection and regeneration of
ecology is the question number one before the world society. The entire Conservation Through Ages
strategy of the future development of civilization has to change drastically
in all the fields; otherwise our survival is out of question.

16.5 EXERCISES
1) Write a note on the significance of environmental conservation.
2) Discuss conservation practices since the beginning of the modern
period.
3) Write an essay on the Indian view of conservation.
4) Write a short note on the meaning of conservation.

16.6 SUGGESTED READING

The Princeton Conference Report, Man’s Role in Changing the Face
of the Earth, 1958.
O.P. Dwivedi & B.N. Tiwari, Environmental Crisis and Hindu Religion,
B.N. Tiwari New Delhi, 1987.
James E. Hickey & Linda A. Longmire, ed., The Environment, Global
Problems, Local Solutions, London, 1994.

29