INTRODUCTION

Poultry production includes both local indigenous chicken and conventional broiler and layer chickens and
other poultry species. The indigenous domesticated chicken Gallus gallus domesticus is often free
scavenging for their feed. In Zambia, it is very common and also a long tradition to keep village chicken.
They are easy and cheap to maintain and provide the household with eggs and meat, being an important
source of animal protein. To own village chicken, means security for food supply especially in rural areas
where poverty is worst. Broilers and commercial layers are not as common as village chicken in rural areas,
but the production is steadily increasing. There is a higher risk with broiler and layer production compared
to village chicken, due to more expensive investments in e.g. buildings and additionally there are costs for
purchasing day old chickens and feed for the animals. Despite the higher production costs and the higher
risks it is still profitable to produce commercial chickens for slaughter and egg production. In Zambia there
are both small-scale broiler and layer farmers, who keep a few birds only for their own consumption, and
large-scale industrialized chicken farmers, who keep several thousands of chickens at a time, and all sizes
of chickens in between.

What is Poultry?

Poultry is defined as economically important birds used either for food or show. This includes chickens,
turkeys, quail, ducks, geese, and guineas. Other birds, such as pheasants, partridges and peafowl, can be
classified as poultry. The following is poultry-related vocabulary. It is a collective term applied to all classes
of domestic birds like fowls, ducks, turkeys, guinea fowls, pea fowls and pheasants.

Cock: Mature un-castrated adult male bird

Hen: Mature female of hen species.

Cockerel: An immature male of hen species.

Pullet: A female immature of hen species.

Chicks: Young ones of poultry.

Capon: A castrated domesticated male bird.

Broilers: Mature birds reared for meat purpose of either sex.

Fowl: A group of birds of either sex of hen species.

Broody hen: A hen capable of hatching eggs and rearing young chicks.
Broodiness: Desire in a hen to sit on the eggs.

Layers: Mature female birds reared for egg production.

Broody coop: A cage of 25 cm long, 25 cm wide and 25 cm height.

Brooding: Rearing of chicks after hatching.

Stags: Male birds below 10 months of age having tough meat.

Crop: It is an enlargement of gullet. It serves as a temporary storage of food where food is softened with
saliva and water.

Culling: Removal of undesirable birds from the flock

Cuticle: Outer chalky coating of egg.

Debeaking: Cutting of upper half of beak to prevent feather picking, cannibalism and minimize wastage of
feed.

Dressing of poultry: Removal of feathers, blood and inedible part of the bird

Droppings of Excreta: A mixture of urine and faeces of birds.

Egg dipping: It is done in oil or lime water for preservation of egg.

Hatching: The expulsion of chick from the egg after completion of incubation period is called as ‘hatching’.

Incubation period: The period from setting of eggs to time of hatching at required temperature & humidity.

Feed hoppers: Trough hanging type feeders for birds.

Free choice system of feeding: Ad- lib feeding, whole grain feeding

Giblet: Includes gizzard, heart, liver and neck-edible viscera.

Grit: small stone like particles found in the gizzard that crush or grind grains in gizzard. These get soluble in
gastric juice and become source of calcium to body.

Hen: Mature female bird over 1 year age, in laying stage.

Incubation period: The period from setting the egg to time of hatching out of chicks.

Mash: The mixture of feed ingredients in crushed form.

Roaster: A young chicken of either sex under 8 months of age.

The Importance of poultry production

Chicken production provides different functions for the producer as compared to the other livestock
production. Among the different functions, the following are the main importance:

 Immediate source of cash income

 Provides meat and egg for household consumption
 Contributes for food security and creates employment
 Source of organic fertilizer
 Requires low initial capital investment, small land and low labour input
 Efficient feed converters and have a wide range of adaptability for different agro-ecologies
 Their product is acceptable by most of the community.

External parts of a chicken

The basic external parts of a chicken include the comb, beak, wattles, ears, earlobes, eyes, eye rings,
wings, tail, thighs, hocks, shanks, spurs, claws, and toes. As Figures below shows, both male and female
chickens have these basic parts. The differences between males and females include the size of the comb
and wattles, the size of the spurs (in older birds), and the characteristics of the hackle and cape feathers.
Hackle and cape feathers of males have pointed ends, whereas those of females have rounded ends. In
addition, males have sickle feathers in their tails and hackle feathers on their backs, and females do not.
Parts of Hen
hi
Common Breeds and Production Lines

For identification purposes, poultry is divided into breeds, varieties, types, and classes. A breed is a group
of birds that share the same characteristics and have a common origin. A variety is a subdivision of a
breed that is based on a group of specific traits, such as color or comb shape. Type describes the purpose
for which the bird is used; the two general types are egg-type and meat-type. The class associates the bird
with its place of origin. There are four general classes of poultry that include Mediterranean, American,
English, and Asiatic.

Some of the more common breeds and varieties of domestic chickens include:

1. New Hampshire Red has yellow skin, lay brown-shelled eggs and have orange-red adult plumage. This
is a dual-purpose breed which means it has been selected for both a meaty body and to produce eggs.
2. Rhode Island Red are similar to New Hampshire Reds except they are usually better layers and Rhode
Island Reds have deep-red adult plumage. The chicks of Rhode Island Reds are brown in color.
3. Barred Plymouth Rock is dual-purpose chickens that have gray and white striped plumage. The black
fluff with a white spot on the tops of their head easily identifies the chicks. This breed was developed in
America during the 19th century.
4. Cochin is mainly raised as ornamental fowl, but the females are frequently used to naturally incubate and
brood the chicks of other fowl. The Cochin’s origin is traced to China but the big, fluffy balls of feathers as
we know them today were further developed in America. Cochins have feathered shanks and have
extremely loose, soft feathers that give them their fluffy appearance.
5. Cornish were developed as the ultimate meat bird and have contributed to build the vast broiler industry
of the world. The Cornish originated in England.
6. Leghorn is grandparent of our modern white-egg industry. Originating in Italy, the Leghorn has a large
single comb and is flighty by nature.
Some of the more unusual breeds and varieties of domestic chickens include the following:
1. Polishis another unusual and beautiful breed. They have a crested or hat of feathers on top of their
heads.
2. Frizzle has a genetic modification that causes the feathers to curl back towards the bird’s head instead of
lying naturally.
3. Naked Neck have a bare neck totally absent of feathers. This single gene trait affects the arrangement
and number of feathers over the chicken’s body.
4. Silkie is a blue skinned chicken used for ornamental purposes. Some hybrids have been developed for
the live bird market. This breed of chicken appears to have hair instead of feathers. This is a genetic trait
that causes abnormal texture and appearance of the feathers.
5. Ameraucana was discovered in South America and is nicknamed Easter egg chickens because of the
blue and green eggs they lay. This is again a genetic modification in which a blue cuticle is applied to the
egg. When introduced to brown egg layers, the result is an olive green shell; introduced to white egg
layers, the result is a blue shell.

Poultry raised from commercial producers are identified by breeder strains. Strains are families or breeding
populations possessing common traits. They may be subdivisions of a breed or variety or may even be
systematic crosses. However, a strain shows a relationship more exacting than that for others of similar
appearance. Strain crossing refers to crossing of different strains of the same variety. The commercial
poultry industry today is based almost 100 percent on the strain approach. Many commercial strains exist.
Examples of chicken strains are Cobb, Hubbard, DeKalb, Hyline, Babcock, and Shaver.

Most commercial breeds and strains of chickens used for meat and eggs are a product of cross mating,
crossbreeding, or inbreeding. Cross mating involves mating birds within the same breed. Crossbreeding is
mating birds of different breeds or varieties. In an inbreeding system, birds that are very closely related to
each other are mated to get specific traits.

Some chicken breeds are used primarily for commercial egg production. The most common commercial
white, egg-layer hen is the Single Comb White Leghorn (a Mediterranean breed) for her excellent egg
production. Some smaller flock owners choose to raise dual purpose, brown egg-producing strains
because they use them for both egg and meat production.

The most common bird used for meat production was originally a cross between the male Cornish of the
English class and the female White Plymouth Rock of the American class. Hens produced by this cross
have a low rate of egg production but are very efficient in meat production.

Parent Stock Breeders

The parent breeders are the birds that produce the fertile eggs that will become the broiler chickens that
are harvested for meat or layers that will produce table eggs. Breeders are raised in open floor houses with
automatic watering, feeding, and egg collection systems. Males and females are allowed to mate naturally.
Females begin producing eggs around 24 weeks of age and will lay efficiently for 40 weeks per cycle. An
average broiler breeder female will lay 150-180 eggs in a year and layer breeder female will lay about 180-
250 eggs in a year on average.

Hatching times for various species of poultry (days required to hatch):

 Chicken (21)
 Bobwhite quail (23-24)
 Pheasants (24-26)
 Guinea (27-28)
 Turkey (28)
 Most domestic ducks and geese (28)
 Muscovy ducks (35)

General Chicken production systems

Chicken can be reared in different management and production systems. Based on chicken breed type,
input and output level, mortality rate, type of producer, purpose of production, length of broodiness, growth
rate and number of chicken reared. There are three types of chicken production systems. These are free-
range production system, semi-intensive production system and intensive production system.
Free-range chicken production system

This chicken production system is practiced in most rural areas of the country and objectives of production
are for household consumption and as source of additional income for the household. They are commonly
indigenous breed types mostly depend on locally available feed material as supplement with low health
services and other management practices. The chicken does not have their own constructed chicken house
rather maintained in the main house with the family. Chicken brooding and rearing is only the care they
obtain from their mother/hen. Because of these there is high mortality of chicken and long broody periods
and there is risk of exposure for different chicken diseases and predators. The major feed sources for
chicken are worms obtained from free scavenging, legumes, and cereals and sometimes there is
supplemental feed during feed shortage. The amount given is small and do not fulfill their nutrient
requirement. Because of this their productivity is low. Indigenous poultry breed in this system of production
does not produce more than 60 eggs per hen per year

Advantages of free-range chicken production system

The advantages of free-range chicken production system include, the chickens are healthy since they
exercise in the open air freely, there is minimal infection with parasites since there is enough space
available, there is little or no labor input, the chickens in this type of production system help to limit the
effort in cleaning excreta in a productive way and the direct costs of the system are low.

Disadvantages of free-range chicken production system

The disadvantages of free-range chicken production system include: It is difficult to control and manage the
chicken especially the young chicks are easily exposed for predators and unfavorable weather conditions,
the chickens eat sown seed when looking for feed which greatly affect farmers, a large percentage of the
eggs can be lost as the laying hens are not accustomed to laying nests, high diseases transmission and
occurrence of high death, chickens are less productive.

Semi-intensive chicken production system

This type of chicken production system is better than free ranging production system since it uses inputs
like supplemental feed, vaccine, etc. It has a small house which accommodate laying nest and feeders
which serves as chicken house for night time. The house has one or two side open door for easy
movement of the chicken to the fenced area during the day time. The fence can be made from mesh wire
or other materials and will not allow the chicken to escape. The fenced area should be always clean and
dry. Since the feed the chickens obtain from the scavenging is very low, they should be supplemented with
energy and protein feeds. Since the main objective of the production is to get profit, they should get better
health management practice like vaccination against NCD than free scavenging system. They are more
productive than the chicken in free scavenging system.
Advantages of semi-intensive chicken production system

The advantage of this system include: complete control over operation, useful for record purposes,
operational throughout the year and economic use of land.

Disadvantages of semi-intensive chicken production system

The disadvantage of this system of chicken production system include: high cost in fencing, danger of over
stocking and exposure for different disease if the fenced area is not clean and dry.

Intensive chicken production system

This type of chicken production system use more inputs (feeds and feeding, breed, health, housing and
other inputs) than the above two chicken production systems. It is market oriented and the main objective
of production is to get better profit. The number of chickens involved is relatively high. The chicken breed
used is specialized improved breeds (layer or broiler). They should provide the expected product within the
time frame. There are two common types of intensive chicken production systems which include deep litter
system and cage system which are stated bellow in detail.

Deep litter system

It involves rearing of chickens on a floor littered by 5-10 cm thickness litter. The litter can be made from
locally available material such as dry hay, maize straw, coffee pulp and saw dust. The litter should be dry at
any time otherwise it can cause occurrence of different diseases. In addition to provision of comfort for the
chicken, the litter absorbs any waste material excreted from the chicken and makes the house dry. It is
possible to place the feeders and drinkers in the house on the litter. But it is advisable to hang them as the
age of the chickens increase. It is also important to place laying nest in the house. In this way it is possible
to rear either layer or broiler. Deep litter is recommended for both meat birds and layers. To keep healthy
chicken in this type of system, the following points should be noted:

 The existing litter should be removed totally when the existing stock culled
 Before introduction of new stock, the house should be cleaned carefully and left free at least for
two weeks
 Make sure that the litter is dry at any time
 At any time the thickness of the litter should not be less than 5cm

Advantage of deep litter system

The advantages of the system includes proper accommodation, prompt culling of unproductive birds,
proper control of diseases and predators, good record keeping and high egg production. It has also
advantageous in that land requirement is minimal, easy and economic management, scientific feeding and
management, high degree of supervision, minimum labor and manure value is increased. Deep litter is a
good insulation. It protects chickens from cold weather, and during hot seasons they can nestle into it and
reach the cool floor below. Chickens can be brooded and kept through their productive lives in the same
house. Deep litter allows the bird to dust itself against lice and other parasites.

Disadvantage of deep litter system

The disadvantages of this intensive system of chicken production include high capital investment, problem
of cannibalism and diseases outbreak. If the management is bad, liberation and accumulation of ammonia,
wet litter problem dirty eggs, crack eggs and disease problems may result. There is a greater chance of
worm and tick infestation and coccidiosis (internal protozoan parasites) than with cages or raised floor
systems. The deep litter system is inappropriate for very humid areas (80-90% humidity) damp litter
spreads diseases. The litter must be turned often, particularly in damp weather, and this requires more
labor than other systems. Sometimes adequate litter is difficult to obtain.

Cage system

This type of intensive production system involves rearing of chicken in one house on the prepared cages
and it is more appropriate for layers. The chicken has no any access for free ranging. Therefore, the
chicken should get the required nutrient through supplementation. The ration can be formulated in the
house using locally available materials like maize, sorghum, soy bean, groundnut cake, fish meal and other
materials. Even though the system requires high initial capital investment, it is profitable. The rearing cage
can be made from locally available materials like timber and wood. Cages are good for climates with high
humidity, where labor costs are high, and when a farmer wants to keep a large flock of layers. Where lice
and other ectoparasites are problem cages are especially advantageous. Cages are recommended for
layers, but not generally used for meat birds.

Advantages of cage system

The advantages of the system include: Cages can be placed under existing roofs; thus, a special building
may not be required. With cages more birds can be kept in a building than on deep litter. Less labor per
bird is needed than other systems. Poor layers can be identified immediately and culled, thus saving feed.
Problems of ectoparasites particularly lice are reduced. When properly constructed cages can last many
years. Fewer disease problems are caused by transmission through excreta. Cages are a cheaper
investment in the long run due to ease in care and feeding of the birds.

Disadvantage of cage system

The disadvantages of the system include: high cost of installation, breeding is not possible unless artificial
insemination is practiced, cages are hard to construct properly and they involve very high initial investment
per bird. There must be constant and excellent ventilation. The feed must contain all necessary vitamins
and minerals needed by birds since no means of scavenging. Incidence of leg problem, cage layer fatigue,
fatty liver syndrome, flies and obnoxious gases in the house will be on the increase.
  Cage fatigue: cage fatigue is considered to a physiological derangement of mineral electrolytes
imbalance. Leg weakness is common in caged birds.
 Fatty live syndrome: it is a problem met with caged layers due to increased deposition of fat in the
body of a layer resulting in death due to internal hemorrhage, increasing the protein level and the
diet strengthened by the addition of choline, vitamin B12, inositol and vitamin-E may be helpful in
reducing the incidence of problem
 Proper ventilation, correction of light-intensity, duration, temperature, ideal environmental
conditions, and maintenance of comfort in cages will check the condition of hysteria of chickens in
cages

Housing

The two types of intensive chicken production systems which include deep litter system and cage system
involve adequate structure and equipment. Housing is essential to protect against predators, thieves, rough
weather (rain, sun, cold, dangerous winds, dropping night temperatures) and to provide shelter for egg
laying and broody hens. A suitable or comfortable chicken house is also important for efficient production.

Poultry farm structure:

 Hatchery
 Brooder
 Breeder house
 Broiler house
 Layer house
 Feed mill
 Store Processing house
 Security unit

Guide for chicken house construction:

 The site should not be swampy

 The soil should be water absorbent
 The site should have access to transport, water, electricity and other infrastructures
 It should be far from homesteads
 It is preferable where there is trees in the surrounding which serve as wind break and as a shade
 The site should be good for future expansion. Once the site has been selected, the chicken house
can be constructed in different type and quality. The house to be constructed should fulfill the
following points.

\
Comfortable for the chicken:

It should provide for the chicken enough space, well ventilated, allow entrance of light and should not be
wet. The house should be constructed in East-West direction in length to reduce scorching sun light. These
make the chicken productive and free from diseases.

Protect the chicken from unfavorable weather conditions and predators:

It should protect the chicken from parasites, theft, and predators such as rat, cat, snake, and also from
unfavorable weather conditions such as rain, wind, etc.

Cares to be taken for chicken house (hygiene)

 It should be cleaned properly

 If there were other stock before, the different waste materials should be removed, cleaned properly
and left free for at least 15 days.
 The floor and wall of the house should be cleaned properly and sprayed with disinfectant such as
formalin.
 Before introduction of the birds, the floor should be deep with 5-10 cm thickness litter (hay, straw,
saw dust, etc.).
 Feeders, drinkers and other poultry house equipment should be cleaned, disinfected and placed in
a proper place.

Chicken production equipment:

For successfulness of chicken production based on the production type and standard, it is advisable to use
suitable production equipment. The different equipment used in the chicken house differs according to the
chicken age, breed and productivity status. The major production equipment used in chicken house is the
following:

Feeders

Feeders are of various types depending on the production system, whether being used in free range, semi
intensive systems or intensive systems. They should always be kept clean to prevent spread of diseases
and big enough for all chickens of the same age to feed at the same time. It is important that the feeders
are constructed in such a way that feed waste is avoided. Also feed waste can be decreased if feeders are
not filled to the top. It is better to fill feeders just half full and then check them regularly for refills.
Commercial feeders may also be bought at the market either in metal or plastic. The market feeders are
often galvanized and normally expensive and better than locally produced feeders. The feeders can be
made from locally available materials in different shapes like long, round feeders and can be made up of
wooden, tin can, metal, plastic, etc
Characteristics of good feeders:

 Avoid wastage of feed, prevent contamination of feed

 Easy to clean. Durable &strong and easy to fill and cheap.

Drinker

Drinkers are of various types depending on the production system, whether being used in free range, semi
intensive systems or intensive systems. They should always be kept clean to prevent spread of diseases,
big enough for all birds of the same age to drink at the same time and easily be produced out of local
materials. Commercial drinkers may also be bought at the market, either in metal or plastic. The type and
number of drinkers to be prepared should consider the age (chick, grower and layer) and productivity of the
chicken. The drinker should be always cleaned, dried and sprayed with disinfectant chemicals once a week
after properly cleaned.

Laying nests

Providing nests in the hen house for laying makes it easier to collect eggs and they can be kept clean.
There should be adaptation period of the hen for the laying nest before start of laying eggs which is
important to prevent the hen not to lay their eggs outside the laying nest. Nest prevents dirty and cracked
eggs. If the eggs are collected twice a day, collect eggs at the same time every day in the morning and the
evening. Removing eggs continuously is important to avoid the hens become broody. Nests should be
placed inside the chicken house and preferably above the ground. For laying you may have a battery of
nests where more hens can lay at a time. Nests should be of the right size for the hen to feel comfortable. A
nest box will typically measure 30 x 30 x 45 cm. The laying nest prepared by this size is enough for 5 to 7
layers. It is advisable to place the laying nests in the dark part of the house to prevent exposure to the sun.

To avoid the number of eggs laid by hens on the ground and loss of product, we have to consider the
following points:

 Place enough nest and introduce nests one week before onset of lay
 Collect ground eggs many times a day and use a comfortable nest
 Don’t feed when the hens are on the nest
 Avoid dark corners in the house to avoid indiscriminate laying and do not collect the first eggs
 Divide the nests uniformly over the house and place nests on a wind free place.
General Recommended standards of equipment and density (feeders, drinkers and nests) for domesticated
commercial chickens

Feeding and watering space requirement in cm/bird

Feeder/ Pullet Chicks Pullet growers Broilers Layers Breeders
Drinker type 0 - 8 weeks 8 - 18 weeks 0 – 6 weeks 18 -72 weeks 20–85 weeks

Long feeder 5 9 7 12 18
Round feeder 2 4 3 5 7

Long drinker 1.5 2 1.5 2.5 3.5

Round drinker 1.5 2 1.5 2.5 3.5
Housing space requirement (number of birds in 1m2)
Housing Type
Full slats 15 7 -
2/3 slats, 1/3 litter - 6 4
1/2 slats, ½ litter - 5 3.5
Full litter 10 4 3
Laying nests requirement
Types of nests
Individual nest (hens/nest) 7 5
Communal nests (hens/m2) 50 - 75 30 - 50

BROODER MANAGEMENT
Introduction
Brooding is the art and science of rearing baby chicks. A newly hatched chick does not
develop the thermoregulatory mechanism fully and takes about two weeks to develop this
mechanism and homeostasis. Therefore, they cannot maintain the body temperature properly
for the first few weeks of life; and may be subjected to chilling, if not properly taking care of.
Brooding can be classified into natural and artificial brooding.
Brooding can simply defined as “Application of heat to the birds at early part of their life”.
Brooding is the care of young chicks by provision of optimum environment. The temperature is
most important factor during brooding. The metabolic thermoregulatory capacity of chicken
develops when feathering starts at 2-3 weeks of age to replace “down”.

Investing in new technologies, while important, is not the only way to reach top performance
potential in chicken production. Simple efforts such as paying attention to what happens in a
chicken house and taking care of the needs of birds can have a significant impact. The potential
for growth has increased in recent years, so too has the importance and influence of a chick’s
first days of life on final meat results. Since broilers are able to achieve their processing weights
in fewer days than in the past and pullets are able to reach point of lay by 18 weeks of age, the
brooding part of their life represents a higher percentage of their total life. Additionally, in the
first week of its life, a chick has the highest potential for growth and development that it will
ever have, being able to multiply its weight by more than 4.6 times in the first seven days. This
growth potential is fundamental for digestive, immune and cardiovascular systems. If systems
such as intestines are not fully developed in the first week, chicks will have less capacity to
assimilate feed in the following weeks with a higher final FCR. Also, a less-developed immune
system will make chicks less resistant to diseases, which presents an animal welfare issue.

To achieve optimal chick growth during their first week of life, the following key principles
should be followed;

Temperature
When chicks arrive at a farm, they cannot control or adjust their internal temperature until
seven days of age. This means that producers must be the ones to provide chicks an
environment where they can stay in their thermo neutral zone so that they do not need to
divert energy normally used for growth and development to compensate for the adverse
conditions. A chick that feels too cold will limit its activity to reduce heat loss and conserve
energy, and feed will be used as fuel for heating instead of as protein and energy for
growth. Similarly, an excessively hot environment will lead to waste of energy since an
overheated chick will start panting to get rid of the excess heat.
The correct temperatures to provide chicks when they arrive are 32-33° C for the air, 30-32°
C for the litter and at least 28° C for the concrete. The litter and concrete temperatures are
very important since the feet of the chicks are the part of their body from where they tend to
lose most of their heat. All of these temperatures will also depend on parameters like
relative humidity and the type of heating used (e.g., radiant brooders, forced air heaters,
etc.).
Observing the behavior of the birds will help signal if they are comfortable or not. Chicks
should be evenly spread across the brooding area eating, drinking, walking and “talking” to
each other. Do not forget to directly measure the chicks’ temperature with a cloaca
thermometer to confirm the well-being of birds, which should read 40.4-40.6° C in the first
five to seven days and 41.5° C later.

Feed
Feed intake makes it possible for chicks to grow, developing necessary tissues and
systems. It is fundamental that chicks have easy and unrestricted access to feed from the
start. Their growing potential is highest during the first week and will naturally decrease in
the following weeks. However, this will be irreversibly reduced if a correct seven-day weight
is not achieved. In a chick’s first days, protein and energy from the feed will be used for
basic metabolic needs and for development of vital systems like the skeletal, digestive and
immune. Therefore, if not enough feed is available, development will be delayed and
reduced since chicks will just try to stay alive and only use whatever protein and energy is
left for development. Inadequate feed amounts can also lead to loss of weight/uniformity
and increased culls and mortality as chicks will be more sensitive to disease challenges and
will have depleted immunity levels following early vaccinations.
To achieve the correct feed intake, make access to feed as easy as possible. It is advisable
to cover at least 50 percent of the brooding area with good-quality paper and provide at
least 75 grams of feed per chick on the paper (adlib feeding). This allows all chicks to have
adequate feed available and will make for an easier transition to eating from manual feeders
or automatic feeding system. If using manual feeders, make sure that there is at least one
per 50 chicks and that they never run empty since that will create a huge stress for chicks,
leading to reduced growth.

Water
The importance of providing fresh, good-quality water is often underestimated but vitally
important. In fact, a young chick’s body is more than 70 percent water. Water is a critical
component of chick development, helping to transfer nutrients, remove toxic substances,
and disperse heat and chemical reactions. Also, remember: Feed consumption is directly
correlated to water consumption, so if chicks do not drink enough they will also not eat
enough. There are many systems available to provide water for chicks, both open and
closed varieties. Nipple drinkers are the most hygienic option and also provide easy
distribution to the chicks. When using these, there are several rules to follow to ensure
water intake is correct. The first parameter is temperature. This can be difficult to manage,
given high brooding temperatures and the low consumption during a chick’s first days,
causing water temperature to exceed the recommended level. Water temperatures higher
than 25° C will have a negative impact on consumption. If the water temperature exceeds
25° C, then it is necessary to flush the lines at least three times each day in the first week.
This will also help in maintaining clean drinker lines and removing biofilm. Keep nipple
height slightly above the chicks’ heads and check that they can drink with their feet flat on
the ground.
Water line distribution is also critical, as chicks should not have to travel more than three
meters to find water and no more than two meters between drinkers and feeders. This is
especially important when brooding in the center of the house. As soon as birds are allowed
to go to the sides closer to the walls, drinkers in these portions of the house should be
lowered immediately.

Air
Though often forgotten as such; oxygen is another critical nutrient for all living organisms.
Provide chicks with an atmosphere that has enough ventilation system to ensure that chicks
have the correct air quality, as this system will be responsible for removing the air in the
chicken house with more carbon dioxide and replacing it with fresh air from the outside with
more oxygen. Air entering the house should be the correct speed and pressure to avoid
chilling of the birds and to ensure that it reaches the top of the house where hot air tends to
rest.

Light
Chicks need a bright environment so that they can easily identify and locate feed and water.
The maximum variation in light intensity between the darkest and the brightest spots in the
house should be no more than 20 percent. Greater variations will have a negative impact on
bird distribution, leading to uniformity and sizing issues. After seven days, it will be possible
to start reducing light intensity and providing several hours of darkness to allow birds to
follow the natural light cycle.
The above rules are all of equal importance — don’t sacrifice one for the other. For
instance, if feed is available but temperatures are off, chicks will either not eat (too hot) or
use feed to produce heat rather than for development (too cold). Alternatively, if
temperatures are correct but there is not enough feed or water, chicks again will not grow.
Or, if oxygen levels are too low, chicks will have little to no activity, as well as less water and
feed intake, which leads to less growth.
Chicks have an extraordinary potential for growth and performance, but they need our help
and care to reach it. Every extra effort made during their first days, such as providing the
correct environment and easy access to good-quality feed and fresh water, will be repaid in
excess in the final performance data.

Chicks at earlier part of life cannot efficiently regulate its body temperature because:
1. Lose heat more quickly due to:
– Higher metabolic body size.
– Higher body temperature than adult bird.
– Lack of feathers.
2. Hypothalamus is not completely functional. When chicks hatched, the following systems not
activated:
– Immune System.
– Digestive system.
– Thermoregulatory system.
Low body temperature delays the maturation of above-mentioned three systems and makes
chick mores susceptible to different infections.
Purposes of Brooding
– Proper growth of body tissues.
– Better immune system.
– Good body framework.
– Activate endocrine system.
– Good feather cover.
– Well activated digestive system.
Brooding Duration
Brooding period duration is greatly depending upon environmental temperature. Higher the
environmental temperature the lower will be the brooding period. The brooding period may
range from 2 weeks of age to 6 weeks of age.

Types of Brooding
– Natural.
– Artificial.

Natural brooding
The natural method of brooding is used on farms where only a few chickens are raised each
year. Depending on her size, a hen will brood 15-20 chickens. The brood hen will provide all
the warmth required by the chicks. Before placing the chicks with the hen, she would be
examined for her good health and free from lice, tick and other ecto-parasites especially
under semi-intensive system.

Artificial brooding
Artificial brooding can be defined as the handling of newly born chicks without the aid of the
hens. It is accomplished by means of a temperature-controlled brooder (foster mother).
Artificial brooding has several advantages over the natural method, which are:
 Chicks may be reared at any time of the season
 Thousands of chicks may be brooded by a single person
 The temperature may regulated
 Sanitary conditions may be controlled
 Feeding may be undertaken according to the plan
\
Key equipment required for successful brooding

While brooding is an important management practice in poultry production, it is important to

know the required brooding equipment. Remember, the purpose of brooding is to raise
healthy chicks and to provide the required heat until the chicks are able to adapt and regulate
their body temperature to the ambient temperature. For brooding to be successful, there is
some equipment that must be available in the brooder house/pen.
The key brooding equipment includes:
 Heating source
 Reflectors
 Brooder guard
 thermometer

1) Heating source may be electrical; gases like natural gas,, liquid fuel like kerosene, solid fuel
like coal, wood can be used as a heating material.
i. Charcoal stove / kerosene stove:

Where electricity is not available, ordinary charcoal / kerosene stoves are used to provide
supplementary heat to chicks. These stoves are covered with plate / pans to dissipate the
heat.

ii. Gas brooder:

Natural gas, LPG or methane is connected to heating element to generate heat.

iii. Electrical brooder:

It is also thermostatically controlled heating system that spread required amount of heat
uniformly above large area, this avoid crowding of chicks under brooder directly. One
electrical brooder can be used for 300 to 400 chicks.

iv. Infra-red bulbs:

It is a self-reflecting bulb. One 250 watts IR bulb can provide brooding for about 150 to 250
chicks.

2) Reflectors:
 These reflectors are called Hovers. Flat type hover – These hovers are provided with heating
element, heating mechanism and pilot lamp and in some cases thermometer is also there in
order to record the temperature. Canopy type hover – These reflectors are in concave shape
consisting of ordinary electrical bulb, thermostat mechanism and in some cases
thermometer.

3) Brooder guard / chick guard

They are used to prevent chicks from straying too far away from heat supply until they learn
the source of heat. A brooder guard with a diameter of 1 meter diameter can accommodate
100 chicks. Height of the brooder should not exceed 45cm. Materials like cardboard sheet,
Iron sheets, wire mesh, and mat etc. can be used as brooder guards depending upon the
season of brooding.

4) It is important to have a room thermometer inside the brooding pen or house . it is used
for monitoring the ambient temperature inside the brooding house. With the help of the
room temperature, you will know if the temperature within the brooding house is cold,
moderate or high

Parameters which should be considered to reduce the heat loss during brooding;

1. Avoid air leakage

2. The roof and wall should be fully sealed
3. Providing well sealing brooding curtains
4. Minimizing over ventilation
5. Monitoring abnormal heat rate of consumption
6. Enhance insulation: it is used to reduce heat transfer i.e. heat gain in summer and heat loss in
winter
7. Regular maintenance and inspection of heating system

Environmental parameter

Relative humidity (RH), CO 2 and ammonia (NH3) plays very important role in growth of
chicken. Proper ventilation requires controlling all these parameter. If RH exceeds above 70%
then it will create undesirable effect& RH below 50% creates dust in poultry house. If you use
Gas heaters, this helps in formation of CO 2 & also birds create their own CO 2. High levels of
NH3 create impact on growth of chicken. It reduces rate gain of weight of chicken. Different
rate of NH3 production in farm gives different rate of growth. Various factors affect the rate
of production of ammonia in the poultry house i.e. ambient temperature, ventilation rate,
humidity, composition of food etc.

1. Relative humidity:-Relative humidity of over 70% is undesirable and should be contained

through use of ventilation. RH levels below 50% result in higher production of dust and air
born microorganism. During summer bird experience discomfort due to high relative
humidity combined with high temperature.
2. Carbon dioxide: - Modern poultry housing is designed and constructed to reduce heat loss
and improve energy efficiency but when combine with reduction in ventilation to prevent loss
of heat energy .this can result in increasing CO 2. Two main sources of CO 2 are from gas heater
and from the bird themselves.
3. Ammonia:-Increase in NH3 concentration level in poultry can be caused by high moisture
level along with high temperature which promote bacterial growth & cause organic material
to decompose. NH3 level should not exceed 20ppm over 8hr period or 35ppm over in10 min
period during poultry production cycle.

Need of exhaust system.

In order to reduce energy loss the ventilation is avoided in traditional method but it result in
increase in CO2 and RH which effect on growth and development of chicken. So as to avoid it
proper exhaust is needed in poultry farm. It is necessary to throw NH3 out of poultry farm in
order to avoid microbial growth using blowers or fans attached to the poultry house.

Necessary considerations of chicks for Brooding

Firstly, we need to start with a good quality chick which will meet these criteria:
• Chick weight must be between 40 to 42grams — a vital measurement to achieve early chick
weight gain and low chick mortality in the first seven days
• Chicks must have closed feathers on their wings at placement
• Chick legs should feel waxy and moist to touch — veins not visible and protruding
• Hocks should be free from abrasions and not blood red in color
• Beaks should not contain any blemishes or red dots
• Chicks, when turned on their backs, should regain a standing position within three seconds
• Chick navels should be clean and well healed — a slight abrasiveness is allowed
• Chicks that have defects like missing eye, or blind, poor leg development or cross beaks are
culls and should not be sent to the broiler farm

Temperature Control
Temperature control is the most critical factor during brooding of chicks. The Ability of a bird
to regulate its temperature in an effective manner will directly affect the ability to grow
proficiently.
• High and low temperature will cause loss of energy.
– To cool by panting during high temperature.
– To warm by increased heat production during low temperature.
• The rule of thumb is to provide about 33°c temperature during first week and reduce
3oC/week up to 5th week and maintain on 20 oC. After six weeks of age, temperatures between
18 and 21oC are desirable. Brooding temperature is always less than body temperature because
birds cannot dissipate heat if environmental temperature is at or above body temperature and
hence birds will feel uncomfortable and panting will starts. Floor Temperature is a good
indication of pre-heating. Cold floor may cause heat loss in chicks and may cause chilling in
chicks. The Brooder guard should provide adequate space for the chicks to select a comfortable
temperature. If the chicks are too cold, they will become chilled and uncomfortable, and will not
eat or drink. If the chicks are too hot, they will become dehydrated and susceptible to high
mortality. If the whole room is heated and there are no heat lamps, the initial brooding
temperatures should be slightly lower (30 to 33oC).
Observation
These brooding temperature guidelines should be adjusted according to observations of the
chicks. The behavior and sounds of the chicks will indicate their comfort level. Comfortable
birds will be evenly spaced around the pen and will make soft “cheeping” noises. Cold chicks
will huddle in the warmest part of the pen and cheep loudly.
Too hot
If the birds are too hot, they will:

 Generally be positioned against the walls away from the heat source
 Will be panting or possibly sitting with their wings outstretched and feathers fluffed
out.
The chicks will do a better job than a thermometer of telling you about their comfort level.
The diagrams below show how chicks will move away or towards the heat lamp if they are hot or
cold. Preventing drafts is also important, as young chicks are easily chilled.
Ascites (or water-belly) in broiler chickens can be attributed to cool temperatures early in the
brooding period. This disease can cause high mortality and inedible carcasses at slaughter .
.

Relative Humidity

Monitor RH within the broiler house daily. If it falls below 50% in the first week, the environment will be
dry and dusty. The chicks will begin to dehydrate and be predisposed to respiratory problems and
performance will be adversely affected. Take action to increase RH.

If the house is fitted with high-pressure spray nozzles (foggers or misters) for cooling in high
temperatures, then these can be used to increase RH during brooding. Alternatively, RH can be
increased by using a backpack portable sprayer to spray the walls with a fine mist.

As the chick grows, the ideal RH falls. High RH (above 70%) from 18 days onwards can cause wet litter
and its associated problems. As the broilers increase in live weight, RH levels can be controlled using
ventilation and heating systems.

• 65% RH is considered as ideal all the times.

• High RH may cause wet litter which results in high Ammonia level inside the shed and
Coccidiosis.
• Low RH may cause Respiratory problems.
Ventilation
Ventilation in a brooder house supplies fresh air that is essential to sustain life. It also helps reduce
the extremes of temperature, humidity and air contamination to tolerable limits for confined
chickens.

Improved ventilation systems have also made possible the high density populations of livestock and
poultry in confinement, thus reducing the building cost per unit housed. This is economically
important since it reduces production and labour costs.

Ventilation air removes excess heat, moisture, dust and odors from the building and, at the same
time, dilutes airborne disease organisms. Properly designed winter systems also conserve energy by
utilizing heat generated by the birds. Providing proper ventilation to poultry is an art but it can be
mastered by any determined and willing poultry grower. It is a challenge, however, since poultry
houses are different and ventilation requirements change with time of day, season, temperature,
humidity, wind, bird age and density.

If air is not replaced in an enclosed building where poultry is confined, the air composition changes,
leading to a concentration of carbon dioxide, ammonia and other harmful gases to unacceptable
levels. As the ventilation system exchanges the air in the building, it brings in the oxygen needed to
sustain life and carries out the harmful gases and undesirable odors caused by respiration and waste
decomposition. The system also dilutes airborne disease organisms and keeps them at a tolerable
level for the birds’ health.

Brooding Management
•Water and Drinker Management
• Feed and Feeder Management
• Litter Management
• Stocking Density
Watering and Feeding
Proper nutrition is always essential for better growth and production. Nutrition directly
affects the physiology of bird.

Water and Drinker Management

• The chicks must provide with fresh, sweet and cool water quickly after receiving.
• 24 ml/bird water for first 24 hours must be ensured.
• The water temperature should be similar to room temperature with optimum quality.
• The higher temperature causes poorer livability especially during first three weeks of age.
• Extra small drinkers or fountain drinkers placed in a way that chick should not travel more
than one meter to drink water especially during day 1.
• The height of nipple drinker should be at chick eye level for first three days and then at birds
tail height.
• The pressure of water in nipple drinker kept low to show water drops on nipple pins. This
will help to attract the chicks to drink water.
• The level of water in bell type drinker should be near to top.
• One nipple drinker is sufficient for 25 chicks and bell-type is for 100 birds.

Feed and Feeder Management

• Always use good quality, toxin free and fresh feed.

• The chicks GIT is immature at an early age so provide feed, which should be:
– High digestibility.
– Specific for that breed- Hygienic.
– Proper size.

Stocking Density during brooding time depending on the weather and season

 50 chicks/m2 during the first week

 25 chicks/m2 during the second week
 12.5 chicks/m2 during the third week
 6.25 chicks/m2 during the fourth week

Immunity in Chicks and Management

The chicks are vaccinated against various diseases during brooding. The maternally derived
antibodies (MDA) normally protect the chick at the early days of life. The vaccine
administration starts immediately the chick is born especially Marek’s disease and later,
Infectious Bronchitis, Newcastle disease, and Infectious Bursa Disease (gumboro) The broad-
spectrum antibiotics should be used to prevent bacterial infections. Improper dosing may
lead to antibiotic resistance in chicks. Temperature fluctuation or any type of stress will make
the chick more susceptible to different infections.

Vaccination schedule for Commercial Broilers and Back yard chickens (‘village’ chicken)

DAY VACCINE ROUTE OF ADMINISTRATION

Day 1 Marek’s Disease vaccine Subcutaneoes given at the hatchery

Infectious bronchitis (IB) vaccine Spray mist at the hatchery

Day 5-7 1st Newcastle Disease (NCD) Oral (in drinking water)
vaccine Lasota

Day 14-16 1st Infectious Bursa Disease (IBD) Oral (in drinking water)
vaccine

Day 21-25 2nd IBDV Oral (in drinking water)

Day 28-30 2nd NDV Lasota Oral (in drinking water)

Litter management

Keeping litter dry is a critical part of overall management on every poultry farm.
Litter conditions influence bird performance, which in turn affects profits of growers.
Dry litter helps control ammonia levels, provides a healthy flock environment, and
reduces condemnations due to hock and footpad burns and breast blisters. Poultry
litter consists of bedding material (shavings, rice hulls, etc.), manure, feathers, and
other components. Dry litter is important for the health and welfare of birds, as well
as the people who work in the houses.

When litter begins to retain moisture it will clump together, which is referred to as
caking. Why dry litter begins to cake is often misunderstood, but it is not
complicated. Too much moisture within a poultry house can cause litter to cake. It
is just that simple. However, it takes a long time (days and in some cases, maybe
weeks) for moisture levels in the litter to build up enough for cake to form. Moisture
can build up because the ventilation rate within the house is inadequate over a
prolonged period (not just a few hours).

Broilers drink about two pounds of water for every pound of feed consumed, or
more than 50,000 gallons per 20,000-bird house each flock. Only about 20 per cent
of the water consumed is used for growth; most of it eventually reaches the litter as
manure. To prevent caking, this added moisture within the litter must be removed
through adequate ventilation. Once cake starts to form, it is difficult to reverse the
process. It usually requires over-ventilation to correct the problem, which can lead
to excessive gas use during cold weather and high energy costs year-round.

Caked litter also increases house ammonia levels. Ammonia has negative effects
on broiler health, welfare, performance, and carcass quality. Poultry are most
susceptible to elevated ammonia levels at one to 21 days of age, which is the early
brooding period.

Adequate ventilation and use of litter amendments are two practices that help
control ammonia volatilization. Unfortunately, growers often underestimate
ammonia levels if they depend on their eyes and noses for detection. Most growers
become somewhat desensitized to ammonia after long-term exposure, making it
difficult to accurately gauge ammonia levels in their houses. This can result in
decreased bird performance and serious welfare issues.
Qualities of good litter material

 It must absorb moisture from droppings quickly.

 It must release moisture and dries up rapidly.
 It must have least tendency to form cakes.
 It must be free from mould growth.
 It must be free from sharp objects and other objectionable materials.
 It must be non-toxic, inert and compressible.
 It should possess good insulating properties and protect chicks from extremes of climate.
 It must be cheap and locally available.
 It must be biodegradable, supply some nutrients to the birds and form a good quality manure later.
 It must have medium particle size, soft and light in weight.
 Quality of a litter material is tested by picking a hand full of litter material and presses it tightly.
 A good litter material is the one which breaks up when hand is open and the litter material with more
moisture will form a ball in the hand.
 Too much dried litter material causes dustiness in the
farm.

Uniformity during Brooding

• Uniformity must be maintained during brooding to get maximum uniformity during next
phases of growth of the bird. Uniformity is key to achieve maximum output and should be
maintained from the first day till slaughter day. Maximum uniformity during the first 7-10
days in a chick’s life is of prime importance because once uniformity is lost during this period
it would be difficult to regain it thereafter,
• Weight at day seven is a good indication especially in broilers In broilers, the weight at day 7
should be 4 to 5 times more than the day old chick which is a good indication of progression
in growth..

Broiler Management (Housing systems)

The system of rearing broilers refer to either single batch at a time (All-in- All-out system) or multiple
batches of brooding and rearing of broilers.

All-in-All-out System

Under All-in-All-out system, the farm will have only one batch of broilers, belonging to the same hatch at
any time. Sufficient chicks will be purchased to accommodate the entire farm capacity, reared and
marketed in a single lot. This system is more hygienic, lesser mortality rates due to lesser horizontal
spreading of diseases and there is better uniformity and growth rate in birds because there is efficient
management of the birds. However, this system is not suitable for large scale broiler farming because it
requires higher fixed and working capital per bird.

Multiple batch system

The multiple batch system consists of rearing of more than one batch of chicks at any given time, with a
batch interval of 1 to 3 weeks or 1 to 4 weeks. This means that every after 3 or 4 weeks a new batch of
chicks is received on the farm.

Stocking Density

Stocking density has a significant influence on broiler performance and final product in terms of
uniformity and quality. Quality of housing and environmental control will influence the stocking density
applied. If stocking density is increased, an appropriate increase in feeding space and drinker availability
must be made and case must be taken to maintain air quality.

Overstocking will:

 Reduce growth, livability, litter quality and leg health

 Increase carcass downgrading due to breast blisters, hock burn, bruising and scratching

Space required for each broiler will depend on:

 Target live weight and/or age at slaughter

 Climate and season

 Type and/or system of housing and equipment

According to broiler rearing Standards the following stocking densities are required at the differing live
weights

Liveweight (kg) Birds/m2

1.0 34.2
1.4 24.4
1.8 19.0
2.0 17.1
2.2 15.6
2.6 13.2
3.0 11.4
3.4 10.0
3.8 9.0

KEY POINTS

 Adjust stocking density to allow for the age and weight at which the flock is to be slaughtered

 Reduce stocking density if target house temps cannot be achieved due to hot climate or season
 Adjust ventilation and feeder and drinker space/bird when stocking density is increased

Cage rearing of broilers

Broilers can also be reared in cages. Broiler cages are similar to that of layer cages. To prevent the breast
blisters, the bottom of the cage may be coated with some plastic materials. The floor space requirement
is 50% of the floor space needed for deep litter. The relative advantages and disadvantages of cage
rearing of broilers are,

Advantages

1. Possible Higher density of rearing

2. Easy to catch the birds at market time and hence reduces bruising
3. No expenditure on litter
4. No incidences of coccidiosis
5. Reduced cannibalism
6. Cleaning and disinfection easier
7. Better growth and feed efficiency

Disadvantages

1. Higher incidences of breast-blisters which increases carcass condemnations

2. Higher incidences of crooked keel
3. Wing bones will be more brittle which will be a disadvantage for the processor also
4. Cleaning faecal-trays is not labour friendly.
5. High initial investment on cages
6. Birds will be uncomfortable especially during summer
7. Birds are not having access to the unidentified growth factors in deep-litter system

Lighting

In open sided broiler houses, the most commonly recommended lighting program is 24 hours light
during brooding period, followed by 23 hours light and one hour darkness per day, until marketing. This
one hour darkness is to train the birds to acclimatize for darkness, in case of power failure, which may
cause panic and trampling.

BROILER CHICK MANAGEMENT

Objective

To establish a healthy flock of birds from day old; to promote early development of feeding and drinking
behavior, this will allow the target bodyweight profile to be achieved with maximum uniformity and
good welfare.

To ensure that chicks receive the best possible start, they must be provided with the correct
environment i.e. temp, humidity and house layout, and managed to meet all their requirements.
Deficiencies in the brooding environment will depress final flock performance by preventing the chicks
from achieving their potential growth during the first week.

Chick Quality and Broiler performance

Attention to detail throughout the entire production process can determine final broiler performance
and profitability. This involves good management of healthy parent stock, careful hatchery practice and
efficient delivery of chicks that are of good quality and uniformity. Chick quality may be influenced at
every stage of the process.

Planning

Chick quality results from the interaction between parent stock management, parental health and
nutrition as well as incubation management. If a good quality chick is provided with proper brooding
management and nutrition, it should have less than 0.7% mortality and be able to achieve target live
weight uniformly over the course of the first 7 days

 Plan placements of broiler flocks to ensure that differences in age and/or immune status of
donor parent flocks are minimized. One donor flock per broiler flock is the ideal. If mixed flocks
are unavoidable, keep similar parent flock ages together.
  A good quality chick should be clean after hatch. It should stand firmly and walk well, be alert
and active, and vocalize contentedly. It should be free of deformities, with a fully retracted yolk
sac and a healed navel.
 Incorrect brooding management will make a chick quality problem worse.

KEY POINTS

 Plan placements to minimize physiological and immune differences between chicks.

 Use single donor flocks if possible
 Hold and transport chicks in conditions which prevent dehydration and other types of stress in
chicks
 Maintain high standards of hygiene and biosecurity in the hatchery and during transport.

Chick Arrival

Farm Preparation

Individual sites should be single-age (i.e. all-in/all-out). On multi-age sites, vaccination and cleaning
programs are more difficult and less effective. It is also far more likely that health problems will occur
and suboptimal performance will be achieved on multi-age sites

Houses, the surrounding areas, and all equipment must be thoroughly cleaned and disinfected before
the arrival of the bedding material and chicks. Management systems should be in place to prevent
pathogens entering the building. Vehicles, equipment and people should be disinfected before entry.
Spread litter material evenly to a depth of 5–10 cm. uneven bedding material can restrict access to feed
and water and may lead to a loss in flock uniformity. Where floor temperatures are adequate (28–
30°C/82–86°F) the litter depth can be reduced where litter disposal costs are an issue.

Key Points

• Provide chicks with bio secure, clean housing.

• Control spread of disease by using single-age, (i.e. all-in/all-out) housing.

• Spread litter evenly.

Chick Placement

Chicks cannot regulate their own body temperature until they are around 12–14 days of age. Ideal body
temperature must be attained by providing optimal environmental temperature. Preheating the house
is vital as floor temperature at chick placement is as important as air temperature. Stabilize temperature
and relative humidity for at least 24 hours prior to chick arrival.
Recommended values are:

• Air temperature of 30°C/86°F (measured at chick height in the area where feed and water are
positioned).

• Litter temperature of 28–30°C/82–86°F.

• Relative humidity of 60-70%.

Monitor these values regularly to ensure a uniform environment throughout the whole brooding area,
but by far the best indicator of temperature is chick behavior.

Make a final check of feed and water availability and distribution within the house prior to delivery of
chicks.

All chicks must be able to eat and drink immediately upon placement in the house. The longer the chicks
remain in the boxes, the greater the degree of potential dehydration. This may result in early mortality
and reduced growth as indicated by 7-day and final live weight. Place chicks quickly, gently and evenly
onto paper within the brooding area. Feed and water should be freely and immediately available. The
empty boxes should be removed from the house without delay.

Leave chicks to settle for 1 to 2 hours to become accustomed to their new environment. After this time,
make a check to see that all chicks have easy access to feed and water. Make adjustments to equipment
and temperatures where necessary.

For the first 7 days, provide 23 hours of light with 30-40 lux intensity to help the chick adapt to the new
environment and encourage feed and water intake. Adequate fresh, clean water must be available at all
times to all birds with access points at an appropriate height.

Initially, provide textured feed as a dust-free crumble or mini-pellet on feeder trays (1/100 chicks) and
on paper to give a feeding area occupying at least 25% of the brooding area. Place chicks directly onto
paper so that feed is immediately found. Automated feeding and drinking systems should be placed in
the vicinity of the paper.

Key Points

• Pre-heat the house and stabilize temperature and humidity prior to chick arrival.

• Unload and place chicks quickly.

• Make feed and water available to the chicks immediately.

• Arrange equipment so that chicks can reach feed and water easily.

• Position supplementary feeders and drinkers near the main feeding and drinking systems.

• Leave chicks to settle for 1 to 2 hours with access to feed and water.
• Check feed, water, temperature and humidity after 1 to 2 hours and adjust where necessary.

Chick Start Assessment

Chicks are hungry in the period immediately after they are introduced to feed for the first time so they
should eat well and fill their crops. Check a sample of birds at 8 and 24 hours after arrival on the farm to
make sure that all the chicks have found feed and water. To do this, collect samples of 30–40 chicks at 3
or 4 different places in the house. Gently feel each chick’s crop. In chicks that have found food and
water, the crop will be full, soft and rounded. If the crop is full but the original texture of the crumb is
still apparent, the bird has not yet consumed enough water. Target crop fill at 8 hours after delivery is
80% and at 24 hours after delivery 95–100%.

Environmental Control

Optimal temperature and humidity are essential for health and appetite development. Monitor
temperature and relative humidity frequently and regularly; at least twice daily in the first 5 days and
daily thereafter. Temperature and humidity measurements and sensors for automatic systems should be
sited at chick level.

Use conventional thermometers to cross-check the accuracy of electronic sensors controlling automatic
systems. Ventilation without drafts is required during the brooding period to:

• Maintain temperatures and relative humidity (RH) at the correct level.

• Allow sufficient air exchange to prevent the accumulation of harmful gases such as carbon monoxide
(from oil/gas heaters placed inside the poultry house), carbon dioxide and ammonia.

Key Points

• Achieve target 7-day live weight by correctly managing the brooding environment.

• Use chick behavior to determine if temperature is correct.

• Use temperature to stimulate activity and appetite.

• Maintain RH between 60 - 70% for the first 3 days and above 50% for the remainder of the brooding
period.

• Adjust temperature settings if RH increases above 70% or falls below 60%, while responding to
changes in chick behavior.

Provision of Feed and Water

Objective:

The objective of a defined feeding program is to supply a range of balanced diets that satisfy the
nutrient requirements of broilers at all stages of their development and that optimize efficiency and
profitability without compromising bird welfare or the environment. The drinking and feeding systems
employed, together with the management of those systems, will impact feed and water intake, thereby
affecting bird performance and efficiency.

Feed is a major component of the total cost of broiler production. To support optimum performance,
formulate broiler rations to give the correct balance of energy, protein and amino acids, minerals,
vitamins and essential fatty acids. The choice of feeding program will depend on the target of the
business; for instance whether the focus is on maximizing profitability of live birds or optimizing yield of
carcass components.

Supply of Nutrients

Energy: Broilers require energy for growth of tissue, maintenance and activity. Carbohydrate sources,
such as corn and wheat, and various fats or oils are the major source of energy in poultry feeds. Energy
levels in diets are expressed in Mega joules (MJ/kg) or kilocalories (kcal/kg or kcal/lb) of Metabolizable
Energy (ME), as this represents the energy available to the broiler.

Protein: Feed proteins, such as those in cereals and soybean meal, are complex compounds that are
broken down by digestion into amino acids. These amino acids are absorbed and assembled into body
proteins that are used in the construction of body tissue, e.g. muscles, nerves, skin and feathers. Dietary
crude protein levels do not indicate the quality of the proteins in feed ingredients. Diet protein quality is
based on the level, balance and digestibility of essential amino acids in the final mixed feed.

Most broiler breeds are particularly responsive to dietary digestible amino acid levels and respond well,
in terms of growth, feed efficiency and profitability, to diets properly balanced as recommended. Higher
levels of digestible amino acids have been shown to improve profitability by increasing broiler
performance and processing yield. This becomes particularly important when broilers are grown for
portioning or de-boning.

Macro Minerals: The provision of the correct levels of the major minerals in the appropriate balance is
important for high-performing broilers. The macro minerals involved are calcium, phosphorus, sodium,
potassium and chloride.

 Calcium and phosphorus: Calcium in the diet of broilers influences growth, feed efficiency, bone
development, leg health, nerve function and the immune system. It is vital that calcium is
supplied in adequate quantities and on a consistent basis. Phosphorus, like calcium, is required
in the correct form and quantity to optimize skeletal structure and growth.
 Sodium, potassium and chloride: These minerals are needed for general metabolic functions.
Shortages can affect feed intake, growth and blood pH. Excess levels of these minerals result in
increased water intake and subsequent poor litter quality.

Trace Minerals and Vitamins

Trace minerals and vitamins are needed for all metabolic functions. Appropriate vitamin and trace
mineral supplementation depends on the feed ingredients used, the feed manufacturer and local
circumstances. Due to differences in vitamin levels of various cereals, the level of supplementation of
some vitamins must be modified. Accordingly, separate recommendations are usually proposed for
some vitamins, depending on the cereals (e.g. wheat versus maize) upon which the diets are based.

Enzymes: Enzymes are now being routinely used in poultry feeds to improve digestibility of feed
ingredients. In general, feed enzymes that act on carbohydrates, proteins and plant-bound minerals are
available.

Key Points

• Use recommended digestible amino acid levels for optimum broiler performance.

• Ensure high-quality protein sources are used.

• Provide the correct levels of the major minerals in the appropriate balance.

• Vitamin and mineral supplementation depends on feed ingredients used, feed manufacturing practices
and local circumstances.

Feeding Program

Starter Feeds

The objective of the brooding period (0–10 days of age) is to establish good appetite and maximum early
growth in order to meet the 7-day body-weight objective. It is recommended that a Broiler Starter feed
be fed for 10 days. The Starter represents a small proportion of the total feed cost and decisions on
Starter formulation should be based primarily on performance and profitability rather than purely on
diet cost. The benefit of maximizing nutrient intake on early broiler growth and subsequent
performance is well established. Feeding broilers the recommended nutrient density will ensure optimal
growth is established during this critical period of life.

Grower Feeds

Broiler Grower feed is generally fed for 14 to 16 days following the Starter. Starter to Grower transition
will involve a change of texture from crumbs/ mini-pellets to pellets. Depending on the pellet size
produced, it may be necessary to feed the first delivery of Grower as crumbs or mini-pellets. During this
time broiler growth continues to be dynamic. It therefore needs to be supported by adequate nutrient
intake. For optimum feed intake, growth and FCR, provision of the correct diet nutrient density
(especially energy and amino acids) is critical.

Finisher Feeds

Broiler Finisher feeds account for the major volume and cost of feeding a broiler. It is therefore
important that feeds are designed to maximize financial return for the type of products being produced.
Finisher feeds should be given from 25 days until processing. Birds slaughtered later than 42–43 days of
age should be given a second Finisher feed specification from 42 days onward.
The use of either one or more broiler Finisher feeds will depend on:

• Desired slaughter weight.

• Length of the production period.

• Design of the feeding program.

Withdrawal periods for drugs will dictate the use of a special Withdrawal Finisher feed. A Withdrawal
feed should be fed for sufficient time prior to slaughter to eliminate the risk of pharmaceutical product
residues in the meat. Statutory withdrawal periods for prescribed medicines that are specified in
product data sheets must be followed. It is not recommended that extreme dietary nutrient reductions
be made during the withdrawal period.

Key Points

• It is recommended to feed the Starter diet for 10 days. Decisions on Starter feed formulation should
be based on performance and profitability.

• The Grower feed must ensure that nutrient intake supports the dynamic growth during this period.

• Broiler Finisher feeds should be formulated to maximize financial return and be adjusted for bird age,
but extreme nutrient withdrawal is not recommended.

Feed Form and Physical Feed Quality

Broiler growth and efficiency of feed use will generally be better if the Starter feed is crumbs or mini-
pellets and the Grower and Finisher feeds are pelleted. Depending on pellet size fed, it may be
necessary to deliver the first delivery of Grower feed as crumbs or mini-pellets. Poor quality crumbs and
pellets will reduce feed intake and performance. On the farm, pay attention during handling to reduce
breakage of crumbs and pellets.

Table: Form of feed by age in broilers

Age Feed Form and Size

0-10 days sieved crumbs or mini-pellets
11-24 days 2–3.5 mm (0.08–0.125 in) diameter pellets or
coarse grinded mash
25 days to processing 3.5 mm (0.125 in) diameter pellets or coarse
grinded mash

Good quality crumbled and pelleted feeds are preferred to mash feed, however if feeding a mash feed,
feed particles should be sufficiently coarse and uniform in size. Mash feeds may benefit from the
inclusion of some fat in the formulation to reduce dustiness and improve homogenicity of feed
components.

Key Points

• Poor physical feed quality will have a negative impact on broiler performance.

• Use good quality crumbled and pelleted feed for optimum performance.

• When feeding mash, ensure a coarse uniform particle size is achieved.

Feed and Heat Stress

 Correct nutrient levels and balance, together with the use of feed ingredients with higher levels
of digestibility, will help to minimize the effect of heat stress.
 Providing optimum crumb and pellet textures will minimize the energy expended to eat the feed
and thereby reduce the heat generated during feeding.
 Optimum feed form will also improve feed acceptability and help compensatory feed intake to
occur during cooler periods.
 Providing an increase in feed energy from feed fats (rather than carbohydrates) during hot
weather has been shown to be beneficial in some situations due to reducing the heat increment
of the diet.
 Readily available cool, low-salt water is the most critical nutrient during heat stress.
 Strategic use of vitamins and electrolytes, either through the feed or water, will help the bird
deal with environmental stresses.

Key Points

• Providing the correct nutrient levels and using more digestible ingredients will help to minimize the
effects of heat stress.

• Optimal feed form will minimize heat stress and allow compensatory feed intake to occur.

• Provide cool, low-salt water.

• Ensure feed is available to the birds during the coolest part of the day.

Water Quality

Water is an essential ingredient for life. Any increases in water loss or reductions in water intake can
have a significant effect on the lifetime performance of the chick. Water supplied to broilers should not
contain excessive amounts of minerals.

Water should not be contaminated with bacteria. Although water supplied as fit for human consumption
will also be suitable for broilers, water from bore holes, open water reservoirs or poor quality public
supplies can cause problems.
Test the water supply to check the level of calcium salts (water hardness), salinity and nitrates. After the
house has been cleaned and before the chicks have arrived, sample water for bacterial contamination at
the source, at the storage tanks and at the points for drinkers.

Key Points

• Provide unrestricted access to fresh, clean water.

• Test the water supply regularly for bacteriological and mineral contaminants and take any necessary
corrective action.

Drinking Systems

Water must be available to broilers at all times. Inadequate water supply, either in volume or available
drinker space, will reduce growth rate. Monitor the ratio of water to feed consumption to ensure that
the flock is receiving sufficient water.

Measure water consumption to monitor:

• Feed and water system failures.

• Health.

• Performance.

At 21°C (70°F), the ratio of water to feed should be close to:

• 1.8:1 for bell drinkers.

• 1.6:1 for nipple drinkers without cups.

• 1.7:1 for nipple drinkers with cups.

Water requirement will vary with feed consumption. Broilers will drink more water at higher ambient
temperatures. Water requirement increases by approximately 6.5% per degree Celsius (2 degrees
Fahrenheit) over 21°C (70°F). In tropical areas prolonged high temperatures will double daily water
consumption.

Very cold or very warm water will reduce water intake. In hot weather, it is good practice to flush the
drinker lines at regular intervals to ensure that the water is as cool as possible. There should be
adequate water storage on the farm, in case the main supply fails. Ideally, there should be sufficient
storage to provide 24 hours of water at maximum consumption.

It is vital to measure water consumption daily by metering. A reduction of water consumption gives an
advanced warning of possible health and production issues.

Nipple Drinkers
Install nipple drinkers at 12 birds per nipple; supply additional supplementary drinkers (6 per 1,000
chicks) for the first 3–4 days.

The actual number of birds per nipple will depend on flow rates, depletion age, climate and design.
Manage water lines daily for optimum performance.

High water pressure in the drinker line can result in water waste and wet litter. A low drinker line water
pressure can result in a reduced water intake and a subsequent reduction in feed intake.

Drinker line height should be started low at the beginning of the flock and increased as the birds get
older. Drinker lines that are too high can restrict bird water consumption while water lines that are too
low can result in wet litter.

During the initial stages of brooding, place nipple lines at a height where birds are most able to drink.
The back of the chick should form a 35–45° angle with the floor while drinking is in progress. As the bird
grows, the nipples should be raised so that the back of the bird forms an angle of approximately 75–85°
with the floor so that the birds are stretching slightly for the water

Nipple drinker height adjustment

Bell Drinkers
At day-old, provide a minimum of 6 bell drinkers of 40 cm (16 in) diameter per 1,000 chicks; 6 mini-
drinkers or plastic trays per 1,000 chicks should also be available as an additional source of water.

As the broilers become older and the area of the house in use is expanded, provide a minimum of 8 bell
drinkers of 40 cm (16 in) in diameter per 1,000 chicks.

Place these evenly throughout the house so that no broiler is more than 2 m from water. As a guide, the
water level should be 0.6 cm (0.25 in) below the top of the drinker until approximately 7–10 days.

After 10 days there should be 0.6 cm (0.25 in) of water in the base of the drinker. Within 3–4 days,
gradually remove any additional mini-drinkers and trays that were used at day-old so that all chicks are
drinking from the automatic drinkers. Minimum drinker requirements per 1000 birds post brooding are
given in the table below.

Table: Minimum drinker requirements per 1,000 birds post-brooding

Drinker Type Drinker Requirements

Bell drinkers 8 drinkers of 40 cm (16 in) diameter per 1,000
birds
Nipples 83 nipples per 1,000 birds (12 birds per nipple, or
for broilers >3 kg (6.6 lb) 9–10 birds per nipple)

Drinkers should be checked for height daily and adjusted so that the base of each drinker is level with
the base of the broilers back from day 18 onwards

Bell drinker height adjustment

Key Points

• Drinking water should be available to the birds 24 hours a day.

• Provide supplementary drinkers for the first 4 days of a flock’s life.

• Monitor the feed to water ratio daily to check that water intake is sufficient.

• Make allowances for increased water consumption at high temperatures.

• Flush drinker lines in hot weather to ensure that the water is as cool as possible.

• Adjust drinker heights daily.

• Provide adequate drinker space and ensure that drinkers are easily accessible to all birds.

Feeding Systems

Provide sieved crumbs or mini-pellets for the first 10 days of the chicks’ life. Place feed in flat trays or on
paper sheeting so that it is readily accessible to the chicks. Cover at least 25% of the floor with paper.

Gradually make the change to the main feeding system over the first 2–3 days as chicks begin to show
interest in the main system. If photoperiod duration and pattern are used to modify growth, pay
particular attention to feeding space to allow for the extra competition created.

The birds’ actual diet will depend on live weight, depletion age, climate and type of house and
equipment construction.

Insufficient feeding space will reduce growth rates and cause poor uniformity. The number of birds per
feeding system will ultimately depend on the desired live weight at slaughter and design of system.

The main automated feeding systems available for broilers are:

• Pan feeders: 45–80 birds per pan (the lower ratio for bigger birds).

• Flat chain/auger: 2.5 cm per bird (40 birds per meter of track).

• Tube feeders: 38 cm (15 in) diameter (70 birds per tube).

Adjust all types of feeders to ensure minimum spillage and optimum access for the birds. The base of
the trough or pans should be level with the birds’ backs. The height of pan and tube feeders may have to
be adjusted individually. The height of chain feeders is adjustable by winch.

Height of feeders
Incorrect feeder adjustment can increase feed spillage. When this happens, feed conversion estimates
will become inaccurate and the spilled feed is likely to carry a higher risk of bacterial contamination.

With all feeding systems it is good practice to allow the birds to clear the feeders by consuming all the
feed available in the tracks or pans once daily. This will reduce feed wastage and improve efficiency of
feed use.

Adjustment of feed depth is easier with chain feeder systems because only a single adjustment to the
hopper is required. Careful maintenance of chain feeders will minimize incidence of leg damage. Make
adjustments to each individual feeder when using pan and tube feeder systems.

The advantage of pan and tube feeders is that, if filled automatically, feed will be immediately available
to the birds. Feed distribution takes longer to accomplish and feed is not immediately available when
chain feeders are used.

Uneven distribution of feed can result in lowered performance and increased scratching damage
associated with competition at feeders.

Key Points

• Supplement the main feeding system using paper and/or trays over the first 3 days.

• Supply sufficient feeders for the number of birds in the house.

• Increase feeder space per bird if photoperiod duration and pattern are modified to allow for increased
competition at the feeder.

• Adjust feeder height daily so that the birds’ backs are level with the base of the feeder.

Health and Biosecurity

Objective:

To maximize flock performance by minimizing or preventing poultry diseases and infections of public
health concern through good husbandry, biosecurity and welfare practices.
Bird health is of extreme importance in broiler production. Poor chick health will have a negative impact
on all aspects of production and flock management including growth rate, feed conversion efficiency,
condemnations, livability, and processing traits. The flock should start with day-old chicks of good
quality and health. Source the chicks from a minimal number of breeder flocks with similar health
status; ideally, 1 source flock per house.

On-farm disease control programs involve:

• Disease prevention.

• Early detection of ill health.

• Treatment of identified disease conditions.

Regularly monitor production parameters for early detection and targeted intervention. Early
intervention in 1 flock will help prevent disease in surrounding and successive flocks.

Review the production parameters closely and compare them with company targets. Production
parameters include birds dead on arrival (D.O.A.), 7-day body weight, daily and weekly mortality, water
consumption, average daily gain, feed conversion efficiency and processing condemnations. When
monitored production parameters fail to meet their established goals, a proper investigation should be
conducted by trained veterinary personnel.

Biosecurity and vaccination are fundamental to successful health management. Biosecurity to prevent
the introduction of disease in the first place and appropriate vaccination programs to address endemic
disease.

Biosecurity

A strong biosecurity program is critical to maintain flock health. Understanding and following agreed
biosecurity practices must be part of everyone’s job. Regular education and staff training is essential.
Biosecurity will prevent flock exposure to disease-causing organisms. When developing a biosecurity
program, 3 components should be considered:

 Location: Isolate farms from other poultry and livestock. Single-age sites are preferable to limit
recycling of pathogens and live vaccine strains.
 Farm design: A barrier (fence) is necessary to prevent unauthorized access. Design housing to
minimize traffic flow and to facilitate cleaning and disinfection. Construct housing to be bird and
rodent proof.
 Operational procedures: Prevent the introduction and spread of disease with procedures that
control the movement of people, feed, equipment and animals on the farm. Routine procedures
may have to be modified in the event of a change in disease status

Many of the potential routes of disease exposure are:

1. Feed
 2. Chicks
3. Housing
4. Rodents
5. Water
6. Wild birds
7. Equipment and vehicles
8. People
9. Litter
10. Insects
11. Hatchery
12. Other poultry, livestock and pets

Key Points

• Restrict visitors.

• Establish visitation requirements for any visitor, including a risk assessment protocol for that individual
which must be completed prior to entry.

• Stipulate farm entry protocols, including a change of clothing and footwear for staff and visitors.

• Provide a change of footwear or disposable boots at the entrance to every house.

• Clean and disinfect all equipment before it is brought onto the farm.

• Clean all vehicles prior to farm entry.

• Establish clear and implemented procedures for house cleaning and disinfection.

• Establish clear and implemented procedures for litter management and disposal.

• Reduce pathogen carryover by allowing adequate down-time for farm cleaning.

• Establish clear and implemented procedures for feed hygiene, transport and delivery.

• Establish clear and implemented procedures for water management and sanitation.

• Establish an integrated pest control program.

• Establish procedures for dead bird disposal.

Vaccination

Factors for a successful vaccination program

Vaccination Program(s) Vaccine Administration Vaccine Effectiveness

Design
Programs must be based on Follow manufacturer Seek veterinary advice prior to
veterinary advice tailored to recommendations for product vaccinating sick or stressed birds.
specific local and regional handling and method of
challenges established by administration.
health surveys and laboratory
analysis.
Carefully select single or Properly train vaccine Periodic and efficient house
combined vaccines according administrators to handle and cleaning followed by placement of
to age and health status of administer vaccines. new litter material reduces the
flocks concentration of pathogens in the
environment.
Vaccination must result in the Maintain vaccination records. Adequate downtime between
development of consistent flocks helps to reduce the build-up
levels of immunity while of normal house pathogens that can
minimizing potential adverse affect flock performance when re-
effects. using litter.
Breeder programs should When live vaccines are given Regular audits of vaccine handling,
provide adequate and uniform in chlorinated water, use a administration techniques and post
levels of maternal antibodies vaccine stabilizer (such as vaccine responses are critical to
to protect chicks against non-fat powdered or liquid control challenges and improve
several viral diseases during milk) added to the water prior performance.
the first weeks of life. to the vaccine to neutralize the
chlorine. Chlorine can reduce
vaccine titer or cause
inactivation.
Maternal antibodies may Ventilation and management
interfere with the chick’s should be optimized post-
response to some vaccine vaccination, especially during
strains. Levels of maternal times of vaccine induced reaction.
antibodies in broilers will
decline as the breeder source
flock ages.

Key Points

• Vaccination alone cannot protect flocks against overwhelming disease challenges and poor
management practices.

• Develop vaccination programs for broilers in consultation with trained poultry veterinarians.

• Vaccination is more effective when disease challenges are minimized through well-designed and
implemented biosecurity and management programs.

• Base vaccination programs on local disease challenges and vaccine availability.

• Every bird must receive the intended dose of vaccine.

• Breeder flock vaccination programs must be factored into the design of an appropriate vaccination
program for broiler progeny.

Disease Investigation

Disease investigation requires knowledge of what to expect at what age and how to detect what is
abnormal for the flock. When health problems are seen or suspected in broiler flocks, seek veterinary
advice at the earliest possible opportunity. When investigating the cause of disease, take care in
associating a bacterium or virus isolated from the infected flock as the cause of the disease. Ill health
arises from a wide variety of causes and interactions. Many non-pathogenic bacteria or viruses may also
be isolated from healthy broilers. Continuous improvement of broiler health within a broiler operation
requires good record keeping and sample collection throughout the lives of the flocks and across the
whole production process. It is helpful to keep up-to-date with local and regional health concerns in
order to prepare for the unexpected. A systematic approach is helpful when troubleshooting health
issues on the farm.

These are the things to look at:

• Feed: availability, consumption, distribution, palatability, nutritional content, contaminants and toxins,
and withdrawal.

• Light: adequate for efficient growth and development, uniform exposure and intensity.

• Litter: moisture level, ammonia level, pathogen load, toxins and contaminants, depth, material used,
distribution.

• Air: speed, contaminants and toxins, humidity, temperature, availability, barriers.

• Water: source, contaminants and toxins, additives, availability, pathogen load, consumption.

• Space: bird density, feed availability, water availability, limiting obstacles, limiting equipment.

• Sanitation: hygiene of premises (inside and outside of house), pest control, maintenance, cleaning and
disinfection practices.

• Security: biosecurity risks.

Troubleshooting common issues in the 0–7 day brooding phase

Observe Investigate Likely Causes

Poor chick quality - Increased dead Feed, Sanitation, Air and Water - - Inadequate diet of source flock -
on arrivals (D.O.A.’s) - Sluggish Source flock health and hygiene hygiene status of source flock,
chick behavior - General chick status - handling, storage and Egg hatchery and Health and equipment
appearance: unhealed navels, red transport - Hatchery sanitation, - Incorrect parameters for egg
hocks/ beaks, dark wrinkled legs, incubation, and management - storage, relative humidity,
discolored or malodorous yolks or processing, handling and Chick temperatures and equipment
navels transport management
- Inadequate moisture loss during
 incubation
- Dehydration caused by excessive
spread of hatch time or late removal
of chicks from the hatchers
Small chicks days 1–4 Feed, Light, Air, Water and Space - Less than 95% of chicks with
Crop fill at 24 hours post chick adequate crop fill by 24 hours post
placement placement
- Availability and accessibility to - Weak chicks
feed and water - Inadequate feeders and drinkers
- Bird comfort and welfare - Inadequate feed and water levels
- Equipment location and
maintenance issues
- Inappropriate brooding temperature
and environment
Ranted and Stunted Chicks Feed, Light, Litter, Air, Water, Flock source variation
- Small birds, as early as 4-7 days Space, Sanitation and Security - Dehydration of the chicks
- Flock source - Poor quality feed
- Hydration status of chicks - Poor quality brooding conditions
- Brooding conditions - Short down
- Feed quality and accessibility -times between flocks
- Down-time between flocks - Inadequate cleaning and
- Disease challenge disinfection
- Disease
- biosecurity and hygiene practices
Disease: metabolic , bacterial, viral, Feed, Light, Litter, Air, Water, Poor environmental conditions
fungal, protozoal , parasitic ,toxins Space, Sanitation and Security: - - Poor biosecurity
Broiler farm hygiene - disease challenge High
Stress - disease challenge Local - disease protection Low
- Vaccination and disease prevention - Inadequate or improper
strategies implementation of disease
- Feed quality and supply prevention - Poor feed quality
- Lighting and ventilation Inadequate feed supply
- Excessive or insufficient
Potential stressors - Temperature - ventilation
Management - Immunosuppressive - Inadequate farm management
disorders - Inadequate equipment
- Inadequate bird comfort and
welfare
High number of birds D.O.A. to Feed, Light, Litter, Air, Water, - Health issues during grow-out
the processing plant Space, Sanitation and Security - Management of relevant historical
High plant condemnation rate - Flock records and data events affecting bird health and
- Health status of flock welfare
- History of flock during the grow- - Improper bird handling and hauling
out period (such as feed, water or by crews
power outages) - Harsh conditions (weather or
- Potential equipment hazards on equipment related) during handling,
the farm - handling by the catchers, catching or transport to the
handlers and haulers Bird processing plant
- Experience and training level of
individuals handling and hauling
birds
- Conditions during catching and
hauling (such as weather and
equipment)
Key Points

• Know what to expect and be alert to deviations from the expected.

• Observe; Investigate; Identify; Act.

• Use a systematic approach.

Disease Recognition

The recognition of health problems involves several steps. In diagnosing a disease problem, and
planning and implementing a control strategy, it is important to remember that the more thorough the
investigation, the more thorough the diagnosis and the more effective the controlling actions. Early
disease recognition is critical

Recognizing signs of disease

Observations by Farm Personnel Farm and Laboratory Monitoring Data and Trend Analysis
Daily assessment of bird Regular farm visitation Daily and weekly mortality
behavior
Bird appearance (such as Routine post-mortem Water and Feed Consumption
feathering, size, uniformity, examinations of normal, as well
coloring) as diseased birds
Environmental changes (such as Proper sample collection size Temperature trends
litter quality, heat or cold stress, and type Proper choice of D.O.A.’s after placement on the
ventilation issues) subsequent analysis and actions farm, or after arrival at the
following post-mortem processing plant
examination
Clinical signs of illness (such as Routine microbiological testing D.O.A.’s after placement on the
respiratory noise or distress, of farms, feed, litter, birds and farm, or after arrival at the
depression, fecal droppings, other appropriate material processing plant
vocalization)
Flock uniformity Appropriate diagnostic testing Condemnation at slaughter
Appropriate serology

Key Points

• Daily observation.
• Accurate recording.

• Systematic disease monitoring.

PULLET AND LAYER MANAGEMENT

Perfecting Pullet management

The first 18 weeks of a pullet chick’s life is the most critical and will impact future production.
Errors made during this time are difficult to overcome. During pullet development, their body is
focusing on growing and building reserves for future laying. Low egg production and poor shell
quality during lay can often be traced back to pullet development. Pullet management is essential
for the success and profits of the future laying flock. The overall aim of pullet development is to
reach a target body weight with high uniformity. Less than 85% uniformity will cause a decrease
in egg production and peak production will be hard to maintain. Understanding development
stages, maintaining brooder temperature, providing enough space, and providing fresh, balanced
rations will help ensure the success of your future layer.

Understanding the different stages of development will help pinpoint when your hen had issues
in her early life. Interrupted growth during any of these developmental phases will result in hens
lacking the body reserves and organ function to sustain high production as adult layers.

Stages of Poultry Production

Poultry operators generally categorize their operation into five major stages. These stages signify
the age of the birds in relation to their 1) growth, 2) space requirement, and 3) recommended
type of feed.

Five Stages of Layer Operation

Stage Age Feed Recommended

Protein Content
(%)
Brooding 0-6 weeks Pullet starter 20
Growing 6-12 weeks Pullet grower 18
Developing 12-18 weeks Pullet developer 14
Laying 18-120 weeks Layers feed 18
Replacement 80th week - -
process

The Brooding Stage

Brooding refers to the early growing period of chicks. The brooding period extends from day-old
to six weeks of age. During this period, the organs of the digestive tract and immune system are
developing. Stress at this age can have a lifelong impact on the digestion of feed and the
absorption of nutrients by the chick. The recommended feed for brooding layer chicks is pullet
starter. Brooding facilities range from litter brooding to battery brooding.

In litter brooding, chicks are placed on the floor that is covered with litter materials such as
sawdust, rice hulls, shredded newspaper, or any absorbent material. The chicks are maintained
with very few problems.

Dry litter needs to be maintained throughout the brooding period. Litter should be at least 5-10
cm thick. Litter materials recommended for good conditions include sawdust, shredded
newspaper, and shredded cardboard boxes.

Wet and caked litter must be replaced with fresh litter periodically. It is recommended that the
chicks be brooded in groups of manageable numbers. The grouping makes observation easier as
well as prevents “piling-up” (chicks stepping on each other) which can lead to deaths.

It is recommended that newspapers be placed on the wire floor during the first week of brooding
so the toes of the chicks won't go through the holes and to prevent draft from below the brooder.
The newspaper bedding should be replaced each time it gets too wet. Cardboard materials may
be used in place of newspaper.

Recommended Brooding Practices

The following recommended management practices are provided to ensure a good head start.

1. Two weeks prior to chick arrival, the brooder, drinker, feeder, litter, and other materials for
brooding should be cleaned and sanitized. The use of a narrow lid base drinker will help prevent
chicks for getting into the water. Chicks are very thirsty upon arrival and tend to dive into the
water. Once they get too wet, they chill and die. Wet chicks must be put under heat until they are
dried. Start feeding chicks 1-2 hours after arrival. Use the chick carton as feeders for the first
three days. Provide a small amount of feed each time to avoid wastage. Use galvanized feeders
when chicks are consuming a greater volume of feed.

2. Effort needs to be made to protect chicks from predators such as snakes, rats, cats, and dogs.
Chicks are especially susceptible to the attack of snakes and rats. To ensure greater protection
from snakes as well as rats it is recommended to use 1/4" x 1/4" wire mesh enclosed brooders.
Also, seal off any openings in the brooder.

3. Two days before chicks arrive; the brooder must be set up properly. Preparation of the brooder
for chick arrival is most important. It becomes the key to the success of a poultry operation. The
chicks' health and environmental conditions becomes a major concern during the preparation of
the brooding facility. If utilizing a used brooder house, clean and disinfect thoroughly. Also,
ensure that the water used is from good sources.

4. Starter feeds and water soluble antibiotics should be available and stored (per label
instructions) for use during the growing period. Use layer starter feed. Starter feeds are normally
medicated to prevent common baby chick diseases like coccidiosis and bacteria that can cause
wet droppings. Treat water with soluble antibiotic for at least five days. Antibiotics can be
purchased at local feed stores. It is also advisable to make advance orders for starter feeds and
antibiotics from these suppliers when anticipating to brood chicks. Note: If an automatic
watering system is used, be sure that a backflow (anti-siphon) device is installed to prevent
antibiotics from entering the main water line.

5. Heating elements, whether light bulbs or gas heaters, must be tested. Three hours before
chicks arrive; turn on heating elements to get the brooder to the recommended temperature of
95°F. Keeping this temperature could be accomplished by hanging a 50-watt light bulb
approximately 4" from the floor for every 50 chicks. As the birds grow older, the light bulbs
should be elevated. When litter brooding, galvanized sheets can be used as guards/partitions to
confine chicks within the heated area. When using a light bulb, the temperature may be regulated
by raising or lowering the bulb. Heating elements can be removed when birds are fully feathered.

6. Trim chicks' beaks after 6 weeks of arrival. Beak trimming involves the clipping of the upper
beak. The use of a de-beaker machine will facilitate the beak trimming of chicks. Beak trimming
the birds will minimize incidence of feather picking and cannibalism. This also prevents feed
wastage as the birds cannot select the ingredients in the feed.

7. While maintaining adequate ventilation, eliminate or reduce wind drafts for consistent brooder
temperature and comfort of chicks. A cold brooder predisposes the chicks to “vent pasting.” Vent
pasting is the situation when chicks may have watery discharges from their anuses which dries
up and eventually plugs up the opening. Feeders and drinkers must be close to the source of heat
so the chicks are continually warmed. The chicks should be evenly distributed in the brooder.
Non-stop chirping or piling-up of chicks in one corner is generally a sign of a drafts or cold
brooder. On the other hand, panting chicks generally indicate that the temperature in the brooder
is too high, and needs to be turned down immediately.

8. Monitor, on a regular basis, the conditions in the brooding facility. By the second day, look
for vent pasting. Manually remove dried discharge to lessen chick mortality. Increase the source
of heat to help prevent vent pasting incidence by adding 50-watt light bulbs for additional heat
(one 50-watt bulb per 100 chicks). Lower the brooder temperature at least 5°F every week until
birds are fully feathered. Observe the chicks regularly during feeding. Dead birds should be
removed right away and disposed of properly.
IMPACT OF NUTRITION ON TODAY'S PULLETS AND LAYING HENS

Today’s commercial pullets and laying hens are the most efficient egg producers in history.
Intensive genetic selection has resulted in strains requiring higher standards of care, health, bio-
security and nutrition to realize the benefits of:

 Improved egg production

 Improved feed conversion
 Increased vigour and liveability
 Improved egg-shell quality

Nutrition is a primary determinant of the expression of the improved genetic potential on farm.
The correct amounts of nutrients supplied and balanced will support growth and egg production.

Energy

Energy is supplied primarily by carbohydrates from grain sources, fats, and oils. It is required for
the growth of tissues and maintenance of normal body functions.

Protein

Protein is supplied primarily by grains, oilseed meals, and animal by product meals. Protein is
broken down into amino acids during digestion. Protein quality is determined by its balance of
essential amino acids, which are the amino acids that cannot be synthesized by the chicken and
must be sourced from the diet.

Macro Minerals

Bone and egg-shell formulation need calcium and phosphorus. These minerals are also needed
for nervous and immune system function. Osmotic balance is maintained with the help of
electrolytes such as sodium, potassium, and chloride. Mineral deficiencies can affect feed intake
and growth, while excesses will encourage water intake resulting in wet litter.

Vitamins and Minerals

To maintain normal metabolic functions, vitamins and trace minerals are essential. Trace
amounts of vitamins and minerals are needed for growth, egg production, shell quality and
health.

The Role Nutrition Plays

Since the genetic potential of each flock continuously improves, regularly evaluating nutrient
requirements for your flock is the most profitable approach to feeding pullets and laying hens.
Today’s commercial layer strains will do best when fed rations providing the correct balance of
energy, essential amino acids, and minerals.

Marginal or deficient nutrient levels in the ration can compromise growth and flock uniformity,
as well as feed conversion, egg production, egg weight, and quality. Nutritionists check,
formulate and put in place optimal nutrition programs for your operation with the goal of
achieving healthy birds, ideal body weights/production, efficient feed conversion, and ultimately
maximizing profitability for producers.

Points to Remember

There are many biological and environmental factors that may interact with genetics to influence
growth, feed consumption, egg production, and overall performance of laying hens. Responses to
improved nutrition are only achieved when such factors are not limiting performance. Factors
that influence performance include:

 Pullet brooding
 Stocking density
 Feeder space
 Feed availability
 Lighting programs
 Lighting intensity
 Air quality
 Temperature
 Humidity
 Heat/cold stress
 Health status and gut health
 Water quality
 Water availability

Pay Attention to F.L.A.W.S. for Optimal Performance

(F) -----Feed - Proper nutrition promotes good body weights and flock uniformity

(L)……..Light - Suitable lighting programs will contribute to good pullet development and will
support high production in the laying hen

(A)………Air - Optimum ventilation maintains good air quality and positively affects bird
growth

(W)………Water - Good quality drinking water is necessary for bird health and growth
(S)…………Sanitation - Thorough equipment and barn sanitation is necessary to ensure there is
no disease challenge in your facility

Pullet Feeding Program

Pullet Feeding Program is formulated to maximize growth and optimize feed conversion. When
properly implemented in a well-managed house, these feeds promote attainment of target body
weights, while delivering the proper body composition for egg production in the layer house.

Starters: Pullet Starter feeds give the pullet the nutrients required for initial rapid growth and
development of the digestive tract, skeletal system, and muscles. The well-balanced Pullet
Starter feeds support rapid growth and development, as well as maximizing early growth and
uniformity of the pullet flock during the brooding period.

Growing Stage

Pullet Grower feeds consist of four flexible rations that allow for changing energy and protein
demands and are formulated to stimulate appetite and make sure that the body frame is
developing correctly. The flexibility of this feed program allows the producer to respond to any
changes which might be needed to reach body weight targets. Pullet Grower feeds encourage
body weight gains, while still supporting the further growth of the skeletal frame required to
support the bird during her laying cycle.

This phase lasts about 2.5 months (10 weeks), from the sixth to the sixteenth week of age. It is
important to provide appropriate care to the growers during this period as it is the time the bird’s
digestive tract develops further. It is also a period of rapid growth when the pullet is building
most of her structural components such as muscles, bones and feathers.

Pullet Grower feeds consist of four flexible rations that allow for changing energy and protein
demands and are formulated to stimulate appetite and make sure that the body frame is
developing correctly. Pullet Grower feeds encourage body weight gains, while still supporting
the further growth of the skeletal frame required to support the bird during her laying cycle.

Pullet grower fed to the birds is of low energy content to avoid the risk of causing reduction of
the development of the digestive tract and the feed intake as it starts to lay eggs. A poorly
developed digestive tract will affect feed consumption of the hen during its laying period. After
six weeks of age, birds must be removed from the brooders and transferred into slightly larger
confinements or they can remain in the same house if one is utilizing All-in All-out rearing
system While feed, water and certain vaccines/ medications are essential during the growing
stage, the need for ample space to accommodate the body expansion of birds is very essential.
Litter type houses or large coops are suitable for the growing stage. It is not recommended to
place birds in laying cages during this stage.

Another important distinguishing aspect of the growing stage from the brooding stage is the
recommended type of feed. During the growing stage, the recommended feed to use is called
pullet grower. No other type of feed should replace pullet grower as this could have effects on
the future egg production of the bird. Mortality rate from brooding to growing should not exceed
5% during the entire brooding-growing period.

Developing Stage

The term pullet refers to young hens between 12-17 weeks old. This is the period when the birds
feed on “pullet developer” and gradually grow into young laying hens. During this developing
period, the demand for feed, water, and floor space increases as the birds mature. The type and
amount of feed as well as the adequacy of water during this period will determine the ultimate
egg-laying productivity of hens. In addition, overcrowding of birds should be avoided by
providing adequate floor space. Pullets are maintained within the same pen and fed pullet
developer. It is important to provide appropriate care to the pullets particularly between their
16th and 18th week of age as their reproductive organs develop during this period. Any
disturbance during this period may affect the start of laying period and egg production.

Growth of the pullet is beginning to slow while the reproductive tract matures and prepares for
egg production. The skeleton is 95% developed by the end of the 13th week of life, and at this
time, the skeleton size will not increase. Muscles continue to develop and fat cells begin to
proliferate for sexual maturity. Avoid excessive body weight gain at this period because it can
result in an excessive fat pad that may compromise egg production. Also low body weight and
stress can delay the onset of egg production.

The feeding of pullet developer diet till 17 weeks of age will also help in the development of the
crop capacity.

Pre-lay: Approximately 21 days before the first egg, hormonal changes in the pullet promote the
development of medullary bone, which acts as a calcium reservoir to supplement dietary calcium
during egg-shell formation. At the same time, the reproductive tract is rapidly growing and
developing. Pre-lay rations are formulated to 17% protein and are available to give 2.0% or
2.5% calcium, as well as providing high phosphorus to support the development of the medullary
bone. Incorporating Hy-D™ and phytase into these feeds maximizes calcium absorption in the
pullet, while minimizing phosphorus excretion, helping support the pullet as she matures and
prepares to lay eggs.

Continue monitoring the birds’ weight by random weighing. Random weighing of about 10 –
15% of the birds’ population could be done. The pullet weight should be at least within the
standard reference weights. By weighing, one knows how the birds are performing and whether
to increase or decrease the daily feed ration and correct weight deficiency. The weight of the bird
has a direct relationship to its level of productivity at time of egg production. The birds should
attain and maintain the right body weight for better egg production.

Meeting nutrient requirements through a well-balanced, fresh feed is important for the health and
development of pullets. The feed being fed needs to align with the bird’s age and stage of
development. Feeding a fresh, well-balanced chick starter, pullet grower, and pullet developer
will improve the health and growth for proper development
A final and equally as important management factor during this phase is providing fresh, clean
water. Watering devices need to be clean and free from bacteria and algae. Water should be cool
and no hotter than pullet’s body temperature. Water regulates feed intake, so if they are not
drinking, their eating will be affected.

Laying Stage

The egg laying stage generally begins at approximately 21 weeks of age. Eggs laid in the first
three weeks of production are of small sizes. Egg size increases to medium, large and extra-large
as the birds mature. The use of “layer” feed begins at this age. However, birds should be
transferred to their laying quarters when they are 16 weeks of age so that they acclimatise the
environment in the layer pen before they start laying. Be sure to cull sickly and obviously slow
growing birds to reduce on costs of feeding unproductive birds.

The productive egg-laying period of layers is approximately two years. However, Layers
typically lay for a twelve and half month’s period starting when they are about 18 weeks old and
lasting until they are about 72 weeks old. However, some breeds may continue to lay eggs till
they are about two years old. For an existing poultry farm, as egg production becomes
normalized, serious considerations should be given to replacing old birds with a new flock.
Maintaining old flocks can be costly in terms of high feed cost and low egg production.

Monitoring Pullet Body Weights

Goals

The pullet flock uniformity should be 85% or better. This means that a minimum of 85% of the
birds in the flock are within 10% of the average weight of the flock. It is important to start taking
body weights by the time the pullet flock is five weeks of age and then every two weeks
thereafter. The sooner adjustments are made to correct any body weight problems, the easier it
will be to support flock uniformity. Whenever feed changes are pending, it is recommended to
weigh the birds first.

Points to Remember

There are many biological and environmental factors that may interact with genetics to influence
growth, feed consumption, egg production, and overall performance of laying hens. Responses to
improved nutrition are only achieved when such factors are not limiting performance.

Factors that stimulate body weight gain in pullets

 Decreasing the house temperature gradually by 1°C or 2°C when birds are old enough to handle
cooler temperatures
 Increasing the number of times that the feeders run and ensure stimulation stirs are being used
 Increasing crumb size when birds are big enough to handle a larger crumb size
 Increasing the depth of feed in the trough
 Making sure the barn is properly ventilated
  Dietary protein level

Factors that inhibit body weight gain in pullets

 Crowding
 Poor beak trimming
 Disease challenges
 Hot temperatures
 Poor ventilation

House (Pen) Management for Pullets

Successful pullet rearing is critical for optimum egg production as challenges during rearing are
difficult to overcome in the lay house. Proper set-up of the pullet barn is necessary to get the
chicks off to a good start. Producers need to create and maintain a protocol for their operation
which conforms to governing regulations and optimizes the development of the pullet. Pens that
are thoroughly sanitized and set up correctly will contribute to successful pullet rearing.

Sanitation

Dry clean the pen as soon as possible after a mature flock leaves the pullet pen. Follow this with
a thorough wash with high pressure, hot water, and an approved surfactant containing detergent.
Following washing, sanitize the pen and equipment using an approved poultry pen sanitizing
agent. Water lines should be disinfected and thoroughly flushed. Finally, inspect the facility for
rodent, insect, and wild bird activity. Take steps to eradicate and prevent future infestations.
Isolation and down time are key to minimizing the threat of disease organisms. Record all
activity in your Start Clean Stay Clean log. Be sure to follow strict biosecurity protocols before,
during, and after cleaning.

Brooding Recommendations

Make sure the pullet barn is up to the desired temperature at least 24 hours before chick delivery. This
helps make sure that the air in the pen, as well as the cages or floor, are up to temperature. The
temperature at placement must be between 31°C and 33°C (88°Fto 92°F) and the relative humidity from
60% to 85%. Check the pressure in the water lines and set the pressure low enough that the chicks can
easily trigger the drinkers. Once the birds have arrived, encourage them to drink as soon as possible.
Provide bright light (30-50 lux) for the first 7 days to help chicks find feed and water. Make sure the feed
is easily accessible, preferably on paper in the cages. Getting the chicks eating and drinking as quickly as
possible is essential to getting these birds off to a good start.

IMPACT OF HUMIDITY

Low Relative Humidity

  Decreases bird comfort
 Increases incidence of dehydration
 May increase incidence of pasty vents
 May increase agitation and risk of pecking
 Increases dust in the house
 Impairs normal feather development and cover

High Relative Humidity

 Contributes to risk of wet litter

 Increases ammonia levels in barn
 Contributes to poor air quality

Lighting for the Pullet House

block lighting
2hrs dark

4hrs light
4hrs light
2hrs dark
4hrs light
4hrs light 2hrs dark
2hrs dark 4hrs light
2hrs dark
2hrs dark 4hrs light
4hrs light 2hrs dark

4hrs light

2hrs dark
A block lighting program can be used for 7 to 10 days after chick arrival, after which the
lighting should be switched to a regular step down lighting program.

There are several advantages of using a block lighting program. These advantages include
synchronizing the behaviour of the chicks (as they are resting at the same time), stimulating the
weak and strong chicks at the same time - encouraging more uniform behaviour, and decreasing
mortality. Consider brighter lights and/or drop lighting (where the light bulbs are lowered to
provide light closer to the floor) for the first two weeks, especially when starting brown chicks. It
is important to note that the pullets will quickly learn the lighting program and will anticipate
when the lights go off. The pullets will react to this by increasing feed and water consumption
before the lights will go off. Because of this, it is important that the off time of the lights should
not change. If you are increasing or decreasing day length in the pullet barn, do so by adjusting
only the on time.

Lighting Schedule for Pullets

AGE (WEEK) AGE(DAYS) HOURS OF LIGHT LIGHT INTESITY

(LUX)
0 1-7 22 30-50
1 8-14 20 25
2 15-21 18 25
3 22-28 16 25
4 29-35 14 5-15
5 36-42 12 5-15
6-15 43-112 10 5-15
16 113-119 11 5-15
17 120-126 12 5-15
18 127-133 13 5-15
19 134-140 13.5 15-30

HOUSE VENTILATION FOR PULLETS

Optimize the barn environment and bird health

The purpose of ventilation in a pullet house is to optimize the house environment and bird health,
thereby maximizing production. This removes carbon dioxide (CO2) and controls humidity levels and
temperatures.

Controlling CO2 starts before the birds even get to the house. Pre-heating and bringing the house and
concrete temperature up reduces the cycling time of the heaters. By doing this, we will be able to
exhaust the highest levels of CO2 before the birds arrive. If the floor concrete is not heated enough, cold
will radiate from the concrete reducing the air temperature in the house, forcing heaters to cycle more
often, and increasing CO2 levels. This will result in more fan power required to exhaust the CO2, causing
temperature to decrease, and forcing the heaters to cycle even more often, which may cause stress to
the birds.

In floor house, achieving a concrete temperature of 30.5 to 33°C (87 to 92°F) and a litter temperature of
32 to 35°C (90 to 95°F) before birds are placed will reduce heater cycling and CO2 levels. Keep CO2
levels between 2500 and 3000 ppm for the best start for pullets.

Wet litter and caking on the floor is managed by controlling humidity in a floor house. If wet litter and
caking occurs, there will be an increase in the ammonia levels in the house, decreasing air quality. When
litter absorbs too much moisture, bacteria will grow, leading to disease pressure and compromising the
birds’ immune system.

In a cage housing system, the purpose of ventilation is to remove moisture and ammonia from the litter
on the manure belts and in any in-house manure storage areas. Ventilation fans, circulation fans, and
inlets are most commonly used to lower humidity and temperature.

The air speed entering the house from the inlet is dependent on the static pressure within the house.
Fans running create a negative pressure in the house. Different house designs and fan stages require
different static pressures, which will change the air path in the house. We want a low enough static
pressure that the air comes in the house far enough to mix with the warm air, then flows across the
floor removing and suspending moisture in the air for the exhaust fans to remove from the house. If
there is not enough static pressure, cool air will fall and will not have enough air speed to lift and
suspend moisture.

MINIMUM SPACE REQUIREMENTS – PULLETS

The Impact of Space

With the evolution of domestication of livestock by humans, it has now become our responsibility to
check and maintain their environment to lower any stress that may be caused by the difference
between their natural traits and our need for efficiency. It is important to understand the needs of a bird
at every stage of growth and make sure their surroundings meet their requirements to support steady
growth and development.

Cage Floor Space

When rearing a layer pullet from day old to 19 weeks, the bird and the producer will benefit from the
ability to shift the amount of cage floor space available as the need increases. There is much efficiency
created by starting the chicks at a high density in fewer cages. As the flock ages, the increase in space
lends itself to the natural behaviours of the bird and allows it all the freedoms of nature and benefits of
a controlled, protected environment.

Table

Age (weeks) Max. Body Weight Minimum Cage Floor Space (square)
(grams) Inches2 Centimeters2
0-6 400 23 150
6-12 950 42 270
12-18/19 1320 52 335

House Floor Space (full deep litter system)

Floor rearing of pullets follows some of the same principles as cage rearing. At day old, it is important to
house the chicks at a higher density than they will be grown at. The usual practice is to section the
facility to one third the size of the total area. If the flock is on a vaccine program for coccidiosis, the
environment in this smaller section is easier to keep up and manipulate, ensuring the chick is
comfortable and managing humidity. Allowing access to the entire floor at the right time will promote
growth and uniformity.

House floor space

Age (weeks) Max. Body Weight Minimum house Floor Space (square)
(grams)

Full deep Litter All wire/Slats

2
Inches Centimeters2 Inches 2
Centimeters2
0-6 400 78 500 39 250
6-18/19 1320 217 1400 109 700

Feed Trough Space

Easy access to feed is one of the keys in growing a strong, uniform pullet. Producers should know the
required feed trough space per bird and use this as a tool for determining timely shifting of birds to the
other decks.

Age (weeks) Max. Body Inches Centimetres

Weight (grams)
0-3 220 0.6-1.0 1.5-2.5
3-6 400 1.0-1.6 2.5-4.0
6-12 950 1.6-2.4 4.0-6.0
12-18/19 1320 2.0-2.8 5.0-7.0

Water Space

As with the requirement of access to feed, the pullet also needs to be able to consume an adequate
amount of water for stress-free growth. Providing the right number of nipples or cups per cage at the
right age will create a balance between the required amount of water and fresh water supply.

Age (weeks) Max. Body Weight (grams) Birds per Nipple or Cup
0-6 400 15-20
6-12 950 10-15
12-18/16 1320 6-10

PULLET VACCINATION

The recommended vaccination program is intended to help prevent diseases that will affect pullets in
the rearing stage. If pullet chicks are vaccinated your with Coccivac-D/ Immucox at the hatchery, be
sure to communicate with feed manufacturer to make sure anti-coccidial medication is not in the feed,
as it will kill the vaccine.

The Poulvac E. coli vaccine is highly recommended for producers that use free-range or free-run
systems. It is applied twice; once at either the hatchery or 10 days of age and then again at 5 weeks of
age. When spray vaccinating the pullets, be sure to use only distilled water or add a vaccine stabilizer to
normal water. Use a coarse spray when spray vaccinating your pullets up until 10 weeks of age. A fine
spray before 10 weeks of age will bring the vaccine deeper into the respiratory system and may have a
negative impact on the pullet.

ADMINISTERED AT HATCHERY

 Marek’s Vaccine
 Coccivac-D/Immucox
 Poulvac E. coli (optional)

AGE VACCINE MODE OF ADMINISTRATION

Day old Marek’s Subcutaneous/ done at the hatchery
Day 10 Newcastle 1st dose / Infectious Coarse Spray if not gone at hatchery
Bronchitis 1st dose / Poulvac E. coli
Day 14 IBD (Gumboro) 1st dose Drinking water
Day 21 Newcastle 2nd dose Eye drop or drinking water
Day 24 IBD 2nd dose Drinking water
Week 5 Newcastle 3rd dose /Bronchitis 2nd Coarse spray
dose/Poulvac E. coli
Week 6 Fowl pox Wing web stab
Week 7 ILT1/ Pox and Ae Wing web stab
Week 8 Newcastle 4th dose Eye drop or drinking water
Week 9 Fowl Typhoid IM injection
Week 12 Infectious coryza IM injection
Week 17 Draw blood samples Evaluate titres if needed
th
Week 18 Newcastle 5 dose Eye drop or drinking water/repeat every
three months
Week 18 Infectious coryza IM injection
Week 19 De-worming Drinking water/repeat every three
months

PULLET COCCIDIOSIS VACCINE MANAGEMENT

Coccidiosis is a disease that affects pullets and leads to decreased growth, feed conversion, and
uniformity, as well as a temporary decrease in egg production and increased mortality. Due to these
consequences, it is important to understand the management practices necessary to use coccidiosis
vaccines during pullet rearing in order to successfully develop immunity in the pullet flock.

Due to the variety of housing systems used in pullet barns, there are different management factors that
are of importance when using coccidiosis vaccine in pullets. Vaccines do work in all housing systems, as
long as there is careful management of access to faecal material as this is required for coccidiosis to
cycle.

Floor Reared Pullets

Using coccidiosis vaccines in a floor reared environment is fairly simple. Because the pullets already have
direct access to the faeces, encouraging and managing coccidiosis cycling is as simple as paying attention
to stocking densities and litter moisture. Maintaining a relative humidity between 60 and 70% in the
barn is necessary to ensure there is enough moisture for the coccidiosis to cycle.

Cage Reared Pullets

In a cage reared environment, it is more difficult to ensure coccidiosis is cycling effectively. Use a long-
lasting biodegradable material to cover approximately 40% of the cage floor for approximately five
weeks. Materials such as thick paper plates, folded chick paper, or newspaper will help increase the
access of the bird to the faeces and encourage coccidiosis cycling within the flock. If the pullets are
moved within the first 35 days, make sure you also move some of this biodegradable material with the
pullets to continue contact with the faeces.

Beak Trimming

Beak trimming is performed to increase liveability, decrease feather pulling, obtain optimum feed
conversions, and discourage cannibalism. It is only recommended at one day of age and should be
performed at the hatchery by using an infrared treatment of the upper and lower beak. Some
alternative housing situations may require beaks to be trimmed at another time in the growing barn.
Please consult your local code of practice to ensure the selected age and method is acceptable.

Layer Requirements

1. Fees and feeding

Sufficient amount of fresh layer feed containing at least 18 % crude protein and water should
always be available during the laying period. Avoid sudden changes in rations for the layers
during the laying period as this might affect egg production. However, it is not a good practice to
simply fill feeders to the brim once a day. This is because of the bird's “pecking” behaviour
while eating; a good amount of feed is generally wasted when feeders are extremely full. In
addition, extremely full feeders tend to promote spoiled feed at the bottom of the feeder. Spoiled
feed can affect a bird's health and ultimate egg-laying performance.

Providing adequate amounts of feed more often, perhaps once in the morning and again in the
afternoon, is a better and highly recommended practice. Feed intake that is too low will hold
back the egg size, while too high of a feed intake in the layer pen will over stimulate egg size,
which may lead to decreased shell quality and health concerns. Recommendation for layer
feeding is targeting a consumption of 100 to 110 grams of feed per bird per day on average
during the laying period. However, feed intake for the layers depends on age of the hen and
productivity.

Factors Affecting Feed Consumption of layers

• Heavier birds eat more feed, while lighter birds typically eat less. Closely monitoring feed
consumption will help you manage flock body weights to meet the targets

• House temperature is an important factor to help control feed consumption. The warmer the
house, the less a bird will eat. The cooler the house, the more the bird has to eat to maintain her
energy requirements

• As a hen loses feathers, she will eat more feed to maintain her body temperature.

• Increased egg mass drives feed consumption - while a hen with lesser egg mass will tend to eat
less (Egg mass = egg production x egg size)

• Feed energy affects consumption. Increased energy in the feed decreases consumption, lower
feed energy will escalate consumption. The best economic is typically between these two
extremes.

2. Lighting schedule. Lighting programs are set up to help bring your flock into maturity,
achieve adequate body weight, and optimize egg production and egg size during the
laying period. Egg production is stimulated by daylight; therefore, as the days grow
longer production increases. In open houses, artificial lighting may be used to increase
the laying period. When darkness falls artificial lighting can be introduced to meet the
deficit hours, which may increase egg production by 20 to 30 %. In closed houses, where
layers are not exposed to natural light, the length of the artificial day should be increased
either in one step or in a number of steps until the artificial day reaches 16 to 17 hours,
which will ensure constant and maximized egg production. Effective day length should
never decrease during the laying period. An ideal artificial light schedule is shown in
Figure 1

Figure 1 - Lighting schedule

3. It is recommended that the laying house be located in a quiet section of the property. Efforts
should be made to avoid too much noise because excessive noise can affect the birds' egg
production.

4. An adequate nesting area for layers to lay their eggs should be made available if layers are
located in a litter bed. Nest boxes measuring 30 x 30x45 cm for every 7 layers should be used.
An egg roll-out can also be attached to the nests so egg collection can be done outside the nest
box. Collect eggs at least twice a day, once in the morning and again in the afternoon. Eggs
should be stored in a cool place if not sold (or used) the next day after collection. Manure and
blood stains on the egg shells can be washed with water. It is recommended that cleaned eggs be
refrigerated immediately to protect from any bacterial contamination such as Salmonella.

5. Stocking density of approximately 4-6 hens per meter square is recommended on full deep
litter system. When using cages, a floor dimension of 30 x 40 cm can accommodate at least three
birds and a maximum of five birds. .

6. Layers can be culled anytime during the production stage. Unproductive hens should be culled
(removed) from the flock as they will continually consume feed while not producing eggs. Signs
of an unproductive hen include pale and shrunken combs/wattles, thin and emaciated bodies,
inactive and dull appearance. Daily monitoring for the culling of birds should be done. Note: a
 high rate of culled birds is a sign of some management problem that needs to be addressed
immediately.

Pullet/Layers Feed Intake and Weight/Growth Chart

AGE (WEEK) AVERAGE BW AVERAGE FI CUMULATIVE FI AVERAGE WC

(kg/bird) (g/bird/day) (kg to date) (ml/bird/day)

1(SD) 0.065 14.5 0.1015 25.5

2 0.125 19 0.2345 38

3 0.19 24 0.4025 46.5

4 0.265 28 0.5985 56.5

5 0.36 35 0.8435 65.5

6 0.46 39 1.1165 71.5

7 (GD) 0.56 42 1.4105 78

8 0.67 47 1.7395 87

9 0.78 56 2.1315 93

10 0.89 54 2.5095 101

11 0.99 60 2.9295 109.5

12 1.08 64 3.3775 117.5

13(DD) 1.165 69 3.8605 124.5

AGE (WEEK) AVERAGE BW AVERAGE FI CUMULATIVE FI AVERAGE WC

14 1.23 72 4.3645 128.5

15 1.3 74 4.8825 133

16 1.37 77 5.4215 138.5

17 1.44 80 5.9815 146.5

18 (P.O.L) 1.52 85 6.5765 152.5

19 1.62 88 7.1925 161

20 1.68 94 7.8505 169.5

21 1.72 98 8.5365 176.5

22 1.77 102 9.2505 183.5

23 1.8 106 9.9925 188.5

24 1.84 108 10.7485 191

25 1.85 109 11.5115 192.5

26 1.86 110 12.2815 193.5

27 1.88 110 13.0515 193.5

AGE (WEEK) AVERAGE BW AVERAGE FI CUMULATIVE FI AVERAGE WC

28 1.89 110 13.8215 193.5

29 1.9 110 14.5915 193.5

30 1.9 110 15.3615 193.5

31 1.9 111 16.1385 195

32 1.91 111 16.9155 195

33 1.91 111 17.6925 195

34 1.91 111 18.4695 195

35 1.91 111 19.2465 195

36 1.92 111 20.0235 195

37 1.92 111 20.8005 195

38 1.92 111 21.5775 195

39 1.93 111 22.3545 195

40 1.93 115 23.1315 195

41 1.93 115 23.9085 195

42 1.94 115 24.6855 195

AGE (WEEK) AVERAGE BW AVERAGE FI CUMULATIVE FI AVERAGE WC

43 1.94 111 25.4625 195

44 1.94 110 26.236 195

45 1.95 110 27.006 193.5

46 1.95 110 27.776 193.5

47 1.95 110 28.546 193.5

48 1.95 110 29.316 193.5

49 1.95 110 30.086 193.5

50 1.95 108 30.856 193.5

51 1.95 108 31.626 193.5

52 1.95 106 32.396 193.5

53 1.95 104 33.166 193.5

54 1.95 102 33.936 193.5

KEY:
  Average BW= Average Body Weight
 Average FI= Average Feed Intake
 Cumulative FI= Cumulative Feed Intake
 Average WC= Average Water Consumption
 SD= Starter Diet
 GD= Grower Diet
 DD= Developer Diet
 POL= Point of Lay

Replacement Stage

The replacement stage involves two phases: pre-replacement and replacement phases. The pre-
replacement phase involves the ordering of baby chicks (replacement stocks) in a timely manner
to replace existing layers by the time they reach low productivity levels. Refer to the table below
which illustrates the egg production chart as based on the time period and percentage of
production. This phase is part of the brooding stage and it is an important farm management
practice if the objective is to maintain a consistent level of egg production. Replacement stocks
(baby chicks) should be ordered when existing layers are 80 weeks old. This will allow for
hatching and shipment preparation, and for the brooding-growing-pullet stages.

The second phase involves the actual replacement or culling of layers that are 72 or 120 weeks
old depending on the breed. Arrangements for the culling of the old birds should also be done in
a timely manner so as to avoid unnecessary feed expense. If old layers are kept for a few weeks
after replacement stocks are in place, a switch to a less costly feed is advisable.

Factors affecting egg production

Typically, a layer’s production cycle lasts just over a year (52-56 weeks). During the production
cycle many factors influence egg production; therefore, the cycle must be managed effectively
and efficiently in order to provide maximum output and profitability. The following factors are
general factors that influence egg productions in laying poultry birds.

1. Feeding
2. Quality of feed intake
3. Management issues
4. Genetic factors of the breed birds
5. Hen age at egg laying period
6. Diseases
7. Molting flock
8. Housing
9. Egg collection
10. Laying bird behaviors
11. Laying birds (hens) body weight
12. Climate
1. Feeding as a factors affecting eggs production in layers
Feeding is the first factor to be considered, generally when flock are fed with feed of high
nutritive value, they will surly produced good eggs of good quality.

The quality of the eggs depends largely on the green feed and the yellow corn or maize present in
the feed. The amount of thick and thin albumen an egg contains at the time it is laid is an
inherited characteristic and is not influenced by the feed.

Clean and cool water must always be available to avoid heat stress. Lack of water results in
reduced egg production. The amazing part of this is that, they will not eat much when the feed
has no taste. For maximum production of eggs, make feed available at all time for the birds.

2. Quality of feed intake is one of the factors affecting eggs production in layers
You cannot just be feeding your birds with any how feed and think they will produce eggs to
your expectation. Make available to your birds feed of high quality not quantity. There are some
essential elements that must be present in the feed, if they are absent you will not achieved the
maximum result from them.
The provision of adequate dietary minerals and vitamins is essential for good eggshell quality.
Similarly, as water quality varies from country to country and region to region, the role of
drinking water in mineral and trace elements supply should not be under rated.
3. Management issues is another factors affecting eggs production in layers
Management of the poultry compound is very important and contributes greatly to eggs
production in the farm. If the compound or the entire place it dirty, this will surly welcome some
agent that will have negative influenced on the birds. These agents include reptiles, outbreak of
diseases among others. Another thing is to make light available at all time, change the bulb if
they are not functioning, bird cannot eat in the darkness as this will result in low eggs
production. Chickens are to be expose to light so that they will produce more eggs and they reach
maturity age early when they have more light than less light.
4. Genetic factors of the breed birds as factors affecting eggs production in layers
Maximum production of high quality eggs starts with a closely controlled breeding program
emphasizing favorable genetic factors.
Sex Links are the most productive brown egg layers because they are a mix of two high
productive breeds. If you were to breed a very low productive chicken with a high productive
chicken, the next generation would not be nearly as productive as their high productive parent.
But if you were to cross a high productive breed with another high productive breed the next
generation would be just as productive as or more productive than their parents.
So when selection you pullet for commercial eggs production, do not hesitate to go for high
productive breed as this will produce more compare to the less productive once
5. Hen age at egg laying period as a factors affecting eggs production in layers
Age of laying birds determine the sizes of eggs produced, early starter lay more eggs of small
sizes. The sizes keep increasing as they are getting to more maturity in life, so this early eggs are
called starter eggs. The reason behind this is that they are not fully matured laying birds, with
time they will more and bigger eggs
6. Diseases as a factors affecting eggs production in layers
Diseases and parasites can cause losses in egg production. Some breeds of birds are resistance to
certain diseases which make them superior to those that are easily infected by many diseases.
More over if you want your laying birds for maximum production, do all you could to prevent
them against any kind of diseases. In case of any outbreak of diseases treat them immediately so
that their production will not be tampered with.
In addition, you would never want to breed an ill chicken they could pass the illnesses down to
future generations and you would have a constant battle in your hands.
Always raise the healthiest chickens together the more generations and that have healthy
chickens the more resistance they build up to diseases.

7. Molting flock as a factors affecting eggs production in layers

Molting or less feather is natural phenomenon common to all poultry laying birds regardless of
their species and breeds.
Molting is a sign of good health in the poultry farm, so you discover this in your farm, no
problem. As the birds are aging this process occur and the production begin to reduced, this is
natural, if this happen to your flock when aging, no need to be worried.
8. Housing is another factor affecting eggs production Layers
This is another important factor that affects eggs production in laying birds. If your hens are
comfortable and not stressed they will lay better.
.
9. Egg collection as a factors affecting eggs production in layers
Collecting eggs several times a day is important especially if you have birds that tend to go
broody. The more eggs that are in the nesting boxes and the longer they stay in there the more
birds may want to sit on them.
Collecting eggs many times a day also helps keep eggs clean, if there are too many eggs in one
nest box they could get broken and soil the other eggs.
10. Laying bird behaviors
Laying birds behaviors is also an important role in eggs production, as matter of fact is one of the
factors affecting eggs production in layers.
As mentioned earlier some birds love being broody. There are also ways to break a broody that
include isolation in a wire cage for several day or ice packs under her in the nest.
Another hen behavior that will put a dent in the eggs you are able to gather is egg eating. Egg
Eating is a very bad behavior that is hard sometimes impossible to break.
Sometimes eggs get broken accidentally and the chicken will eat it, that does not make them an
egg eater, but if they (layers) break the eggs purposely and eat them they are egg eaters.
One more behavior that can affect production is birds guarding the nesting boxes, some birds
might guard a nest and chase other birds off and make those birds lay elsewhere.
11. Laying birds (hens) body weight as a factors affecting eggs production in layers
Generally, optimum body weight during the laying period should be around 1.5 kg, although this
varies according to breed and species.
Underweight as well as overweight birds lay eggs at a lower rate. Proper management and the
correct amount of feed are necessary in order to achieve optimum body weight.
12. Climate:
The optimal laying temperature is between 11° and 26° C. A humidity level above 75% will
cause a reduction in egg laying. Figure 2 indicates the effect temperature has on egg production.

Temperature and its effects on egg production

Temperature Effects
(°C)
11 - 26 Good production.
26 - 28 Some reduction in feed intake.
28 - 32 Feed consumption reduced and water intake increased; eggs of reduced size
and thin shell.
32 - 35 Slight panting.
25 - 40 Heat prostration sets in, measures to cool the house must be taken.
40 and above Mortality due to heat stress.

 When the temperature rises above 28° C, the production and quality of eggs decrease.
Seasonal temperature increases can reduce egg production by about 10 %.

Minimum Space Requirements – Layers

The Impact of Space With the evolution of domestication of livestock by humans, it has now
become our responsibility to monitor and maintain their environment to minimize any stress that
may be caused by the difference between their natural traits and our need for efficiency. It is
important to understand the needs of a bird throughout production and ensure their surroundings
meet their requirements.

Cage Floor Space (Cage Layers): Cage Floor Space (Cage Layers) Layers housed in cage
systems need enough space to express natural behaviours. Understanding the floor space
requirements for each bird will allow the layers to express natural behaviours, as well as
allowing it the freedoms of nature with the protection of a controlled environment.

Bird Colour Max. Body Minimum Cage Floor Space (square)

Weight (grams) Inches 2
Centimetres 2
White 1700 67 432
Brown/black 1900 75 483

House Floor Space (Deep litter)

Like layers housed in cage systems, birds housed on the floor also need enough space to express
natural behaviours as well as enjoy the freedoms of nature within the protection of a controlled
environment.
Bird Colour Max. Body Minimum Cage Floor Space (square)
Weight (grams) 2
Inches /bird Centimetres 2/bird

White 1700 132 850

Brown/black 1900 147 950

Feed Trough

Space and Easy access to feed is one of the keys in maintaining a strong, uniform layer.
Producers should know the required feeder space per bird and use this as a tool to ensure each
bird has the feed access required to support bird health and production.

Bird Colour Max. Body Inches/bird Centimetres/bird

Weight (grams)

White 1700 2.8-3.9 7.0-10.0

Brown/black 1900 2.8-3.9 7.0-10.0

Water Space

As with the requirement of access to feed, the layer also needs to be able to consume an adequate
amount of water to support health and production. Providing the right number of nipples or cups
per cage will create a balance between the required amount of water and a fresh water supply.

Bird Colour Max Body Weight (grams) Birds per Nipple or Cup
White 1700 6-10
Brown/black 1900 6-10

Water-the Essential Nutrient

It is crucial for hens to have plenty of good quality drinking water - at all times. Water provided
to birds should be clear, tasteless, and free from contaminants. In addition to being a nutrient,
water also softens food and carries it through the body, aids in digestion and absorption, and
cools the body as it evaporates through the bird’s lungs and air sacs. Water helps remove waste,
lubricates joints, is a major component of blood, and is necessary medium for many chemical
reactions which help form meat and eggs.

Water and feed intake are linked. Limiting water access will cut feed intake and leads to
reduced growth and egg production. The water: feed ratio normally ranges from 1.5:1 to 2:1,
however; hot weather can increase that ratio to as high at 5:1. For example, a bird consuming
100 grams of feed per day will drink 150 to 200 mL of water per day. This is 150 – 200 L/1000
birds/day.
Monitor and record water consumption daily with a reliable water meter. A variation in
water intake can indicate problems with the flock. By recording the water consumption daily, as
well as checking the water nipples regularly, you can make sure that the flock has access to
enough water to support optimal health and performance - water requirements can vary and
depend on age, body weight, breed, and barn temperature.

Poor quality water can have an impact on gut health, digestion, nutrient use, growth, and
egg production. Check water quality (mineral and biological) at the source at least once per
year. Assess water quality within the pen at least every four months and disinfect as necessary.
Water line flushing should also be part of a regular routine to flush out any sediment in the lines
and to keep the water fresh.

Several water treatment options are available today. These include chlorination, hydrogen
peroxide, acidification, filtration and ultra-violet treatment. No one treatment is suitable for all
applications. Consult with a water treatment for more information on water quality for your
flock.

Factors Affecting Egg Size

Pullets

Pullet management has a lasting impact on egg size throughout the lay cycle. A low body weight
and uniformity when pullets are growing will result in low uniformity of egg weights.
Additionally, being under or over target weight at point of lay will have an impact on egg size.
Finally, many parameters relating to lighting will impact egg size, including the intensity, type of
lighting, and age at lighting.

Breed

All breeds have egg size expectations, which may or may not suit your layer operation. Consult
your hatchery and Feed Specialist for assistance in choosing the breed appropriate for your
operation.

Feed Intake

Feed intake during pullet growing, as well as throughout the laying cycle, impacts egg size. Feed
intake that is too low will hold back the egg size as the pullets come into lay, while too high of a
feed intake in the layer house will over stimulate egg size, which may lead to decreased shell
quality and health concerns.

Body Weight

Heavier laying hens will lay bigger eggs. Therefore, monitoring body weights throughout the
flock will enable you to track your flock weights to the breed’s target weights and allow you to
make the correct nutritional and management decisions required to control body weight and egg
size.
Protein (Amino Acids)

Increasing protein (amino acid) consumption will increase egg size. Decreasing protein (amino
acid) consumption will slow egg size increases. Caution in making decisions on changing protein
level in the feed is important as trying to lower protein too aggressively can result in lost egg
production.

Age: As a flock ages, egg size will also increase in all breeds.

Factors Affecting Shell Quality

Nutrition

Calcium Intake: Calcium supply is critical to support good shell quality. Birds require a
minimum of 4.3 to 4.5 grams of calcium per day depending on age, production, body condition,
skeletal integrity, and breed. If insufficient calcium is consumed, calcium for shell formation will
be taken from bone reserves. In the long-term, this can lead to shell problems and cage layer
fatigue. Layer Feeds are formulated to give the bird the required levels of calcium in the diet.
Provision of additional calcium should be programmed on the layer farm to supplement calcium
deficiency.

Layer Feeds manufacturers also provide a mixture of particle sizes to make up the calcium
component of the layer feeds. The large particle size calcium will be retained in the gizzard and
contribute to longer term calcium absorption. The small particle size calcium can be quickly
absorbed and utilized for egg shell production. This helps the bird maximize levels of calcium in
her blood and minimize the chance of poor egg shell quality

Phosphorus Intake: Phosphorus intake must be balanced against calcium intake to maximize
calcium utilization. Too little phosphorus causes problems with bone integrity, while too much
phosphorus can lead to excess calcium excretion and poor uptake leading to shell problems.
Available phosphorus levels are enhanced in the most layer Feeds with phytase - an enzyme that
increases phosphorus availability.

Vitamin D₃: Vitamin D₃ is vital to the formation of high quality egg shells because it plays a
crucial role in calcium and phosphorus uptake and bone formation. In addition to vitamin D₃,
Layer Feeds are also formulated with Hy-D™, which is a more available form of vitamin D ₃.
The combination of these two products helps the bird metabolize calcium more efficiently and
results in better egg shell quality.

Feed Management

Timing of Feed: There are many variations and options when it comes to feeder timing. For
optimum shell quality, ensure the feeders are run within two hours of lights out and make sure all
birds are full before lights out. This maximizes calcium levels in the bird over the long dark
period, especially if there is no midnight feeding.
Midnight Feeding: Midnight feedings will result in improved egg shell quality and increased
feed consumption. Egg shell quality is improved with midnight feedings because the calcium
consumption is increased and available to the bird during the period of highest calcium demand.
Egg shell formation takes place 18 to 20 hours prior to the egg being laid, during which time the
bird is depositing 2 to 3 grams of calcium on to the egg. The following table shows how much
the location and time required to add each component of the egg.

Location in Length of Time of Day 1 Components Being

Reproductive Tract Time Created
Infundibulum 15 minutes 8:00 AM – 8:15 AM Receives the yolk from
the ovary
Magnum 3 hours 8:15 AM – 11:15 AM yolk membranes laid on
the yolk and the albumen
deposited on the yolk
Isthmus 1 hour 11:15 AM – 12:15 PM Shell membranes laid on
the Albumen
Shell Gland(Uterus) Approx. 21 12:15 PM until egg Shell and pigments
hours laid (brown eggs only)
deposited

Typically, midnight feedings are implemented as 1 to 2 hours of light inserted into the middle of
the dark period in the layer house light schedule. The dark periods should be at least 3 hours in
duration and the first period of darkness should never be shorter than the second period. For
example, at 15 hours of light, you are providing the birds with 9 hours of dark. Therefore, a
logical time to insert an hour long midnight feeding would be 4 hours into the dark period, as this
means the first light period is not longer than the second dark period, as well as ensuring the dark
periods are each longer than 3 hours in duration.

midnight feeding

Dark-4 hours
Light-1hour

Dark-4hours Light-15hours
Mechanical Damage

Many eggs are lost due to simple mechanical damage to the shell during egg collection, transfers,
and packaging. Careful handling should be used at all times and more frequent collections can
help to reduce cracks in some situations.

Heat Stress

Heat stress leads to decreased shell quality, due to thinner and weaker shells. High temperatures
in the poultry house will cause a hen to pant, leading to a change in blood gas levels, which in
turn reduces the amount of calcium that the blood is able to deliver to the uterus for egg shell
formation. Increasing the amount of calcium intake does not correct this, as the blood simply
does not have the capacity to transfer that calcium to the uterus. Flushing waterlines, ensuring
adequate, cool water is available, increasing air movement in the pen, and making nutritional
adjustments will help the hen through a high temperature and humidity situation.

Age

Naturally, as the hen ages, shell quality begins to drop. To mitigate this challenge, Layer Feed
programs are set up to optimize egg shell quality as the flock ages.

Monitoring Layer Body Weights

Maintaining a schedule of weighing laying hens, starting in the first week after transfer and every
second week through peak production, is one of the keys to fine-tuning several variables in the
laying cycle. Information gleaned from these services can be used to make adjustments to pen
temperature, feeding times, and feed protein changes as necessary. Records kept on farm can
show trends in that particular facility and improve the timeliness of decisions being made in the
future. Once the flock has peaked, the key decisions being made will be driven by egg weights
and grades. Feed consumption will remain reasonably constant and body weight will continue to
increase slightly.

Points to Remember

There are many biological and environmental factors that can interact with genetics to influence
growth, feed consumption, egg production, and overall performance of laying hens. Responses to
improved nutrition are only achieved when such factors are not limiting performance.

Factors that stimulate body weight gain in laying hens:

 Decreasing the pen temperature gradually by 1.5°C

 Increasing the frequency of feeding times
 Increasing the feed crumb size
 Increasing the depth of feed in the trough
 Good static pressure and adequate ventilation
Factors that limit body weight gain in laying hens:

 Increasing the pen temperature gradually by up to 1.5°C

 Decreasing the frequency of feeding times
 Peak production
 Hot weather
 Poor ventilation

Production planning

On average a bird produces one egg per day. Furthermore, not all birds start to lay exactly when
they are 18 weeks old. Planning is therefore required for egg production to be constant so as to
meet market demand. A schedule similar to the one shown in Table 2, which indicates on
average satisfactory levels of production for a flock of birds, can be used.

In areas where the climate is hot and humid, commercial hybrid laying birds produce on average
between 180 and 200 eggs per year. In more temperate climates birds can produce on average
between 250 and 300 eggs per year. The table below illustrates a typical production schedule in a
hot and humid climate.

In Table 2 the age of the flock is shown in the first column and the percentage of birds that
actually lay during that week of age is shown in the second column. Usually at 20 weeks of age
only 2 % of the flock lay.

As shown in the third column, for 100 birds at 20 weeks of age only two would actually be
laying. In the fourth column the actual number of eggs produced is shown. On average a bird
produces 208 eggs over a twelve-month period, which is a weekly production rate of four eggs
per bird. At 21 weeks of age 20 eggs are produced (five birds produce four eggs each) and at 22
weeks 40 eggs are produced, etc.

The graph in Figure 3 shows the actual percentage of productive laying flock over a period of
time, and the graph in Figure 4 shows the number of eggs produced over a period of time for 100
birds. Egg production rises rapidly and then starts to fall after 31 weeks of age. If less than 65 %
of the flock are laying eggs, (71 weeks of age), it may become uneconomical to retain birds.
Feed costs and sales of culled birds for meat must be considered as well as prices for eggs. In
some instances when egg prices are high it may be viable to delay culling birds until only 45 %
of the flock is still producing eggs (78 weeks of age).

Table 2: Production schedule in tropical climate (100 birds)

Age of flock (in weeks) % of flock laying No. of birds laying No. of eggs produced per week
18 0 0 0
19 0 0 0
20 2 2 8
21 5 5 20
 22 10 10 40
23 18 18 72
24 34 34 136
25 52 52 208
26 65 65 260
27 74 74 296
28 84 84 336
29 88 88 352
30 92 92 368
31 94 94 376
32 - 39 88 88 352
40 - 47 83 83 332
48 - 59 77 77 308
60 - 64 73 73 292
65 - 70 70 70 280

Figure 3 - Percentage of productive laying flock over a period of time

Figure 4 - Number of eggs produced over a period of time
Clearly, egg production requires planning for costs as well as for profit generation and for
meeting market demand. Planning involves not only the number of eggs laid by the flock over a
period of time, but also when to hatch chicks to replace birds with diminishing laying capacity. If
production is to be kept constant, a simple chart as shown in Table 3, for example, will be
needed to plan when new chicks must be hatched so that they can be introduced to laying in time
to pick up on diminishing egg production.

Table 3
Production planning
Layer flocks 0 11 21 32 42 52 62 72 82
(......................... Time in weeks..........................)
1st layers Born Lay Born Lay Born
2nd layers Born Lay Born
3rd layers Born Lay Born

As indicated on the chart, the first layer flock was hatched at 0 weeks to become productive after
21 weeks. The second flock of layers was hatched at the 21st week to be ready to lay after the
42nd week, as the first layer flock starts to diminish production. This type of production
demands having flocks of layers of different age groups on the farm.

Clean and hygienic living quarters and surroundings are essential to control disease. There
should be no more than three or four different flock age groups present at one time. The
mortality rate on average should be between 20 and 25%.This means that if one want 100 birds
to lay, it may be necessary to buy between 120 and 125 small chicks.

Moulting Period

During this period, Birds go through a moulting, or feather dropping period. Moulting is a
natural process where birds renew their feathers. For layers, natural moulting normally occurs
towards the end of their laying cycle. However, natural moulting can take place during the laying
cycle due to hot and humid weather. If natural moulting occurs during the laying cycle, a
decrease in egg production will be experienced during this period.

Layers can also be “forced” to moult. Forced moulting is a cultural practice principally used in
cooler, more temperate areas. Studies have shown that forced moulting can improve the egg
laying capacity of layers in these areas. Forced moulting can also be used as a means to stop egg
production, for a brief period, when egg supplies are over abundant. The need to force-moult is
dictated by the economics of production (cost of feed vs. cost of eggs). Egg production can drop
down to zero during forced moulting. Once feed is restored, egg laying resumes at a higher
production rate than pre-forced moulting period. However, extreme caution must be practiced as
forced moulting can be detrimental to the flocks’ health and high death rates can occur. One
needs to seek the advice of the livestock extension agent or other poultry specialist when
considering the implementation of forced moulting.

Health Management
A flock of pullets or layers can only perform up to its genetic potential when disease influence is
minimized. The appearance of various diseases can vary from a subclinical effect on
performance to severe mortality. The diseases of economic importance vary widely between
locations, but in every case the challenge is to identify and control those diseases.

Removal of Dead

Birds Dead birds should be collected every day and properly disposed of by burning, burying,
composting, or by other appropriate means. They should be disposed of immediately to prevent
disease transmission to other birds. They should never be eaten or sold.

Disease Management

There are common diseases and health problems which poultry producers need to be aware of in
managing pullets and layers. The ability to identify these health problems during their early
stages of development can help prevent losses.

COMMON DISEASES FOR PULLETS & LAYING HENS

1. AVIAN INFLUENZA

Avian influenza is known informally as avian flu or bird flu. Bird flu refers to an illness caused
by any of many different strains of influenza viruses that have adapted to the specific host.
Highly pathogenic avian influenza (HPAI) is of greatest concern

Symptoms

 Sudden high mortality

 Decreased feed consumption
 Excessive thirst
 Respiratory distress (coughing, sneezing)
 Depression and ruffled feathers
 Sudden drop in egg production

Treatment

 There is no treatment. Antibiotics will help to control secondary bacterial infections.

 This is a reportable disease and strict biosecurity protocols must be followed
 Consult your veterinarian immediately
Prevention

 In case of endemic HPAI and/or LPAI vaccination might be allowed. Vaccination is

generally done with inactivated AI vaccines based on the strain H-type causing the
outbreaks.

2. CAGE FATIGUE

Cage fatigue results from the depletion of calcium from the bones and starts as soon as egg
production begins, its progress is minimised when birds have the correct balance of calcium,
Phosphorus, and vitamin D. High egg production, low feed intake, disease or other stresses can
lead to sudden bone loss, especially in less aggressive birds in the flock.

Affected hens become unable to stand in the cage and the birds will typically die from
dehydration or from suffocation when their rib cage collapses.

Symptoms

 Cage layer fatigue syndrome in birds is characterized by an inability to stand on their feet
and fragile bones.
 Affected birds lie down and stop eating.
 Egg shells become thin.
 Increased mortality
 Keel bone soft and pliable
 Drop in egg production

Treatment

 Supplementation of calcium, phosphate in the diet

 Multivitamin preparations ( especially vitamin D3) in the diet and drinking water
 Regulation of hens’ population density into cages and ensuring adequate nutritional and
drinking fronts also contribute to favourable outcome of the condition.

3. COCCIDIOSIS

Coccidiosis is caused by single-celled parasites of the genus Eimeria. In chickens, there are 9
species. The five most economically important species are: E. acervulina, E. maxima, E. tenella,
E. necatrix and E. brunetti. Other species can be highly pathogenic (E. mivati) but are less
ubiquitous.

Transmission: Feces containing sporulated Eimeria oocysts are the main means of transmission
between birds. The incubation period from ingestion to shedding of new oocysts is 4 to 7 days.
The incubation period from ingestion to shedding of new oocysts is 4 to 7 days. Clinical signs,
such as weight loss, may appear as early as 4-days post-ingestion of infectious oocysts, but
bloody droppings from E. tenella infection usually occur at 6 to 7 days post infection.
Symptoms

 Drop in egg production

 Clinical signs vary by the species infecting the flock. Some species, such as E. acervulina
and E. maxima have a severe negative effect on weight gain and feed conversion,
particularly E. maxima; these species do not cause obvious morbidity unless infection is
moderately severe.
 Mortality in field cases of these species is rare, unless complicated by secondary infection
with Clostridium perfringens (necrotic enteritis). Other species such as E.tenella,
E.necatrix and E.brunetti can induce sick and listless birds in combination with high
mortality.

Treatment

 Anticoccidials are given in the feed to prevent disease and the economic loss often
associated with subacute infection.
 Prophylactic use is preferred, because most of the damage occurs before signs become
apparent and because drugs cannot completely stop an outbreak.
 Therapeutic treatments are usually given by water because of the logistical restraints of
feed administration.
 Antibiotics and increased levels of vitamins A and K are sometimes used in the ration to
improve rate of recovery and prevent secondary infections.
 Most effective coccidiosis prevention and control programs depend upon flock immunity

4. FATTY LIVER SYNDROME (Haemorrhagic syndrome)

The fatty liver haemorrhagic syndrome (FLHS) is a widely prevalent sporadic disease mainly
among commercial layers. The FLHS outbreaks are often associated with hot weather and a
period of extensive egg-laying. The hens in the flock are overweight (on the average by 20% or
more) and excess fat is deposited in the liver .This causes the liver to become soft and more
susceptible to damage. Affected hens die suddenly when the liver ruptures, resulting in massive
internal haemorrhage.

Symptoms /lesions

 Sudden death in birds, with pale head skin.

 In the abdomen, large blood clots are detected.
 The liver is enlarged, pale and brittle.
 In other instances, the liver is yellow, greasy and soft

Treatment
  The only successful approach for prevention is the reduction of obesity in layers by
regulating the feeding.
 The use of diet supplements such as vitamin E, vitamin B12 and choline chloride gives
conflicting results.
 Use of fatty liver diet supplement could also help.
 The avoidance of heat stress and moulded forages could be also helpful.

5. INFECTIOUS BRONCHITIS

Infectious bronchitis is caused by a virus and is generally well controlled by vaccination during
the pullet growing phase. However, the virus is unstable and tends to mutate into new forms
against which the vaccines may be less effective. The disease does not typically cause mortality
in the flock, however it can impair growth and do permanent damage to the reproduction organs
in the pullet phase and it causes a drastic drop in production in the laying phase.

Transmission
 Infectious bronchitis is a very contagious poultry disease. It is spread by air, feed bags,
infected dead birds, infected houses, and rodents. The virus can be egg-transmitted;
however, affected embryos usually will not hatch.
 IB can be introduced through the importation of infected chickens or contaminated
husbandry material.

Symptoms

 Sudden rise in mortality, which persists for weeks or months

 Decreased in flock uniformity caused by inability of affected birds to reach feed and
water due to some degree of paralysis
 Delayed feathering
 Flat sided eggs

Treatment

• There is no specific treatment of infectious bronchitis.

• In kidney form of disease, administer electrolytes in the drinking water
• Antibiotics for 3–5 days may aid in combating secondary bacterial infections such as
E. coli and mycoplasma. Raise the room temperature 5°F for brooding-age chickens
until symptoms subside. Baby chicks can be encouraged to eat by using a warm,
moist mash.
Prevention and Control
• Killed and attenuated lived vaccines are commercially available, it seems that live
vaccines protect against a wider range of strains, although they can cause a mild
respiratory infection
• Once introduced IB is difficult to eradicate and require strict isolation of infected
premises and slaughtering of flocks
6. INFECTIOUS LARYNGOTRACHEITIS (ILT)
ILT is caused by a virus and most outbreaks are traced back to transmission by contaminated
people or equipment. The incubation period varies from 4 to 12 days. Birds are usually
vaccinated for ILT with an eye-drop vaccine and control of this disease has been very good.

Transmission

 LT is spread by the respiratory route. LT is also spread from flock to flock by

contaminated clothing, shoes, tires, etc. Birds that recover should be considered carriers
for life. LT may be harboured in speciality poultry such as exhibition birds and game
fowl.

Symptoms

 In the acute form of infectious laryngotracheitis virus, gasping, coughing bloody

mucous exudate, rattling, and extension of the neck during inspiration are seen 5–12
days after natural exposure.
 Birds extend their head and neck to facilitate breathing (commonly referred to as
“pump handle respiration”)
 Inhalation produces a wheezing and gurgling sound. Blood-tinged exudates and
serum clots are expelled from the trachea of affected birds. Many birds die from
asphyxiation due to a blockage of the trachea when the tracheal plug is freed
 Reduced productivity is a varying factor in laying flocks. Affected birds are anorectic
and inactive.

Treatment

 There is no specific treatment.

 Incinerate dead birds; administer antibiotics to control secondary infection.

Prevention
 Vaccinate replacement birds. Vaccination for LT is not as successful as for other disease,
but is an excellent preventive measure for use in outbreaks and in epidemic areas
 Vaccination of Individual bird administration by the eye-drop route is recommended for
effective vaccination of the birds. In small poultry flocks, use a swab to remove plug
from gasping birds, and vaccinate by eye-drop method.
7. MAREK’S DISEASE
Marek’s disease is a lymphomatous and neuropathic (tumour-causing) disease of domestic fowls.
It is caused by a virus called herpes virus. It is characterized by marked enlargement of the
nerves, or marked enlargement of the liver, spleen, and kidneys due to diffuse growth of certain
cells. It is economically important disease.
Although Marek’s disease has been effectively controlled by vaccine, sporadic and sometimes
serious losses still continue to occur from it. The disease therefore needs adequate attention. The
disease appears almost exclusively to confined female birds when they are approaching sexual
maturity, that is, between 17-20 weeks of age.

Transmission
 The virus can remain alive in the environment for as long as eight months. It is shed from
the feather follicles and spreads in fluff and dust, gaining entry when the bird breathes
infected dust particles. It is not spread from the hen to the chicken through the egg.
  The virus is highly infectious and, once it is present in a flock, it spreads rapidly to
unvaccinated poultry. Healthy birds can be carriers and infect others.
 If not already present, Marek's disease could be introduced by importation of live infected
birds, hatching eggs and poultry products such as meat and feathers. Appropriate heat
treatment can inactivate the virus.
 It is highly contagious and spreads through the air. Inhalation through the respiratory tract
is the most important route of infection
 Once contracted, the infection persists throughout the life of the fowl and infected birds
continue to contaminate the environment by shedding the virus.
 The virus survives for months outside the bird.

Symptoms

Marek's disease usually occurs in two forms: (1) Classical Marek’s disease (a neural form), and
(2) Acute Marek’s disease (a visceral form).
(1) Classical Marek’s Disease: In the nervous form it is particularly the brachial and sciatic
nerves that are affected. Signs include:
 Birds are unable to stand, become paralysed and slowly waste away from lack of food
and water.
 Wings or neck may be involved.
 A particularly posture is that in which the bird lies on its side with one leg stretched
forward and the other backward as a result of leg nerve involvement.
 Iris may be involved and it is associated with blindness.
 Mortality varies, but is rarely more than 10-15%

(2) Acute Marek’s Disease: Mortality in this form is usually much higher than the classical
form. Mortality of 10-30% of the flock is common. Many birds die suddenly without preceding
symptoms. The visceral form signs are less specific and include:

 Depression, Paralysis, Loss of appetite, Loss of weight, Anaemia (pale

combs), Dehydration (shrunken combs), and Diarrhoea.
 Death without any clinical signs being noticed
 Drop in egg production

Lesions

(1). In classical Marek’s disease, the characteristic finding is marked enlargement of one or
more nerves.
 The nerves commonly affected are sciatic and brachial. Affected nerves are up to 2-3
times the normal thickness
(2). Acute Marek’s disease is characterized by marked enlargement of the liver, spleen, kidneys,
lungs, gonads (ovaries and tests), proventriculus, and the heart
In young birds, liver enlargement is moderate, but in adult birds the liver is greatly enlarged
similar to that of Lympoid leukosis.
The other typical finding is a significant enlargement of the proventriculus. When opened , its
wall is greatly thickened and the internal lining shows irregular, blotchy haemorrhages quite
different from those in Newcastle disease.
 Generally, in the viscerous form, greyish-white tumours are found in the ovaries, liver,
spleen, kidney, heart and other organs. Sometimes the liver and spleen are swollen
without distinct tumours being present

Treatment

 There is no treatment for Marek;’s disease

Prevention and Control:
 control is based on management methods, which include:
(1) Enforcing hygienic measures and isolation of infected flocks
(2) Vaccination
(3) Use of genetically resistant stock
8. NEW CASTLE DISEASE

Newcastle is caused by a virus and this virus has many strains (mild, medium, and virulent or
strong).

Transmission

 The incubation period for this virus is 5 to 7 days. During that time birds are contagious
and shed the virus in their bodily fluids, breath and excretions.
 The Newcastle virus can be transmitted short distances by the airborne route or
introduced on contaminated shoes, caretakers, feed deliverers, visitors, tires, dirty
equipment, feed sacks, crates, and wild birds.
 Newcastle virus can be passed in the egg, but Newcastle infected embryos die before
hatching.
 Transmission can also be by respiratory route from nasal discharges, etc.
 Can also be transmitted by wild birds.

Symptoms
 In general, Newcastle disease is characterized by a sudden onset of clinical signs
which include wheezing (in chicks), watery discharge from nostrils, laboured
breathing (gasping), facial swelling, paralysis, trembling, and twisting of the neck
(sign of central nervous system involvement).
 Mortality ranges from 10 to 100% depending on the pathogenicity. In adult laying
birds, symptoms can include decreased feed and water consumption and a dramatic
drop in egg production or complete stoppage of laying
 depression, weakness, lying down, green diarrhoea, ending in exhaustion and death
Lesions
 Edema in the face is common
 Haemorrrhages on the tips of the glands of proventriculus
 Enlarged and haemorrhagic cecal tonsils
 Spleen shows necrosis (white spots of dead tissues) on the outer surface and also on the
cut surface
  Marked congestion of trachea, often with haemorrhages. The air sac may be inflamed (air
sacculitis) and appear cloudy and congested. Air sacs may contain cheesy material.
Treatment

 There is no specific treatment for Newcastle disease. Antibiotics can be given for 3–5
days to prevent secondary bacterial infections (particularly E. coli). For chicks, increasing
the brooding temperature may help reduce losses.
Prevention

 Disease can be prevented effectively by an integrated approach of vaccination, proper

management and strict biosecurity

9. PARASITES/ WORMS
1. BLACK HEAD (HISTOMONOSIS, ENTEROHEPATITIS)

Cause: A protozoan parasite, Histomonas meleagridis.

Transmission

 Direct transmission by infected water, feed, or droppings has been proved.

 Indirect transmission by infected eggs of the caeca worm.

Species affected: Chickens and turkeys and peafowl are natural hosts to blackhead infections.

Clinical signs and lesions

 Affected birds are depressed, stand or sit with ruffled feathers, and have yellowish
diarrhoea.
 Darkening of head parts, especially in turkeys, gave the name to the disease (black head).
Gross lesions include circular necrotic areas in livers with a crater-like centre and cheesy
cores in the caeca.
 Blackhead can cause high mortality, particularly in young turkey poults, but the disease
can also affect older birds.
 In chickens the mortality from blackhead infection is usually lower, young chickens
being the most susceptible.

Treatment: Treatment with protozoan chemotherapeutics is usually effective. Such drugs can
also be given at preventive levels in turkeys starter and grower feed. Growing turkeys on wire
and indoors can reduce the incidence of blackhead to a large extent, but even so, strict hygiene
and elimination of caecal worms are important control measures.
 2. COCCIDIOSIS

Cause: Coccidiosis is caused by single-celled parasites of the genus Eimeria. In chickens, there
are 9 species. The five most economically important species are: E. acervulina, E. maxima, E.
tenella, E. necatrix and E. brunetti. Other species can be highly pathogenic (E. mivati) but are
less ubiquitous.

Transmission: Feces containing sporulated Eimeria oocysts are the main means of transmission
between birds. The incubation period from ingestion to shedding of new oocysts is 4 to 7 days.
Clinical signs, such as weight loss, may appear as early as 4-days post-ingestion of infectious
oocysts, but bloody droppings from E. tenella infection usually occur at 6 to 7 days post
infection.

Clinical signs

 Clinical signs vary by the species infecting the flock. Some species, such as E. acervulina
and E. maxima have a severe negative effect on weight gain and feed conversion,
particularly E. maxima; these species do not cause obvious morbidity unless infection is
moderately severe.
 Mortality in field cases of these species is rare, unless complicated by secondary infection
with Clostridium perfringens (necrotic enteritis). Other species such as E.tenella,
E.necatrix and E.brunetti can induce sick and listless birds in combination with high
mortality.

Diagnosis:

 Diagnosis is based on clinical signs and post-mortem examination, including mucosal

scrapings of affected birds. E. acervulina is characterized by white spots on the mucosal
surface of the duodenum and upper middle intestine.
 These gross lesions can be scored according to methods described by Johnson and Reid
(1970 Exp Parasitol 28:30 – 36).

E. maxima is not easily characterized by gross lesions, although red petechiae on the serosal
surface of the middle intestine can sometimes be seen.

 Proper diagnosis requires microscopic examination of scrapings taken from the mucosa
of the middle intestine.
 Microscopic scoring systems for both E. maxima and E. acervulina have been described
by Fitz-Coy in Diseases of Poultry 12th ed. (p. 1070)

E. tenella, E. necatrix and E. brunetti can cause significant morbidity and mortality,
characterized by bloody droppings.

 Hemorrhages of the cecal mucosa or blood-filled ceca indicate E. tenella; with definitive
diagnosis made by mucosal scrapings that may reveal both asexual stages and oocysts.
  Significant swelling of the middle intestine with both tiny white spots and petechiae on
the serosal surface (“salt and pepper”) indicate E. necatrix.
 E. necatrix is further distinguished by the fact that it tends to affect flocks over 6 weeks
of age, although high challenge areas may result in clinical infections before 5 weeks of
age.
 Mucosal scrapings of the middle intestine will reveal only asexual stages (extremely large
schizonts), while the oocysts will be found in the ceca.

E. brunetti causes redness and hemorrhage in the colon, neck of the cecum and rectum, but
lesions are not diagnostic. Like E. maxima, mucosal scrapings should be viewed
microscopically.

Treatment and prevention

 Anti-coccidial chemicals effectively suppress sensitive Eimeria spp. populations, but

complete resistance to these drugs develops very quickly sometimes during a single flock
cycle.
 Therefore, most coccidiosis control programs do not rely on chemical anticoccidials.
Chemicals, particularly in liquid preparations, are largely used for treatment of clinical
outbreaks.
 Most effective coccidiosis prevention and control programs depend upon flock immunity.
 One method to develop controlled immunity is via feed medication with ionophore
antibiotics.
 The ionophores reduce coccidiosis multiplication, allowing natural immunity to develop
while preventing clinical outbreaks. Over time, the Eimeria field populations become less
sensitive to these medications, resulting in subclinical coccidiosis or even clinical
outbreaks before complete immunity can develop.
3. RED MITE

Cause: Blood sucking mite “Dermanyssus gallinae” that parasitize birds, Red mites are
obligatory but temporary nocturnal blood feeders, they visit their hosts at night and after
engorging blood for 30 to 60 minutes return to their hiding places.

Transmission: Chicken mites live in large colonies or clusters (sometimes multi-layered) near
the roosting or resting places of chicken and survive for more than 9 months.

Species affected: Chickens

Clinical signs: Blood loss leading to anaemia, irritation and stress due to disturbed sleep,
increased feed intake. Blood spots on eggs resulting in egg downgrading, higher infestations lead
to lowered egg production. Red mites can act as vectors for bacterial and viral diseases. In
humans skin irritations and itching allergies may appear.

Treatment: Insecticides, some products can be used in populated poultry houses against
Dermanyssus gallinae, some are only allowed after cleaning in an empty farm. Resistance of red
mites to used products can be a problem.
Control: Poultry house hygiene, whole flock replacement rather than partial culling. Cleaning
thoroughly after removing previous flock, avoid bringing in new mites: via egg cases, egg trays,
egg containers, transport equipment, passive transmission by people, vaccination crew, rodents
or wild birds.

4. WORMS

Cause: Worms living in the intestines of chickens fall mainly into four categories. Roundworms
(Ascarid), usually 5 to 7 cm (2-3 inches) long. Hairworms (Capillaria), only measure 1-1.5 cm
long. Caecal worms (Heterakis), usually 1.5 cm long .Tape worms (Raillietina, Davainea),
usually 7 to 10 cm long, consisting of many small segments.

Transmission: Round worms via worm eggs shed in the faeces, tape worms via shed of gravid
proglotids carrying eggs.

Species affected: Chickens and turkeys. Avain worms have a broad host range.

Clinical signs and lesions:

 Mature roundworms are not a major cause of disease, but the larvae can damage the
intestinal lining, causing enteritis, anaemia, decreased in egg size and production and at
times eggs with pale yolks. Decreased shell quality, Decreased yolk colour, Decreased
body weight gains, Stunted or uneven birds and Increased vent pecking
 Capillaria cause more damage to the intestinal lining and can cause enteritis and anaemia
with decreased egg production and the appearance of pale egg yolks (“platinum yolks”).

Caecal worms are found in the caeca and do not cause serious damage, except that their eggs
can transmit blackhead (histomonas) – mainly in turkeys.

Tape worms are infrequently found and do not cause serious damage, except that they use the
nutrients of the host chicken affecting economic performance.

Treatment: Roundworms and caecal worm infections can be treated with anthelmintics(eg
Piperazine, Fenbendazole). Piperazine is not effective against tape worms and capillaria for
which other anthelmintics are required.

Control: Prevent egg loading by strategic deworming and removing infected litter after each
cycle.

DEFICIENCY DISEASES

1. RIBOFLAVIN (VITAMIN B2) DEFICIENCY (CURLY TOE DISEASE)

Clinical signs: Young chicks, as early as 1-week-old, exhibit curling of the toes, inability to
walk and sometimes diarrhoea.
Treatment and control: Administering vitamin B preparations brings a rapid cure. Only in
advanced cases will birds be dehydrated and emaciated, requiring further treatment. It is
important to ensure adequate vitamin B levels not only in starter and grower diets, but also in the
diet of parent breeders.

2. VITAMIN D3 DEFICIENCY (RICKETS, “RUBBER LEGS”)

Clinical signs and gross lesions: Young chickens, 2 to 5 weeks of age, with vitamin D3
deficiency are unable to stand and have very soft, pliable, legs and beaks. The rib joints are
swollen like beads and curved inward, the breastbone often twisted. In layer chickens, vitamin
D3 deficiency causes soft-shelled eggs and a drop in production.

Treatment and control: Vitamin D3 can be given as treatment, usually in combination with
calcium and phosphorus.

3. VITAMIN E DEFICIENCY (CRAZY CHICK DISEASE,

ENCEPHALOMALACIA)

Clinical signs and gross lesions: Vitamin E deficiency in chickens affects the brain, causing
degeneration, edema and hemorrhage, especially in the small brain (cerebellum). Affected young
chicks appear unable to walk, they fall on their sides or stand with their heads between their legs.
The cerebellum shows gross swelling, with yellow or brown discoloration and pinpoint
hemorrhages may be observed. Encephalomalacia can also be found in mature chickens.

Treatment and control: An adequate level of vitamin E and selenium in the diet of chickens
and their parent breeders is of prime importance. Treatment of affected birds with vitamin E
preparations (alpha-tocopherol) is effective if the condition is not too advanced.

4. BEHAVIOURAL CONDITIONS: VENT TRAUMA / CANNIBALISM /

PROLAPSE

This is a complex multifactorial behavioural problem of poultry. Morbidity is usually low but
mortality is high among affected birds. Predisposing factors include overcrowding, excessive
light intensity or variation, high temperatures, nutritional deficiencies, tenosynovitis and other
diseases affecting mobility, boredom, and strain of bird

Vent pecking is an abnormal behaviour of birds performed primarily by commercial egg-

laying hens. It is characterised by pecking damage to the cloaca, the surrounding skin and
underlying tissue. Vent pecking frequently occurs immediately after an egg has been laid when
the cloaca often remains partly everted exposing the mucosa, red from the physical trauma
of oviposition or bleeding if the tissue is torn by her laying an egg. Vent pecking clearly causes
pain and distress to the bird being pecked. Tearing of the skin increases susceptibility to disease
and may lead to cannibalism, with possible evisceration of the pecked bird and ultimately, death.

Symptoms
 Increased mortality
  Bloody eggs in case of vent trauma
 Drop in production
 Pecking of feet and vents, head, face and wings
 Feather pulling
Treatment
 Correct any husbandry problems.
 Soluble multivitamins and /or methionine may be of benefit
 Beak trimming

Prevention
 Provide Proper density and temperature
 Control ectoparasites
 Provision of a diet to meet the nutritional deficiency

DISEASE PREVENTION MEETS BIOSECURITY

Good biosecurity protocols are essential to reducing the risk of poultry disease on your farm.
Having good biosecurity protocols in place will help prevent the financial and emotional toll that
happens during a disease outbreak. The time and economic impact a disease has on a farm can be
substantial and recovering from such an event is a slow process.
Understanding and maintaining good biosecurity protocols throughout the entire production
period will help prevent the spread of poultry disease and ensure high productivity and efficiency
is optimised on the farm.

POINTS TO REMEMBER
 Have a gate in the farm entrance
 Disinfect vehicle tires before entering the driveway
 Have a biosecurity area in the entrance of the farm
 Have spare coveralls, hairnets, boots, and gloves available for visitors
 Wear a different pair of boots and clothes and/or coveralls in the barn
 Have a foot bath station
 Limit/minimize visitors
 Be sure to have visitors sign the “Visitor's Log”
 Have visitors leave disposable coveralls on farm for you to dispose of
 Disinfect vehicle tires when leaving the driveway