Madhyanchal professional University,

Bhopal

Lab manual
THERMAL ENGINEERING & GAS DYNAMICS
ME 601
Name -
Roll no -
 EXPERIMENT NO. 1

Aim:-To study low pressure boilers and their accessories and mountings.

Apparatus Used:-Model of Lancashire boiler (low pressure boiler).

Theory:-Lancashire is a stationary fire tube, internally fired, horizontal, natural circulation boiler.
It is a commonly used in sugar – mills and textiles industries where along with the power steam
and steam for the process work is also needed.

The specifications of Lancashire boiler are given below:-

Diameter of the shell – 2 to 3 m.

Length of the shell – 7 to 9 m

Maximum working pressure – 16 bar

Steam capacity – 9000 kg/h

Efficiency – 50 to 70 %

Lancashire boiler consists of a cylindrical shell inside which two large tube are placed.
The shell is constructed with several rings of cylindrical from and it is placed horizontally over a
brick work which forms several channels for the flow of hot gasses. These two tubes are also
constructed with several rings of cylindrical form. They pass from one end of the shell to other
end all covered with water. The furnace is placed at the front end of the each tube and they are
known as furnace tubes. The coal is introduced through the fire hole into the great. There is a
low brick work fire bridge at the back of the gate to prevent the entry of the burning coal of
ashes into interior of the furnace tubes.

The combustions from the grate pass up to the back end of the furnace tube and
then in downward direction. There after they move through the bottom channel or bottom flue
upto the front end of the boiler where they are divided and pass upto the side flues. As result the
flow of air to the grate can be controlled.
Mountings of boiler:-There are different fittings and device which are necessary for the
operation and safety of a boiler. The various mountings used on the boiler:-

1.Water level indicator:-The function of a water level indicator is to indicate the level of water in
the level constantly. It is also called water gauge.

2.Pressure gauge:- The function of a pressure gauge is to measure the pressure exerted inside
the vessels. It is usually constructed to indicate upto double the maximum working pressure. Its
dial is graduated to read pressure in kgf/cm2 gauge. There are two type of pressure gauges:-

(i) Bourdon tube type pressure gauge

(ii) Diaphragm tube type pressure gauge

3. Safety valves:- The function of a safety valve is to release the excess steam when the
pressure of steam inside the boiler exceeds the rated pressure. The various type of
safety valve is:-
(i) Dead weight safety valve

(ii) Spring loaded safety valve

(iii) High steam & low water safety valve

4. Fusible plug:- The function of a fusible plug is to prevent the boiler against damage due
to overheating for low water level.

5. Blow off cock:-A blow off cock or valve performs the two functions:-

(i) It may discharge a portion of water when the boiler is in operation to blow out mud
scale or sediments periodically.

(ii) It may empty the boiler when necessary for cleaning, inspection and repair.

6. Feed check valve:- The function of a feed check valve is to control the supply of water to
the boiler and to prevent the exception of water from the boiler when the pump pressure
is less as pump is stopped.

7. Stop valve or Junction valve:- A junction valve is a valve which is placed directly over a
boiler and connected to a steam pipe which carries steam to the engine. If a valve is placed in
the steam pipe leading steam to the engine and placed near the engine. It usually termed as
stop valve. The larger sizes are called Junction valve and smaller sizes Stop valve.

Accessories of boiler:- There are auxiliary plants required for steam boiler for their proper
operation & for increase of their efficiency. The various accessories are:-

1. Feed pump:- The feed pump is a pump which is used to deliver feed water to the
boiler. It is desirable that the quantity of water supplied should be at least equal to that
evaporated and supplied to the engine. Two type of pumps which are commonly used as
feed pump are

(i) Reciprocating pump

(ii) Rotary pump

2. Economiser:- An economiser is a device in which the waste heat of the flue gases is
utilized for heating the feed water. Economiser is very important part of the boiler, with
the help the economiser the efficiency of the boiler increased and the evaporative capacity
of the boiler is increased. Economiser are of two type:-

(i) Independent type

(ii) Integral type

3. Air pre-heater:- The function of air preheatere is to increase the temperature of air
before is enters the furnace. It is generally placed after the economiser. So that flue
gases pass through the economiser and then to air preheat. Usually, there are three types of
pre- heater:-

(i) Tubular type

(ii) Plate type

 (iii) Regenerative type

4. Super heater:-The function of a super heater is to increase the temperature of the

steam above its saturation point.

5. Injector:- The function of an injector is to feed water in to the boiler. It is commonly

employed for vertical and locomotive boiler and does not find its applications in large
capacity high pressure boiler.

Questions for viva- voce:-

1.Explain the construction & working of various mountings of boiler?

2.Explain the construction & function of accessories of a boiler?
3.State the location and function of safety valve in a boiler?
4.State any four salient features of low pressure boiler?
5.Give the advantage of low pressure boiler?
 EXPERIMENT NO. 2

Aim:-To study high pressure boilers and their accessories and mountings.

Apparatus Used:-Model of Lamont and Loeffler boiler (high pressure boiler).

Theory:-

Lamont boiler:- It is a high pressure boiler. It is water tube boiler working on forced circulation
system. The water from the storage drum is drawn by the circulation pump. Compressed to
about 2.5 bar above the drum pressure and supply to header which distribute water to the
generating tube G.Here some water is converted into steam and a mixture of water and steam
then pass into the storage drum.. The steam is further heated in the super heater before being
taken out water from hot well is supplied by the feed pump through the economiser to the
storage drum. The sludge if any would settle drum and can be removed from the bottom.

Loeffler boiler:- Loeffler boiler is also a high pressure water tube boiler employs the advantage
of forced circulation and indirect heating. It use steam as heat carrying and heat absorbing
medium before the furnace heat is only supply to economiser and super heater. The feed water
from the feed pump is fed to the drum through the economiser where it gains heat from out
going gases.

Mounting of high pressure boiler:-

1. Water level indicators

2. Fusible plug

3. Steam stop valve

4. Feed check valve

5. Blow off cock

6. Safety valve

7. Pressure gauge

8. Man and mud holes

Accessories of high pressure boiler:-

1. Feed pump

2. Steam injector

3. Evaporator

4. Economiser

5. Super heater

6. Air-pre heater
Evaporator:- Evaporator is used in high pressure boiler which is placed after the air in the way
of flue gases water are tube. Hence evaporator is a unit which consumes the energy of flue
gases in boiler. Its main function is to convert the water to steam add much to the boiler
efficiency.

Questions for viva-voce:-

1. Draw a neat sketch of any one fire tube boiler?

2. State any four salient features of a high pressure boiler?

3. Classify the boiler?

4. Draw a neat sketch of any one water tube boiler?

5. Give the advantage of high pressure boiler?

 EXPERIMENT NO 3

Aim:-To prepare heat balance sheet for given boiler.

Heat losses in the boiler:-The efficiency of boiler is never 100 % as only a portion of heat
supplied by the fuel is utilized rest of it is lost:-

1. Heat carried away by dry product of combustion.

2. Heat carried away by the steam product by the combustion of hydrogen present in fuel.

3. Heat carried away by moisture in fuel and air.

4. Heat loss due to incomplete combustion of carbon to carbon monoxide instead of carbon
dioxide and thus escape of combustable matter in the flue gases and ash.

5. Heat loss due to radiation.

Method of minimizing the heat loss:-

1. The heat loss to chimney gases may be minimized by installing an economiser in

between the boiler and chimney.

2. Loss of heat may be minimized by providing the boiler with an effective draught system
which will ensure sufficient supply of air through the fuel in furnace.

3. Heat loss due to unburnt fuel which may fall into ash pit may be minimized by properly
sizing of coal.

4. Heat loss due to moisture content in the fuel may be minimized by making the fuel dry
before charging into the boiler furnace.

5. Heat loss due to external radiation may be minimized by providing effective covering of
insulating material on the boiler parts which are liable to radiate heat.

Theory:-The boiler circulation are generally based upon the high calorific value of 1 kg of fuel
considered as 100 %. The term for heat balanced sheet explain earlier.
Result:- The heat balanced sheet of a boiler is studied.

1. Heat utilized by generation of steam:-

Useful heat absorbed, H1 = m (h1-h2)

H1 = Equivalent evaporation. 2256.9 KJ

2. Loss due to moisture in fuel:-

The moisture in the fuel is evaporated and superheated and thus the heat is lost.

Loss due to moisture in fuel, H2 =m1 (n11-n21)

Where m1 = Mass of moisture per kg of fuel of fired

N11 = Enthalpy of steam formed

N21 = Enthalpy of liquid at temperature of boiler furnace.

3. Loss due to H2O vapour from combustion of Hydrogen:-

This is found similarly to loss due to moisture in fuel.

4. Loss due to moisture in air:-

This is also found in the similar way as above and it is generally negligible.

5. Loss due to dry flue gases:-

This is the target loss that takes place inside the boiler. This is given by :-

H3 = m2Cp (tg-ta)

Where m2= Mass of dry flue gases per kg of fuel.

Cp= Specific heat of dry flue gases

tg = Temperature of flue gases

ta = Temperature of atmospheric (gases) air

6. Loss due to incomplete combustion of carbon:-

This loss is caused by incomplete combustion of carbon to carbon monoxide instead of

carbon dioxide.

H4 = m3.CV of CO

H4 = CO.C

CO2+CO. CV of CO
 C = Mass of carbon actually burned per kg of fuel

CO & CO2 % by volume

CV = Number of heat unit generated by burning 1kg of carbon contained in CO to

CO2 = 23820 KJ/ Kg

7. Loss due to unconsumed combustion to refuse:-

This loss is due to some unburnt carbon falling into the asp hit.

H5 = m4 .CV

m4 = Unburnt mass of carbon in refuse per Kg of fuel

CV = Calorific fuel of carbon.

HEAT BALANCE SHEET (Basis 1 Kg of low grade fuel)

Heat supplied % age Heat Expenditure (K J) % age

(K J) (in approx.)

Gross heat 100 (a) Heat utilized in steam generation 78.00

supplied (b) Heat carried away by flue gases 12.00

(c) Heat utilized in evaporating and superheating
4.750
the moisture fuel and water vapour formed
due
to burning of hydrogen of fuel.
(d) Heat loss by incomplete combustion 3.00
(e) Heat carried away by excess air
(f) Heat carried away by carbon nash 1.500
(g) Heat uncounted for such as radiation and
error 0.500

etc.
0.250

Total Total 100

Question for viva- voce:-

1. Define heat balance sheet?

2. Define the method of minimizing the heat loss in boiler?

 EXPERIMENT NO 4

Aim:-To find dryness fraction of steam by separating and throttling calorimeter.

Theory:- Dryness Fraction:- It is defined as the ratio of mass of dry steam actually present to
the

mass of wet steam which contains it is defined (denoted) by letter x.

x = _ms__

ms+mw

Where ms = mass of dry steam

mw= mass of water or wet steam

Steam generator separating & throttling calorimeter:-

In separating & throttling calorimeter are used. The steam passing from a calorimeter may be
steam containing some water particle in it. This method is basically for a wet steam. In this case
it is necessary to dry the steam partially before throttling. This is done by passing the steam
sample from the main through a operating calorimeter.

In separating calorimeter the steam is made to change its direction suddenly & water as
heavy then steam separate out there due to inertia. The quantity of water separate out is
measured, then the steam is passed through the throttling calorimeter. After that steam from
calorimeter is collected and condensed & measure the condensate

x2 = h3 –h2

hfg2
Questions for viva- voce:-

1. Define the term of quality of steam?

2. What is dryness fraction?

3. What is meant by calorimeter?

4. Define the construction of separating and throttling calorimeter?

5. Define the working of separating and throttling calorimeter.

 EXPERIMENT NO 5

Aim:-To find the condenser efficiencies.

Theory:- Condenser is an appliance in which steam is condensed and the and the energy given
up steam in the condensing process is passed to a coolant, which is water.

It is of two types, depending upon the way in which the cooling water cools the exhaust steam

1. Jet condenser:- In this type of condenser, the cooling water and exhaust steam come
into direct contact and the temperature of condensate is the same as that of cooling water
leaving the condenser. It is the three of types:-

(a) Parallel flow type:-In which both exhaust steam and cooling water outer at the top of
condenser and then flow in downward direction. The condensate and water are collected
from the bottom.

(b)Contra flow type:- Exhaust steam and cooling water outer from the opposite
direction. Usually the exhaust steam at the bottom and rises up while the cooling water
enters at the top and flow downward.

(c) Ejector type:- The mixing of exhaust steam and cooling water takes place in a series
ob

combining cones and K. E. of steam is utilized to assist in draining the water from the
condenser into net well against the pressure of atmospheric. Parallel flow and contra
flow condenser are further sub divided in two categories:-

(i) Low level type:- According to the position of condensing chamber, in case of low
level type the over all height of the unit is low enough type. So that the condenser may
be directly placed be near the steam turbine or engine. In this type of condenser, an
extraction pump is required for drawing out the condensate, cooling water and air.
 (ii) High level condenser is similar to low level jet condenser except that it uses a
barometric type or trail pipe for cooling the vacuum & removing the condensate & in
some cases the non condensable gases.

2. Surface condenser:- The exhaust steam and the cooling water don’t come into direct
contact. The steam to be condensed is made to flow over the out side of a nest of type through
which the cooling water circulates. It is following types:-

(a) Down flow type:- The steam enters at the top and flows down over the tube
through which water is circulated. As the condensed steam floe perpendicular to the
direction of flow of cooling water in side the tubes, this condenser is also called cross-
surface condenser.

(b) Central flow type:-In the centre of the tube nest is located the suction of air
extracting pump thus resulting in the flow of steam rapidly inwards. There is better
contact between the outer surface of tubes and the steam due to the volute casting round
the nest of the tubes.

(c) Inverted type:- The steam after entering at the bottom rises up and then again
flows

down following a path near the outer surface of the condenser. The condensate
extraction pump is providing at the bottom while the suction pipe of the air extraction pump
connected to the top.
 (d) Evaporative condenser:- When the supply of cooling water is limited, its
quantity required to condensate the steam may be greatly reduced by covering the
circulating water to evaporative under small particle pressure due to heat capacity of gilled
pipe it has the periods without seriously affecting the vacuum.

Condenser efficiency:- Condenser efficiency is defined as the ratio of the difference between
the

outlet and inlet temperature of cooling water to the difference between the temperature
corresponding the vacuum in the condenser and the inlet temperature of cooling water.

Condenser efficiency = Rise in temp. of cooling water

(temp. correspondence to vacuum) - (inlet temp. of cooling water in

condenser)

Questions for viva- voce:-

1. What do you mean by steam condenser?

2. What is its function?

3. Differentiate between surface and jet condenser?

4. Define the term “condenser efficiency”?

5. What are the advantages of installing a condenser in thermal power plant?

6. State the various type of steam condenser?

 EXPERIMENT NO 6

Aim:-To study and find volumetric efficiency of a Reciprocating air compressor. Also classify the
air compressor (Rotary).

Theory:- This may be regarded as a machine which compresses or which is used to increase
the pressure of air by reducing its volume.

Reciprocating compressor:-This is a machine which compresses air by means of piston

reciprocating inside a cylinder.

Working:- It consist a piston which is enclosed within a cylinder and equipped with
suction and discharge valve. The piston receives the power from the main shaft through
a crank shaft and connecting rod. A fly wheel is fitted on the main shaft to ensure turning
moment to be supplied throughout the cycle of operations.

Work done:-

(a) When the gas is compressed according to low.

PVn= Constant

Work req /cycle W = P2V2+(P2V2-P1V1 /n-1) – P1V1

= [(nP2V2 -P2V)+(P2V2-P1V1)-(nP1V1-P1V1)]/ n-1

= n (P2V2-P1V1) / n-1

W = P1V1 n / n-1 ( P2V2 /P1V1-1)

P1V1n = P2V2 n

V2 / V1= ( P1 /P2) -1/n

W =P1V1 n / n-1[(P2/ V1).( P2 / P1) -1 / n -1]

W = P1V1 n / n-1[(P2/ V1) n-1 /n -1] KJ / cycle

(b) When gas is compressed adiabatically:-

W = r / r-1 [( P2 / V2) r-1 / r-1] Kj / cycle

(c) When gas is compressed isothermally:-

W = P2V2 log e V1 / V2 or

P1V1 log e V1 / V2 KJ/ Cycle

P1& P2 are in KN / m2 & V1& V2 are in m3

Rotary compressor may be classified as:-

1. Positive displacement compressor

2. Non – positive displacement compressor

1.Positive displacement compressors are future classified as:-

(a) Roots blower

(b) Crescent or Vane blower

(c) Lysholm compressor

(d) Screw compressor

1.Non – positive compressor are classified as:-

(a) Centrifugal compressor

(b) Axial flow compressor

1. Positive displacement compressor:-It have two sets of mutually engaging cam surface or
lobes. The air is trapped between the lobes and the pressure rise take place either be back blow
of

air from receive by squeezing action and back blow of air.

(a) Roots blower:- in which back flow of high pressure air from the receive creates rise in
pressure.

(b) Vane blower:-in which combined squeezing action and back flow of air creates rise in
pressure.
2. Non – positive displacement compressor: - The pressure rise in these machine is not due
to space reduction or back blow action of the high pressure air from the receive as in the case of
positive compressor but is due to transfer of K. E. of the fluid to the pressure energy by one or
more rotating rings of curved blades known as ‘Impeller’.

(a) Centrifugal compressor:- The rotating member known as the Impeller consist a large
number of blades and is mounted on the compressor shaft inside stationary casting. As the
impeller rotates the pressure in the region a falls and hence the air enters through the eye and
flow radially outwards through the impeller blades as of the compressor. Both velocity and
pressure increase as the air flow through the cylinder or impeller blades. Air enters through the
convergent passage formed by the diffuse blades.

(b) Axial flow compressor:- It is more commonly used, the air flows in an axial direction right
from the intake to the delivery. The working principle is illustrated in fig. The stator encloses the
rotor both of which are provided with rings of blades. As the air enters in the direction it flows
through the alternately arranged stator and rotor blade ring the air gets compressed
successively. For efficient operation the blades are made of aerofoil section based on aero-
dynamic theory. The annular area is made divergent as shown in order to keep the flow velocity
constant throughout the length of compressor.

Question for viva- voce:-

1. Classify the air compressor?

2. Explain the working of Reciprocating air compressor?

3. Differentiate between Reciprocating & Centrifugal compressor?

4. Define positive displacement compressor?

5. Define non positive displacement compressor?

 EXPERIMENT NO 7

Aim:-To study Cooling tower and find its efficiency.

Theory:-It is a part of power plant. In large cities where acquisition of load is very expansive, we
may cooling tower for cooling purpose as they are often placed on the root of the power plant.

Function:- Its function is to increase the surface area or cool water.

Types:-

1. Natural draught

2. Artificial draught (Mechanical type)

(i) Forced draught (Forced fan)

(ii) Induced draught (Suction fan)

1. Natural draught:- When the circulation of air through the tower is by natural convection, it is
known as a natural draught. In this, hot water from the condenser is pumped to top of tower
where it is sprayed down through a series of spray nozzles. The hot water after giving its heat to
air which circulates through the tower due to natural convection, gets cooled and is collected
from bottom of tower.

2. Artificial draught: - When the circulation of air through the tower is by artificial convectione.
Forced fan, Suction fan is known as artificial draught. It is of two type:-

(i) Forced draught: - The tower is completely encased with discharged opening at the top and
fan at the bottom to produce flow of air.
(ii) Induced draught: - Here fan is placed at the top which draws air through the tower. The
warm water to be cooled introduce at the top of the tower through spray nozzles. It falls through
a series of trays which are arranged to keep the falling water to be broken up into fins drops.
The cooled water is collected at the bottom.

Questions for viva-voce:-

1. What is the function of cooling tower in modern condensing plant?

2. State the application of cooling tower?

3. Differentiate between natural and artificial draught type cooling tower?

4. Define the term of boiler draught?

5. Give the use of cooling tower?