TMC 4317 ENGINEERING ETHICS

Engineering Ethics is the activity and discipline aimed at

(a) Understanding the moral values that ought to guide engineering profession or practice,

(b) Resolving moral issues in engineering, and

(c) Justifying the moral judgments in engineering. It deals with set of moral problems and issues connected with
engineering.

Engineering ethics is defined by the codes and standards of conduct endorsed by engineering (professional) societies
with respect to the particular set of beliefs, attitudes and habits displayed by the individual or group.

SENSES OF ENGINEERING ETHICS

There are two different senses (meanings) of engineering ethics, namely the Normative and the Descriptive senses.
The normative sense include:

(a) Knowing moral values, finding accurate solutions to moral problems and justifying moral judgments in
engineering practices,

(b) Study of decisions, policies, and values that are morally desirable in the engineering practice and research, and

(c) Using codes of ethics and standards and applying them in their transactions by engineers.

The descriptive sense refers to what specific individual or group of engineers believe and act, without justifying
their beliefs or actions.

VARIETY OF MORAL ISSUES

It would be relevant to know why and how do moral issues (problems) arise in a profession or why do people
behave unethically? The reasons for people including the employer and employees, behaving unethically may be
classified into three categories:

1. Resource Crunch

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Due to pressure, through time limits, availability of money or budgetary constraints, and technology decay or
obsolescence. Pressure from the government to complete the project in time (e.g., before the elections),
reduction in the budget because of sudden war or natural calamity (e.g., Tsunami) and obsolescence due
technology innovation by the competitor lead to manipulation and unsafe and unethical execution of projects.

Involving individuals in the development of goals and values and developing policies that allow for individual
diversity, dissent, and input to decision-making will prevent unethical results.

2. Opportunity

(a) Double standards or behavior of the employers towards the employees and the public. The unethical behaviors
of World Com (in USA), Enron (in USA as well as India) executives in

2002 resulted in bankruptcy for those companies, (b) Management projecting their own interests more than
that of their employees. Some organizations over-emphasize short-term gains and results at the expense of
themselves and others,

(c) Emphasis on results and gains at the expense of the employees, and

(d) Management by objectives, without focus on empowerment and improvement of the infrastructure.

This is best encountered by developing policies that allow 'conscience keepers' and whistle blowers and appointing
ombudsman, who can work confidentially with people to solve the unethical problems internally.

3. Attitude

Poor attitude of the employees set in due to

(a) Low morale of the employees because of dissatisfaction and downsizing,

b) Absence of grievance redressal mechanism,

(c) Lack of promotion or career development policies or denied promotions,

(d) Lack of transparency,

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(e) Absence of recognition and reward system, and

(f) Poor working environments.

Giving ethics training for all, recognizing ethical conduct in work place, including ethics in performance appraisal,
and encouraging open discussion on ethical issues, are some of the directions to promote positive attitudes among
the employees9.

To get firm and positive effect, ethical standards must be set and adopted by the senior management, with
input from all personnel.

2.3 TYPES OF INQUIRIES

The three types of inquiries, in solving ethical problems are: normative inquiry, conceptual inquiry, and factual or
descriptive inquiry.

The three types of inquiries are discussed below to illustrate the differences and preference.

1. Normative Inquiry

It seeks to identify and justify the morally-desirable norms or standards that should guide individuals and groups.
It also has the theoretical goal of justifying particular moral judgments. Normative questions are about what
ought to be and what is good, based on moral values. For example,

1. How far does the obligation of engineers to protect public safety extend in any given situation?

2. When, if ever, should engineers be expected to blow whistle on dangerous practices of their employers?

3. Whose values ought to be primary in making judgment about acceptable risks in design for a public transport
system or a nuclear plant? Is it of management, senior engineers, government, voters or all of them?

4. When and why is the government justified in interfering with the organisations?

5. What are the reasons on which the engineers show their obligations to their employees or clients or the public?

2. Conceptual Inquiry

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It is directed to clarify the meaning of concepts or ideas or principles that are expressed by words or by
questions and statements. For example,

(a) What is meant by safety?

(b) How is it related to risk?

(c) What is a bribe?

(d) What is a profession?

When moral concepts are discussed, normative and conceptual issues are closely interconnected.

3. Factual or Descriptive Inquiry

It is aimed to obtain facts needed for understanding and resolving value issues. Researchers conduct factual
inquiries using mathematical or statistical techniques. The inquiry provide important information on business
realities, engineering practice, and the effectiveness of professional societies in fostering moral conduct, the
procedures used in risk assessment, and psychological profiles of engineers. The facts provide not only the reasons
for moral problems but also enable us to develop alterative ways of resolving moral problems. For example,

1. How were the benefits assessed?

2. What are procedures followed in risk assessment?

3. What are short-term and long-term effects of drinking water being polluted? and

4. Who conducted the tests on materials?

2.4 MORAL DILEMMA

2.4.1 Definition

Dilemmas are situations in which moral reasons come into conflict, or in which the application of moral values are
problems, and one is not clear of the immediate choice or solution of the problems.

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Moral reasons could be rights, duties, goods or obligations. These situations do not mean that things had gone
wrong, but they only indicate the presence of moral complexity. This makes the decision making complex. For
example, a person promised to meet a friend and dine, but he has to help his uncle who is involved in an accident
— one has to fix the priority.

There are some difficulties in arriving at the solution to the problems, in dilemma. The three complex situations
leading to moral dilemmas are:

1. The problem of vagueness: One is unable to distinguish between good and bad (right or wrong) principle. Good
means an action that is obligatory. For example, code of ethics specifies that one should obey the laws and follow
standards. Refuse bribe or accept the gift, and maintain confidentiality

2. The problem of conflicting reasons: One is unable to choose between two good moral solutions.

One has to fix priority, through knowledge or value system.

3. The problem of disagreement: There may be two or more solutions and none of them mandatory. These
solutions may be better or worse in some respects but not in all aspects.

One has to interpret, apply different morally reasons, and analyze and rank the decisions.

Select the best suitable, under the existing and the most probable conditions.

2.4.2 Steps to Solve Dilemma

The logical steps in confronting moral dilemma are:

1. Identification of the moral factors and reasons. The clarity to identify the relevant moral values from among
duties, rights, goods and obligations is obtained (conceptual inquiry).

The most useful resource in identifying dilemmas in engineering is the professional codes of ethics, as interpreted by
the professional experience. Another resource is talking with colleagues who can focus or narrow down the choice
of values.

2. Collection of all information, data, and facts (factual inquiry) relevant to the situation.

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3. Rank the moral options i.e., priority in application through value system, and also as obligatory, all right,
acceptable, not acceptable, damaging, and most damaging etc. For example, in fulfilling responsibility, the codes
give prime importance to public safety and protection of the environment, as compared to the individuals or the
employers (conceptual inquiry).

4. Generate alternate courses of action to resolve the dilemma. Write down the main options and sub-options as
a matrix or decision tree to ensure that all options are included.

5. Discuss with colleagues and obtain their perspectives, priorities, and suggestions on various alternatives.

6. Decide upon a final course of action, based on priority fixed or assumed. If there is no ideal solution, we arrive at
a partially satisfactory or 'satisficing' solution.

2.5 MORAL AUTONOMY

Moral autonomy is defined as, decisions and actions exercised on the basis of moral concern for other people and
recognition of good moral reasons. Alternatively, moral autonomy means 'self-determinant or independent'. The
autonomous people hold moral beliefs and attitudes based on their critical reflection rather than on passive
adoption of the conventions of the society or profession. Moral autonomy may also be defined as a skill and habit
of thinking rationally about the ethical issues, on the basis of moral concern.

Viewing engineering as social experimentation will promote autonomous participation and retain

one's professional identity. Periodical performance appraisals, tight-time schedules and fear of foreign competition
threatens this autonomy. The attitude of the management should allow latitude in the judgments of their
engineers on moral issues. If management views profitability is more important than consistent quality and
retention of the customers that discourage the moral autonomy, engineers are compelled to seek the support
from their professional societies and outside organizations for moral support. It appears that the blue-collar
workers with the support of the union can adopt better autonomy than the employed professionals. Only
recently the legal support has been obtained by the professional societies in exhibiting moral autonomy by
professionals in this country as well as in the West.

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The engineering skills related to moral autonomy are listed as follows:

1. Proficiency in recognizing moral problems in engineering and ability to distinguish as well as relate them to
problems in law, economics, and religion,

2. Skill in comprehending, clarifying, and critically-assessing arguments on different aspects of moral issues,

3. Ability to form consistent and comprehensive view points based on facts,

4. Awareness of alternate responses to the issues and creative solutions for practical difficulties,

5. Sensitivity to genuine difficulties and subtleties, including willingness to undergo and tolerate some uncertainty
while making decisions,

6. Using rational dialogue in resolving moral conflicts and developing tolerance of different perspectives among
morally reasonable people, and

7. Maintaining moral integrity.

2.6 MORAL DEVELOPMENT (THEORIES)

1. Kohlberg Theory

Moral development in human being occurs overage and experience. Kohlberg suggested there are three levels of
moral development, namely pre-conventional, conventional, and post-conventional, based on the type of reasoning
and motivation of the individuals in response to moral questions.

In the pre-conventional level, right conduct for an individual is regarded as whatever directly benefits oneself. At
this level, individuals are motivated by obedience or the desire to avoid punishment or to satisfy their own needs
or by the influence by power on them. All young children exhibit this tendency. At the conventional level, people
respect the law and authority. Rules and norms of one's family or group or society is accepted, as the standard
of morality. Individuals in this level want to please or satisfy, and get approval by others and to meet the
expectations of the society, rather than their self interest (e.g., good boy, good girl). Loyalty is regarded as
most important. Many adults do not go beyond this level.

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At the post-conventional level, people are called autonomous. They think originally and want to live by
universally good principles and welfare of others. They have no self-interest. They live by principled conscience. They
follow the golden rule, 'Do unto others as you would have them do unto you'. They maintain moral integrity, self-
respect and respect for others.

Kohlberg believed that individuals could only progress through these stages, one stage at a time.

He believed that most of the moral development occurs through social interactions.

2. Gilligan's Theory

Carol Gilligan found that Kohlberg's theory had a strong male bias. According to Gilligan's studies, men had a
tendency to solve problems by applying abstract moral principles. Men were found to resolve moral dilemma by
choosing the most important moral rule, overriding other rules. In contrast, women gave importance to preserve
personal relationships with all the people involved. The context oriented emphasis on maintaining personal
relationships was called the ethics of care, in contrast with the ethics of rules and rights adopted by men.

Gilligan revised the three levels of moral development of Kohlberg, as stages of growth towards ethics of caring.
The pre-conventional level, which is same as that of Kohlberg's first one, right conduct, is viewed in a selfish
manner solely as what is good for oneself. The second level called conventional level, the importance is on not
hurting others, and willing to sacrifice one's own interest and help others. This is the characteristic feature of
women. At the post-conventional level, a reasoned balance is found between caring about others and pursuing
the self-interest. The balance one's own need and the needs of others, is aimed while maintaining relationship
based on mutual caring. This is achieved by context-oriented reasoning, rather than by hierarchy of rules.

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2.9 MODELS OF PROFESSIONAL ROLES

Promotion of public good is the primary concern of the professional engineers. There are several role models to
whom the engineers are attracted. These models provoke their thinking, attitudes and actions.

1. Savior

The engineer as a savior, save the society from poverty, illiteracy, wastage, inefficiency, ill health, human (labor)
dignity and lead it to prosperity, through technological development and social planning. For example, R.L.
Stevenson.

2. Guardian

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He guards the interests of the poor and general public. As one who is conversant with technology development, is
given the authority befitting his expertise to determine what is best suited to the society. For example,
Lawrence of Arabia (an engineer).

3. Bureaucratic Servant

He serves the organization and the employers. The management of an enterprise fixes its goals and assigns the
job of problem solving to the engineer, who accepts the challenge and shapes them into concrete achievements.
For example, Jamshedji Tata.

4. Social Servant

It is one who exhibits social responsibility. The engineer translates the interest and aspirations of the society into
a reality, remembering that his true master is the society at large. For example, Sir

M.Viswesvarayya.

5. Social Enabler and Catalyst

One who changes the society through technology. The engineer must assist the management and the society to
understand their needs and make informed decisions on the desirable technological development and minimize the
negative effects of technology on people and their living environment. Thus, he shines as a social enabler and a
catalyst for further growth. For example, Sri Sundarlal Bahuguna.

6. Game Player

He is neither a servant nor master. An engineer is an assertive player, not a passive player who may carry out his
master's voice. He plays a unique role successfully within the organization, enjoying the excitement of the
profession and having the satisfaction of surging ahead in a competitive world. For example, Narayanamurthy,
Infosys and Dr. Kasthurirangan, ISRO.

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Ethical Theories/Approaches

Several ethical theories have been developed over different times, each of them stressing certain ethical
principles or features. Each stresses a view and many a times, we find that these theories converge and reinforce
the ethics, in deciding upon the actions and justifying the results.

1. Utilitarian Theory

The term Utilitarianism was conceived in the 19th century by Jeremy Bentham and John Stuart Mill to help
legislators determine which laws were morally best. They suggested that the standard of right conduct is
maximization of good consequences. Good consequences mean either 'utilities' or the 'balance of good over evil'. This
approach weighs the costs and benefits. Right actions are the ones that produce the greatest satisfaction of
the preferences of the affected persons. In analyzing an issue in this approach, we have to:

(a) Identify the various courses of action available to us.

(b) Ask who will be affected by each action and what benefits or harms will be derived from each.

(c) Choose the action that will produce the greatest benefits and the least harm. The ethical action is the one
that provides the greatest good for the greatest number.

The ACT UTILITARIAN theory proposed by J.S. Mill (1806-73) focuses on actions, rather than on general rules. An
action is right, if it generates the most overall good for the most people involved.

The RULE UTILITARIAN theory, developed by Richard Brandt (1910-97), stressed on the rules, such as 'do not
steal', 'do no harm others', 'do not bribe', as of primary importance. He suggested that individual actions are right
when they are required by set of rules which maximizes the public good.

The act utilitarian theory permitted a few immoral actions. Hence, there was need to develop rule utilitarian
theory to establish morality and justice, in the transactions. For example, stealing an old computer from the
employer will benefit the employee more than the loss to the employer. As per Act, utilitarian this action is
right. But rule utilitarian observes this as wrong, because the employee should act as 'faithful agent or trustee
of the employees'. In another example, some undisciplined engineers are terminated with the blame for the

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mistakes they have not committed.

The process is unfair although this results in promotion of overall good.

2. Duty Ethics

A. The duty ethics theory, proposed by Immanuel Kant (1724-1804) states, that actions are consequences of
performance of one's duties such as, 'being honest', 'not cause suffering of others', 'being fair to others including the
meek and week', 'being grateful', 'keeping promises' etc. The stress is on the universal principle of respect for
autonomy i.e., respect and rationality of persons. As per Kant we have duties to ourselves, as we are rational and
autonomous beings. We have a duty not to commit suicide; a duty to develop our talents and a duty to avoid
harmful drugs. Kant insisted that moral duties are categorical imperatives.

They are commands that we impose on ourselves as well as other rational beings. For example, we should be
honest because honesty is required by duty. A businessman is to be honest because honesty pays — in terms of
profits from customers and from avoiding jail for dishonesty.

B. On the other hand, the DUTY ethics theory, as enunciated by John Rawl, gave importance to the actions that
would be voluntarily agreed upon by all persons concerned, assuming impartiality. His view emphasized the
autonomy each person exercises in forming agreements with other rational people. Rawl proposed two basic
moral principles; (1) each person is entitled to the most extensive amount of liberty compatible with an equal
amount for others, and (2) differences in social power and economic benefits are justified only when they are likely
to benefit everyone, including members of the most disadvantaged groups. The first principle is of prime
importance and should be satisfied first. Without basic liberties other economic or social benefits cannot be
sustained for long. The second principle insists that to allow some people with great wealth and power is justified
only when all other groups are benefited. In the business scenario, for example, the free enterprise is permissible so
far it provides the capital needed to invest and prosper, thereby making job opportunities to the public and
taxes to fund the government spending on the welfare schemes on the poor people.

C.W.D. Ross, the British philosopher introduced the term prima facie duties, which means duties might have
justified exceptions. In fact, most duties are prima facie ones; some may have obligatory or permissible exceptions.

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Ross assumed that the prima facie duties are intuitively obvious (self-evident), while fixing priorities among duties.
He noted that the principles such as 'Do not kill' and 'protect innocent life' involve high respect for persons than
other principles such as, 'Do not lie' (less harmful).

This theory is criticized on the fact, that the intuitions do not provide sufficient guideline for moral duty. He has
listed various aspects of Duty Ethics that reflect our moral convictions, namely:

1. Fidelity : duty to keep promises.

2. Reparation : duty to compensate others when we harm them.

3. Gratitude : duty to thank those who help us.

4. Justice : duty to recognize merit.

5. Beneficence : duty to recognize inequality and improve the

condition of others.

6. Self-improvement : duty to improve virtue and intelligence.

7. Non-malfeasance : duty not to injure others.

3. Rights Theory

Rights are entitlement to act or to have another individual act in a certain way. Minimally, rights serve as a
protective barrier, shielding individuals from unjustified infringement of their moral agency by others. For every
right, we have a corresponding duty of noninterference.

A. The RIGHTS approach to ethics has its roots in the 18th century philosopher Immanuel

Kant, who focused on the individual's right to choose for oneself. According him, what makes human beings different
from mere things is, that people have dignity based on their ability to choose freely what they will do with their
lives, and they have a fundamental moral right to have these choices respected. People are not objects to be
manipulated; it is a violation of human dignity to use people in ways they do not freely choose. Other rights he

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advocated are:

1. The right to access the truth: We have a right to be told the truth and to be informed about matters that
significantly affect our choices.

2. The right of privacy: We have the right to do, believe, and say whatever we choose in our personal lives so long
as we do not violate the rights of others.

3. The right not to be injured: We have the right not to be harmed or injured unless we freely and knowingly do
something to deserve punishment or we freely and knowingly choose to risk such injuries.

4. The right to what is agreed: We have a right to what has been promised by those with whom we have freely
entered into a contract or agreement.

B. In deciding whether an action is moral or immoral, we must ask, does the action respect the moral rights of
everyone? Actions are wrong to the extent that they violate the rights of individuals; the more serious is the
violation, the more wrongful is the action. The RIGHTS theory as promoted by John Locke states that the
actions are right, if they respect human rights of every one affected. He proposed the three basic human rights,
namely life, liberty, and property. His views were reflected in the modern American society, when Jefferson
declared the basic rights as life, liberty, and pursuit of happiness.

C. As per A.I. Melden's theory based on rights, nature mandates that we should not harm others' life, health,
liberty or property. Melden allowed welfare rights also for living a decent human life. He highlighted that the
rights should be based on the social welfare system.

D. Human rights: Human rights are explained in two forms, namely liberty rights and welfare rights. Liberty
rights are rights to exercise one's liberty and stresses duties on other people not to interfere with one's freedom.
The four features of liberty rights (also called moral rights), which lay the base for Government Administration,
are:

1. Rights are natural in so far as they are not invented or created by government.

2. They are universal, as they do not change from country to country.

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3. They are equal since the rights are the same for all people, irrespective of caste, race, creed or sex.

4. They are inalienable i.e., one cannot hand over his rights to another person such as selling oneself to slavery.

The Welfare Rights are the rights to benefit the needy for a decent human life, when one cannot earn those
benefits and when those benefits are available in the society.

E. Economic rights: In the free-market economy, the very purpose of the existence of the manufacturer, the
sellers and the service providers is to serve the consumer. The consumer is eligible to exercise some rights9. The
consumers' six basic rights are: Right to Information, Right to Safety, Right to Choice, Right to be Heard, Right
to Redressal, and Right to Consumer Education.

A few rights are absolute, i.e., unlimited and have no justifiable exceptions. For example, rights ethicists view that
the rights have not been violated if the people purchase a (technological product) hang glider and they get
injured by flying them carelessly or under bad weather conditions. But human rights imply that one not to be
poisoned or killed by technological products, whose dangers are not obvious or wantonly hidden. They imply a right
to be informed, when the purchase was made, of the possible dangers during use or service (obtaining informed
consent).

Rights ethics is distinctive in that it makes human rights the ultimate appeal — the moral bottom line. Human
rights constitute a moral authority to make legitimate moral demands on others to respect our choices,
recognizing that others can make similar claims on us. Thus, we see that the rights ethics provides a powerful
foundation for the special ethical requirements in engineering and other professions.

4. The Virtue Theory

This emphasizes on the character rather than the rights or duties. The character is the pattern of virtues
(morally-desirable features). The theory advocated by Aristotle, stressed on the tendency to act at proper
balance between extremes of conduct, emotion, desire, attitudes to find the golden mean between the
extremes of 'excess' or 'deficiency'. The examples shown below illustrate the theory:

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On the other hand, the Virtue Theory proposed by Mac Intyre, highlighted on the actions aimed at achieving
common good and social (internal) good such as social justice, promotion of health, creation of useful and safe
technological products and services. Five types of virtues that constitute responsible professionalism, namely
public-spirited virtues, proficiency virtues, team-work virtues, self-governance virtues, and cardinal virtues.

5. Self-realization Ethics

Right action consists in seeking self-fulfillment. In one version of this theory, the self to be realized is defined by
caring relationships with other individuals and society. In another version called ethical egoism, the right action
consists in always promoting what is good for oneself. No caring and society relationships are assumed.

6. Justice (Fairness) Theory

The justice or fairness approach to ethics has its roots in the teachings of the ancient Greek philosopher Aristotle,
who said that "equals should be treated equally and unequals unequally." The basic moral question in this
approach is: How fair is an action? Does it treat everyone in the same way, or does it show favoritism and
discrimination? Issues create controversies simply because we do not bother to check the fairness or justice.

Favoritism gives benefits to some people without a justifiable reason for singling them out; discrimination imposes
burdens on people who are no different from those on whom burdens are not imposed. Both favoritism and
discrimination are unjust and wrong.

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