Huma Values and Professional Ethics Unit-II: Engineering Ethics Page [1]

Unit-II
Engineering Ethics: Senses of Engineering Ethics; Variety of moral issued; Types of inquiry; Moral
dilemmas; Moral autonomy; Kohlberg’s theory; Gilligan’s theory; Consensus and controversy;
Models of professional roles-Theories about right action; Self-interest; Customs and religion; Uses
of Ethical theories; Valuing time; Cooperation; Commitment
2.0 OVERVIEW
Engineering Ethics is the activity and discipline aimed at
(a) understanding the moral values that ought to guide engineering profession or practice,
(b) resolving moral issues in engineering, and
(c) justifying the moral judgments in engineering. It deals with set of moral problems and issues
connected with engineering.
Engineering ethics is defined by the codes and standards of conduct endorsed by engineering
(professional) societies with respect to the particular set of beliefs, attitudes and habits
displayed by the individual or group.
Another important goal of engineering ethics is the discovery of the set of justified moral
principles of obligation, rights and ideals that ought to be endorsed by the engineers and apply
them to concrete situations. Engineering is the largest profession and the decisions and actions
of engineers affect all of us in almost all areas of our lives, namely public safety, health, and
welfare.
2.0 Scope
The scope of engineering ethics is twofold:
1. Ethics of the workplace which involves the co-workers and employees in an
organization.
2. Ethics related to the product or work which involves the transportation, warehousing,
and use, besides the safety of the end product and the environment outside the factory.
2.02 Approach
There are conventionally two approaches in the study of ethics:
1. Micro-ethics which deals with decisions and problems of individuals, professionals,
and companies.
2. Macro-ethics which deals with the societal problems on a regional/national level. For
example, global issues, collective responsibilities of groups such as professional societies
and consumer groups.
2.1 SENSES OF ENGINEERING ETHICS
There are two different senses (meanings) of engineering ethics, namely the Normative and the
Descriptive senses. The normative sense include:
a) Knowing moral values, finding accurate solutions to moral problems and justifying
moral judgments in engineering practices,
b) Study of decisions, policies, and values that are morally desirable in the engineering
practice and research, and
c) Using codes of ethics and standards and applying them in their transactions by
engineers.
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The descriptive sense refers to what specific individual or group of engineers believe and
act, without justifying their beliefs or actions.
2.2 VARIETY OF MORAL ISSUES
It would be relevant to know why and how do moral issues (problems) arise in a
profession or why do people behave unethically? The reasons for people including the
employer and employees, behaving unethically may be classified into three categories:
1. Resource Crunch
Due to pressure, through time limits, availability of money or budgetary constraints,
and technology decay or obsolescence. Pressure from the government to complete the project
in time (e.g., before the elections), reduction in the budget because of sudden war or natural
calamity (e.g., Tsunami) and obsolescence due technology innovation by the competitor lead to
manipulation and unsafe and unethical execution of projects.
Involving individuals in the development of goals and values and developing policies
that allow for individual diversity, dissent, and input to decision-making will prevent
unethical results.
2. Opportunity
a) Double standards or behavior of the employers towards the employees and the public.
The unethical behaviors of World Com (in USA), Enron (in USA as well as India)
executives in 2002 resulted in bankruptcy for those companies,
b) Management projecting their own interests more than that of their employees. Some
organizations over-emphasize short-term gains and results at the expense of themselves
and others,
c) Emphasis on results and gains at the expense of the employees, and
d) Management by objectives, without focus on empowerment and improvement of
the infrastructure.
This is best encountered by developing policies that allow ‘conscience keepers’ and whistle
blowers and appointing ombudsman, who can work confidentially with people to solve the
unethical problems internally.
3. Attitude
Poor attitude of the employees set in due to
a) Low morale of the employees because of dissatisfaction and downsizing,
b) Absence of grievance redressal mechanism,
c) Lack of promotion or career development policies or denied promotions, (d) Lack of
transparency,
d) Absence of recognition and reward system, and
e) Poor working environments.
Giving ethics training for all, recognizing ethical conduct in work place, including
ethics in performance appraisal, and encouraging open discussion on ethical issues, are some
of the directions to promote positive attitudes among the employees. To get firm and positive
effect, ethical standards must be set and adopted by the senior management, with input from all
personnel.
2.3 TYPES OF INQUIRIES
The three types of inquiries, in solving ethical problems are: normative inquiry,
conceptual inquiry, and factual or descriptive inquiry.
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The three types of inquiries are discussed below to illustrate the differences and preference.
1. Normative Inquiry
It seeks to identify and justify the morally-desirable norms or standards that should guide
individuals and groups. It also has the theoretical goal of justifying particular moral judgments.
Normative questions are about what ought to be and what is good, based on moral values. For
example,
1. How far does the obligation of engineers to protect public safety extend in any given
situation?
2. When, if ever, should engineers be expected to blow whistle on dangerous practices of
their employers?
3. Whose values ought to be primary in making judgment about acceptable risks in
design for a public transport system or a nuclear plant? Is it of management, senior
engineers, government, voters or all of them?
4. When and why is the government justified in interfering with the organisations?
5. What are the reasons on which the engineers show their obligations to their employees
or clients or the public?
2. Conceptual Inquiry
It is directed to clarify the meaning of concepts or ideas or principles that are expressed by
words or by questions and statements. For example,
a) What is meant by safety?
b) How is it related to risk?
c) What is a bribe?
d) What is a profession?
When moral concepts are discussed, normative and conceptual issues are closely
interconnected.
3. Factual or Descriptive Inquiry
It is aimed to obtain facts needed for understanding and resolving value issues. Researchers
conduct factual inquiries using mathematical or statistical techniques. The inquiry provide
important information on business realities, engineering practice, and the effectiveness of
professional societies in fostering moral conduct, the procedures used in risk assessment, and
psychological profiles of engineers. The facts provide not only the reasons for moral problems
but also enable us to develop alterative ways of resolving moral problems. For example,
1. How were the benefits assessed?
2. What are procedures followed in risk assessment?
3. What are short-term and long-term effects of drinking water being polluted? and
4. Who conducted the tests on materials?

2.4 MORAL DILEMMA

2.4.1 Definition
Dilemmas are situations in which moral reasons come into conflict, or in which the
application of moral values are problems, and one is not clear of the immediate choice or
solution of the problems. Moral reasons could be rights, duties, goods or obligations. These
situations do not mean that things had gone wrong, but they only indicate the presence of moral
complexity. This makes the decision-making complex. For example, a person promised to
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meet a friend and dine, but he has to help his uncle who is involved in an accident — one has
to fix the priority.
There are some difficulties in arriving at the solution to the problems, in dilemma. The
three complex situations leading to moral dilemmas are:
1. The problem of vagueness: One is unable to distinguish between good and bad (right
or wrong) principle. Good means an action that is obligatory. For example, code of
ethics specifies that one should obey the laws and follow standards. Refuse bribe or
accept the gift, and maintain confidentiality
2. The problem of conflicting reasons: One is unable to choose between two good moral
solutions. One has to fix priority, through knowledge or value system.
3. The problem of disagreement: There may be two or more solutions and none of them
mandatory. These solutions may be better or worse in some respects but not in all
aspects. One has to interpret, apply different morally reasons, and analyze and rank
the decisions. Select the best suitable, under the existing and the most probable
conditions.
2.4.2 Steps to Solve Dilemma
The logical steps in confronting moral dilemma are:
1. Identification of the moral factors and reasons. The clarity to identify the relevant
moral values from among duties, rights, goods and obligations is obtained (conceptual
inquiry). The most useful resource in identifying dilemmas in engineering is the
professional codes of ethics, as interpreted by the professional experience. Another
resource is talking with colleagues who can focus or narrow down the choice of values.
2. Collection of all information, data, and facts (factual inquiry) relevant to the situation.
3. Rank the moral options i.e., priority in application through value system, and also as
obligatory, all right, acceptable, not acceptable, damaging, and most damaging etc. For
example, in fulfilling responsibility, the codes give prime importance to public safety
and protection of the environment, as compared to the individuals or the employers
(conceptual inquiry).
4. Generate alternate courses of action to resolve the dilemma. Write down the main
options and sub-options as a matrix or decision tree to ensure that all options are
included.
5. Discuss with colleagues and obtain their perspectives, priorities, and suggestions on
various alternatives.
6. Decide upon a final course of action, based on priority fixed or assumed. If there is no
ideal solution, we arrive at a partially satisfactory or ‘satisficing’ solution.
2.5 MORAL AUTONOMY
Moral autonomy is defined as, decisions and actions exercised on the basis of moral
concern for other people and recognition of good moral reasons. Alternatively, moral
autonomy means ‘self-determinant or independent’. The autonomous people hold moral beliefs
and attitudes based on their critical reflection rather than on passive adoption of the conventions
of the society or profession. Moral autonomy may also be defined as a skill and habit of
thinking rationally about the ethical issues, on the basis of moral concern.
Viewing engineering as social experimentation will promote autonomous participation
and retain one’s professional identity. Periodical performance appraisals, tight-time schedules
and fear of foreign competition threatens this autonomy. The attitude of the management
should allow latitude in the judgments of their engineers on moral issues. If management views
profitability is more important than consistent quality and retention of the customers that
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discourage the moral autonomy, engineers are compelled to seek the support from their
professional societies and outside organizations for moral support. It appears that the blue-
collar workers with the support of the union can adopt better autonomy than the employed
professionals. Only recently the legal support has been obtained by the professional societies
in exhibiting moral autonomy by professionals in this country as well as in the West.
The engineering skills related to moral autonomy are listed as follows:
1. Proficiency in recognizing moral problems in engineering and ability to distinguish
as well as relate them to problems in law, economics, and religion,
2. Skill in comprehending, clarifying, and critically-assessing arguments on different
aspects of moral issues,
3. Ability to form consistent and comprehensive view points based on facts,
4. Awareness of alternate responses to the issues and creative solutions for practical
difficulties,
5. Sensitivity to genuine difficulties and subtleties, including willingness to undergo and
tolerate some uncertainty while making decisions,
6. Using rational dialogue in resolving moral conflicts and developing tolerance of
different perspectives among morally reasonable people, and
7. Maintaining moral integrity.
Autonomy which is the independence in making decisions and actions, is different from
authority. Authority provides freedom for action, specified within limits, depending on the
situation. Moral autonomy and respect for authority can coexist. They are not against each
other. If the authority of the engineer and the moral autonomy of the operator are in conflict,
a consensus is obtained by the two, upon discussion and mutual understanding their limits.

2.6 MORAL DEVELOPMENT (THEORIES)

1. Kohlberg Theory
Moral development in human being occurs overage and experience. Kohlberg
suggested there are three levels of moral development, namely pre-conventional, conventional,
and post-conventional, based on the type of reasoning and motivation of the individuals in
response to moral questions.
In the pre-conventional level, right conduct for an individual is regarded as whatever
directly benefits oneself. At this level, individuals are motivated by obedience or the desire to
avoid punishment or to satisfy their own needs or by the influence by power on them. All
young children exhibit this tendency. At the conventional level, people respect the law and
authority. Rules and norms of one’s family or group or society is accepted, as the standard of
morality. Individuals in this level want to please or satisfy, and get approval by others and to
meet the expectations of the society, rather than their self interest (e.g., good boy, good girl).
Loyalty is regarded as most important. Many adults do not go beyond this level.
At the post-conventional level, people are called autonomous. They think originally
and want to live by universally good principles and welfare of others. They have no self-
interest. They live by principled conscience. They follow the golden rule, ‘Do unto others as
you would have them do unto you’. They maintain moral integrity, self-respect and respect
for others. Kohlberg believed that individuals could only progress through these stages, one
stage at a time. He believed that most of the moral development occurs through social
interactions.
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2. Gilligan’s Theory
Carol Gilligan found that Kohlberg’s theory had a strong male bias. According to
Gilligan’s studies, men had a tendency to solve problems by applying abstract moral principles.
Men were found to resolve moral dilemma by choosing the most important moral rule,
overriding other rules. In contrast, women gave importance to preserve personal relationships
with all the people involved. The context-oriented emphasis on maintaining personal
relationships was called the ethics of care, in contrast with the ethics of rules and rights
adopted by men.
Gilligan revised the three levels of moral development of Kohlberg, as stages of growth
towards ethics of caring. The pre-conventional level, which is same as that of Kohlberg’s first
one, right conduct, is viewed in a selfish manner solely as what is good for oneself. The second
level called conventional level, the importance is on not hurting others, and willing to sacrifice
one’s own interest and help others. This is the characteristic feature of women. At the post-
conventional level, a reasoned balance is found between caring about others and pursuing the
self-interest. The balance one’s own need and the needs of others, is aimed while maintaining
relationship based on mutual caring. This is achieved by context-oriented reasoning, rather
than by hierarchy of rules.
The theories of moral development by Kohlberg and Gilligan differ in the following respects.
Kohlberg’s Theory Carol Gilligan’s Theory
A. Basic Aspects
1. Is based on the study on men. 1. Is based on the study on men and women.
2. Men give importance to moral rule. 2. Women always want to keep up the personal
3. Ethics of rules and rights. relationships with all the persons involved in
the situations.
3. Women give attention to circumstances
leading to critical situations rather than rules:
(context-oriented and ethics of care)
B. Characteristic Features
1. Justice 1. Reason
2. Factual 2. Emotional
3. Right or wrong 3. Impact on relationships
4. Logic only 4. Compassion too
5. Logic and rule-based 5. Caring and concern
6. Less of caring 6. More of caring
7. Matter of fact (practical) 7. Abstract
8. Present focus 8. Future focus
9. Strict rules 9. Making exceptions
10. Independence 10. Dependence
11. Rigid 11. Human-oriented
12. Taking a commanding role 12. Shying away from decision-making
13. Transactional approach 13. Transformational approach

The difference in these two theories is explained through the well-known example,
Heinz’s dilemma. Heinz being poor and a debtor could not buy the costly medicine for his sick
wife, at ten times the normal cost. Initially he begged the Pharmacist to sell at half the price or
allow him to pay for it later. Pharmacist refused to oblige him either way. Finally, he forcibly
entered the Pharmacy and stole the drug.
According to Kohlberg study, men observed that the theft was morally ‘wrong’ at the
conventional level, because the property right was violated. But men at the post-conventional
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level, concluded that the theft was ‘right’, as the life of the human being was in danger. But
women observed that Heinz was wrong. They observed that instead of stealing he could have
tried other solutions (threatening or payment in installments?) to convince the Pharmacist.
Gilligan however attributed the decision by women as context-oriented and not on the basis
of rules ranked in the order of priority.

2.7 CONSENSUS AND CONTROVERSY

In the study of moral autonomy, consensus and controversy are relevant factors to discuss on,
Consensus means agreement and controversy means conflict or disagreement. In exercising
moral autonomy, one is not likely to obtain the same results as by others. This situation is likely
to end in a controversy. In this case, good amount of tolerance among the individuals who are
autonomous, reasonable and responsible is necessary. This does not mean forcing the engineers
to reach unique moral solutions. Many reasonable solutions are possible to a given ethical
problem.
The ethics make the engineers realize the importance of tolerance among them, in case of
disagreement while applying moral autonomy.
2.8 PROFESSION
2.8.1 Definitions
PROFESSION is defined as any occupation/job/vocation that requires advanced
expertise (skills and knowledge), self-regulation, and concerted service to the public good. It
brings a high status, socially and economically. The characteristics of a profession are:
1. Advanced expertise: Many professions require sophisticated skills (do-how) and
theoretical knowledge (know-how and why). Formal education, training, continuing
education, updating are needed.
2. Self-regulation: Professional societies play important role in setting standards for
admission to profession, drafting codes of ethics, enforcing standards of conduct, and
representing the profession before the public and the government.
3. Public good: The occupation provides some important public good, by concerted
efforts to maintain ethical standards. For example, a physician promotes health, a
lawyer protects the legal rights, an engineer provides a product or a project for use by
the public towards their health, welfare, and safety. Teaching is also claimed as a
profession as it helps shaping and training the minds of the students, young as well as
old. Some argue that jobs such as carpenter, barbers, porters, and drivers are to be
recognized as professions. It is open for discussion. Such things cannot be decided by
referring to dictionary alone. A thorough analysis of the activities expected of these
jobs is to be made and checkcd with explanation of the requirements of a profession
bcfore deciding it as profession.
For example, having been engaged for driving one's vehicle is not a profession. But an
ace driver who is engaged by a travel agency to drive different types of cars for tourists
extends courtesy to the customers, requires education, expertise (a valid driving
license), and respect to the public. His job may be termed as a profession. A mercenary
is not a professional as he acts against public good
PROFESSIONAL relates to a person or any work that a person does on profession, and which
requires expertise (skills and knowledge), self-regulation and results in public good.
The term professional means a 'person' as well as a 'status'.
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PROFESSIONALISM: It is the status of a professional which implies certain attitudes or

typical qualities that are expected of a professional. According to Macintyre, professionalism
is defined as the services related to achieving the public good, in addition to the practices of
the knowledge of moral ideals.
The criteria for achieving and sustaining professional status or professionalism are: Advanced
expertise: The expertise includes sophisticated skills and theoretical knowledge in exercising
judgment. This means a professional should analyse the problem in specific known area, in an
objective manner.
1. Self-regulation: One should analyse the problem independent of self-interest and direct
to a decision towards the best interest of the clients/customers. An autonomous judgment
(unbiased and on merits only) is expected. In such situations, the codes of conduct of
professional societies are followed as guidance.
2. Public good: One should not be a mere paid employee of an individual or a teaching
college or manufacturing organization, to execute whatever the employer wants one to
do. The job should be recognised by the public. The concerted efforts in the job should
be towards promotion of the welfare, safety, and health of the public.

2.8.2 Characteristics
The characteristics of the ‘profession’ as distinct from ‘non-professional occupation’ are listed
as follows:
1. Extensive Training
Entry into the profession requires an extensive period of training of intellectual (competence)
and moral (integrity) character. The theoretical base is obtained through formal education,
usually in an academic institution. It may be a Bachelor degree from a college or university or
an advanced degree conferred by professional schools.
2. Knowledge and Skills
Knowledge and skills (competence) are necessary for the well-being of the society. Knowledge
of physicians protects us from disease and restores health. The lawyer’s knowledge is useful
when we are sued of a crime, or if our business is to be merged or closed or when we buy a
property. The Chartered Accountant’s knowledge is important for the success of recording
financial transactions or when we file the income return. The knowledge, study, and research
of the engineers are required for the safety of the air plane, for the technological advances and
for national defense.
3. Monopoly
The monopoly control is achieved in two ways:
(a) the profession convinces the community that only those who have graduated from the
professional school should be allowed to hold the professional title. The profession also gains
control over professional schools by establishing accreditation standards
(b) By persuading the community to have a licensing system for those who want to enter the
profession. If practicing without license, they are liable to pay penalties.
4. Autonomy in Workplace
Professionals engaged in private practice have considerable freedom in choosing their clients or
patients. Even the professionals working in large organizations exercise a large degree of
impartiality, creativity and discretion (care with decision and communication) in carrying their
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responsibilities. Besides this, professionals are empowered with certain rights to establish their
autonomy.
Accordingly, physicians must determine the most appropriate medical treatments for their
patients and lawyers must decide on the most successful defense for their clients. The
possession of specialized knowledge is thus a powerful defense of professional autonomy.
5. Ethical Standards
Professional societies promulgate the codes of conduct to regulate the professionals against
their abuse or any unethical decisions and actions (impartiality, responsibility) affecting the
individuals or groups or the society.

2.9 MODELS OF PROFESSIONAL ROLES

Promotion of public good is the primary concern of the professional engineers. There are
several role models to whom the engineers are attracted. These models provoke their thinking,
attitudes and actions.
1. Savior: The engineer as a savior, save the society from poverty, illiteracy, wastage,
inefficiency, ill health, human (labor) dignity and lead it to prosperity, through technological
development and social planning. For example, R.L. Stevenson.
2. Guardian: He guards the interests of the poor and general public. As one who is conversant
with technology development, is given the authority befitting his expertise to determine what
is best suited to the society. For example, Lawrence of Arabia (an engineer).
3. Bureaucratic Servant: He serves the organization and the employers. The management of
an enterprise fixes its goals and assigns the job of problem solving to the engineer, who accepts
the challenge and shapes them into concrete achievements. For example, Jamshedji Tata.
4. Social Servant: It is one who exhibits social responsibility. The engineer translates the
interest and aspirations of the society into a reality, remembering that his true master is the
society at large. For example, Sir M.Viswesvarayya.
5. Social Enabler and Catalyst: One who changes the society through technology. The
engineer must assist the management and the society to understand their needs and make
informed decisions on the desirable technological development and minimize the negative
effects of technology on people and their living environment. Thus, he shines as a social
enabler and a catalyst for further growth. For example, Sri Sundarlal Bahuguna.
6. Game Player: He is neither a servant nor master. An engineer is an assertive player, not a
passive player who may carry out his master’s voice. He plays a unique role successfully
within the organization, enjoying the excitement of the profession and having the satisfaction
of surging ahead in a competitive world. For example, Narayanamurthy, Infosys and Dr.
Kasthurirangan, ISRO
2.10 RESPONSIBILITY
2.10.1 Senses
There are different senses of responsibility, such as:
1. Characteristic Quality: Primarily responsibility implies duty with care and efforts.
2. Obligations: These are one’s moral responsibility i.e., duty to act right and in moral ways.
The obligations such as honesty, fairness, and decency are incumbent on every one. In addition
to this, we have role responsibilities assigned by taking up various roles, such as parents,
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inspectors, and employees. For example, a Safety Engineer has a responsibility to make regular
inspections in a factory shops.
3. General Moral Capacity: One has the general capacity for moral agency, including the
understanding and action on moral reasons.
4. Liability and Accountability: Liability and Accountability for actions. It means that one
is liable (with a legal sense) to meet the obligations in better ways. The person is likely to
respond legally, if necessary.
Accountable means that one is willing to justify or defend the decisions, actions or means and
outcomes. It could include offering a reasonable excuse or accepting the shame for not having
met the end results or accepting the guilt for harming others. One is also answerable to the
assessment by others on one’s actions (means) or outcomes.
5. Praiseworthiness/Blameworthiness: When accountability for wrong actions or results is
at issue, responsibility means blameworthy. When the right conduct or successful result is at
issue, responsible is synonymous with praiseworthy.
2.10.2 Types
Different types of responsibilities exhibited in human transactions are:
1. Moral Responsibility: Moral responsibility as applied to a professional: A professional must
be responsible morally, in creating internal good or good outcomes, and eliminating /minimizing
un- intended side-effects, from engineering and technology. It includes:
(a) Obligations: A commitment to moral actions (primary obligation to protect the safety
of the human beings and respect their rights),
(b) Conscientious: A comprehensive perspective to accept the duties, and diligently do the
right things by putting their heart, head and hands (awareness of the experimental
nature of the product/project, anticipating possible and unexpected outcomes and putting
efforts to monitor them),
(c) Accountability (being accountable for the decisions, actions, and the results of
product/project including safety), and
(d) Praiseworthy/Blameworthy as applied to context of doing things right/doing things
wrongly, respectively.
2. Causal Responsibility: It is being a cause of some event. For example, a child playing with
matches cause a house to burn. The child is causally responsible, but the parent who left the
child with matches, is morally responsible.
3. Job Responsibility: It consists of assigned tasks at the place of employment and achieving
the objectives.
4. Legal Responsibility: It is the response required by law and includes legal obligations
and accountability to meet them. Many of these responsibilities overlap with moral
responsibility.

2.10.3 Responsible Professionalism

The most comprehensive virtue of engineers is responsible professionalism. It can also be
called Professional Responsibility. This consists of five types of virtues, as follows:
1. Self-direction (Self-governance) virtues are fundamental and necessary in exercising
moral responsibility. On the basis of ‘understanding and cognition’, it includes self-
understanding, humility (proper assessment of one’s character), and good moral judgment
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(termed as ‘practical wisdom’ by Aristotle). On the basis of ‘commitment and action’,

it covers courage, self- discipline, perseverance, self-respect, and integrity. Honesty a
virtue common to both bases as it implies truthfulness in thoughts and words and
trustworthiness in actions.
2. Public-spirited virtues focus on the good of the clients and the public. It includes the
respect for rights (to make decisions and face the risk), non-malfeasance (not harming
others intentionally). Engineering codes go a step further and prescribe beneficence that
includes preventing or removing harm to others and also promoting the public safety,
health, and welfare, generosity (helping the community by voluntarily giving their
time, talent, and money-voluntary service to the professional society and community),
and justice (unbiased) in all decisions and actions.
3. Team-work virtues enable the professionals to work successfully with others. They
include collegiality, cooperativeness, communicative ability, and respect for legitimate
authority. Responsible exercise of authority and the ability to motivate other to achieve
are also the relevant to team-work virtues.
4. Proficiency virtues, which mean the mastery of technical skills (called as Intellectual
Virtue by Aristotle). It includes competence (having qualified, licensed, and prepared
to execute the job that is undertaken), diligence (alert to dangers, careful attention, and
avoidance of laziness or workaholic nature), creativity (learning to respond to the
changing technological society), excellence (perform at the highest level), and self-
renewal through continuing education.
5. Cardinal (chief) virtues: Wisdom (prudence), courage (fortitude), temperance and
justice.
Some of these may overlap other virtues. They are called ‘cardinal’ (Latin: cardo,
hinge) because they are hinges on which all virtues depend. These are also called moral (Latin:
mores, fixed values) because they govern our actions, regulate our passions, and guide our
conduct according to faith and reason. Wisdom is perception of truth and ability to distinguish
between the right and wrong. Courage means a firm and elevated mind. Temperance represents
order in words and actions. Justice is preserving humanity and observing the faith of contracts.
Although these virtues ring religious tones, they are very relevant to the engineering practice.
2.10.4 Social Responsibility
Corporate organizations have social responsibility to all of their ‘stakeholders’. This
includes the well- being of the employees and their unions, socially responsible investors,
customers, dealers, suppliers, local communities, governments, non-governmental organizations,
and the business owners and managers. Besides showing concern with employee relations and
other internal organizational matters, the organization is concerned with
(a) how the product/project is marketed, used or misused, how it fails, and how it is
disposed or discarded. The ways in which the used battery cells and computers are
discarded have been debated in the engineers’ forums.
(b) protecting the work environment during manufacture as well as the external
environment during transport or use
(c) training the disadvantaged or physically-challenged workers
(d) subcontracting and hiring practices, and
(e) contribution to local communities to enrich their cultural, social, and civic life. It may
be even compensatory against the harm to environment (e.g., planting trees).
Various types of responsibilities such as causal, moral, and legal are distinguished through
appropriate examples, as shown below:
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Events Responsibility
1. A stray cattle on the rail track caused the (a) Although cattle is the cause, the owner of the
derailment of goods train cattle is morally responsible
(b) For letting the cattle go astray on the railway
track, that is trespassing the owner is legally
responsible
2. A child playing with (safety?) Although the child is the cause, the parents who have
matches causes fire left the match box within the reach of the child, are
morally responsible
3. (a) Seth was driving a car. He failed to stop at (a) Seth is causally responsible
the red signal, which caused an accident (b) Seth has been negligent of maintenance of brakes
(b) Suppose he applied brakes, but they failed
4. There was a forest fire. It was traced to camp Raj is causally responsible for the forest fire he failed
fire at specific site and Raj was the last to use to put out the camp fire. Although the temperature
the campsite. was high, and the dry leaves helped the fire to
spread, Raj allowed the fire to spread. Hence, he is
the cause
5. The products sold have caused harm while The engineer or the engineering firm is legally
being used responsible for the harmful effects of defects in their
products. But they are not morally responsible for the
harm or defects
6. A fitter lost one his eyes while inserting a The hammer manufacturer was legally responsible
chip by using a hammer on the basis of the doctrine of strict liability, which
does not require any proof of effect in the design of
the hammer. Morally the manufacturer was not
responsible
7. In a contract, it is not implied that the The engineer is free from legal responsibility, but he
engineer to be held for not observing the has moral responsibility to observe the work done
possibility of danger. But an accident occurs
8. A pandal erected by the contractor, in a No legal responsibility for pandal contractor. Owner
marriage hall catches fire, due to a leakage of of the hall is morally responsible for the leakage
electric current
9. Question papers were leaked out by some Controller of Examinations cannot be held legally
persons, during transport responsible, although he is morally responsible

2.10.5 Accountability
Accountability means:
1. The capacity to understand and act on moral reasons
2. Willingness to submit one’s actions to moral scrutiny and be responsive to the
assessment of others. It includes being answerable for meeting specific obligations,
i.e., liable to justify (or give reasonable excuses) the decisions, actions or means, and
outcomes (sometimes unexpected), when required by the stakeholders or by law.
3. Conscientiousness: It means:
(a) Being sensitive to full range of moral values and responsibilities and
(b) The willingness to upgrade their skills, put efforts, and reach the best balance
possible among those considerations, and
4. 4. Blameworthy/Praiseworthy: Own the responsibility for the good or wrong outcomes.
Courage to accept the mistakes will ensure success in the efforts in future.
The terms ‘corporate responsibility’ and ‘corporate accountability’ have different
meanings. Corporate responsibility emphasizes the voluntary compliance of a particular
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organization to particular codes of conduct. The groups of individuals in the organization are
assigned responsibilities through policy manuals and flow charts. The corporate accountability
means holding all the corporate organizations accountable to the public, employees, customers,
and stock holders, as empowered by rules and laws.
2.10.6 Obligation
The safety and other obligations of professional engineers are justifiable based on the following
aspects.
1. Moral obligations through laws and enforced codes of conduct
2. Through membership of professional society
3. Contractual agreement with the employers
4. By entry into career as engineer upon graduation from Engineering institutions
and
5. By special employment agreements or agreement with professional societies.
The paramount obligation means, giving importance to the safety, health, and welfare of
the public in performing the professional duties.

2.11 THEORIES ABOUT RIGHT ACTION (ETHICAL THEORIES)

2.11.1 Uses and Criteria
The ethical theories are useful in many respects.
1. In understanding moral dilemma. They provide clarity, consistency, systematic
and comprehensive understanding.
2. It provides helpful practical guidance in moral issues towards the solution.
3. Justifying professional obligations and decisions, and
4. In relating ordinary and professional morality.
Different criteria may be applied for evaluating various ethical theories and deciding upon
the best.
1. The theory must be clear and (coherent) formulated with concepts that are logically
connected.
2. It must be internally consistent, i.e., none of its principles conflicts with any other
3. The theory and its defense must depend, only upon facts.
4. It must organize basic moral values in systematic and comprehensive manner. It is to
fix priority of values and provide guidance in all situations
5. It must provide guidance compatible with our moral convictions (judgments) about
concrete situations. For example, if an ethical theory says that it is all right for
engineers to make explosive devices without the informed consent of the public, we
can conclude that the theory is inadequate.
Theories and judgments are continually adjusted to each other until we reach a reflective
equilibrium. Most of the theories converge towards the welfare of the humanity. The duty
ethics and right ethics differ in great extent on their emphasis. But they remain
complementary always.
2.11.2 Ethical Theories/Approaches
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Several ethical theories have been developed over different times, each of them stressing certain
ethical principles or features. Each stresses a view and many a times, we find that these theories
converge and reinforce the ethics, in deciding upon the actions and justifying the results.
1. Utilitarian Theory
The term Utilitarianism was conceived in the 19th century by Jeremy Bentham and John
Stuart Mill to help legislators determine which laws were morally best. They suggested that
the standard of right conduct is maximization of good consequences. Good consequences mean
either ‘utilities’ or the ‘balance of good over evil’. This approach weighs the costs and benefits.
Right actions are the ones that produce the greatest satisfaction of the preferences of the affected
persons. In analyzing an issue in this approach, we have to:
a. Identify the various courses of action available to us.
b. Ask who will be affected by each action and what benefits or harms will be derived from
each.
c. Choose the action that will produce the greatest benefits and the least harm. The ethical
action is the one that provides the greatest good for the greatest number.
The ACT UTILITARIAN theory proposed by J.S. Mill (1806-73) focuses on actions,
rather than on general rules. An action is right, if it generates the most overall good for the
most people involved.
The RULE UTILITARIAN theory, developed by Richard Brandt (1910-97), stressed
on the rules, such as ‘do not steal’, ‘do no harm others’, ‘do not bribe’, as of primary
importance. He suggested that individual actions are right when they are required by set of
rules which maximizes the public good.
The act utilitarian theory permitted a few immoral actions. Hence, there was need to
develop rule utilitarian theory to establish morality and justice, in the transactions. For
example, stealing an old computer from the employer will benefit the employee more than the
loss to the employer. As per Act, utilitarian this action is right. But rule utilitarian observes this
as wrong, because the employee should act as ‘faithful agent or trustee of the employees’. In
another example, some undisciplined engineers are terminated with the blame for the mistakes
they have not committed. The process is unfair although this results in promotion of overall
good.
2. Duty Ethics
A. The duty ethics theory, proposed by Immanuel Kant (1724-1804) states, that actions
are consequences of performance of one’s duties such as, ‘being honest’, ‘not cause
suffering of others’, ‘being fair to others including the meek and week’, ‘being
grateful’, ‘keeping promises’ etc. The stress is on the universal principle of respect for
autonomy i.e., respect and rationality of persons. As per Kant we have duties to
ourselves, as we are rational and autonomous beings. We have a duty not to commit
suicide; a duty to develop our talents and a duty to avoid harmful drugs. Kant insisted
that moral duties are categorical imperatives. They are commands that we impose on
ourselves as well as other rational beings. For example, we should be honest because
honesty is required by duty. A businessman is to be honest because honesty pays — in
terms of profits from customers and from avoiding jail for dishonesty.
B. On the other hand, the DUTY ethics theory, as enunciated by John Rawl, gave
importance to the actions that would be voluntarily agreed upon by all persons
concerned, assuming impartiality. His view emphasized the autonomy each person
exercises in forming agreement with other rational people. Rawl proposed two basic
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moral principles; (1) each person is entitled to the most extensive amount of liberty
compatible with an equal amount for others, and (2) differences in social power and
economic benefits are justified only when they are likely to benefit every one,
including members of the most disadvantaged groups. The first principle is of prime
importance and should be satisfied first. Without basic liberties other economic or
social benefits can not be sustained for long. The second principle insists that to allow
some people with great wealth and power is justified only when all other groups are
benefited. In the business scenario, for example, the free enterprise is permissible so
far it provides the capital needed to invest and prosper, thereby making job
opportunities to the public and taxes to fund the government spending on the welfare
schemes on the poor people.
C. W.D. Ross, the British philosopher introduced the term prima facie duties, which means
duties might have justified exceptions. In fact, most duties are prima facie ones; some
may have obligatory or permissible exceptions. Ross assumed that the prima facie
duties are intuitively obvious (self-evident), while fixing priorities among duties. He
noted that the principles such as ‘Do not kill’ and ‘protect innocent life’ involve high
respect for persons than other principles such as, ‘Do not lie’ (less harmful). This theory
is criticized on the fact, that the intuitions do not provide sufficient guideline for moral
duty. He has listed various aspects of Duty Ethics that reflect our moral convictions,
namely:
1. Fidelity : duty to keep promises.
2. Reparation : duty to compensate others when we harm
3. Gratitude :them.
duty to thank those who help us.
4. Justice : duty to recognize merit.
5. Beneficence : duty to recognize inequality and improve the
condition of others.
6. Self-improvement : duty to improve virtue and intelligence.
7. Non-malfeasance : duty not to injure others.
3. Rights Theory
Rights are entitlement to act or to have another individual act in a certain way.
Minimally, rights serve as a protective barrier, shielding individuals from unjustified
infringement of their moral agency by others. For every right, we have a corresponding duty
of noninterference.
A. The RIGHTS approach to ethics has its roots in the 18th century philosopher
Immanuel Kant, who focused on the individual’s right to choose for oneself.
According him, what makes human beings different from mere things is, that people
have dignity based on their ability to choose freely what they will do with their lives,
and they have a fundamental moral right to have these choices respected. People are
not objects to be manipulated; it is a violation of human dignity to use people in ways
they do not freely choose. Other rights he advocated are:
1. The right to access the truth: We have a right to be told the truth and to be informed
about matters that significantly affect our choices.
2. The right of privacy: We have the right to do, believe, and say whatever we choose
in our personal lives so long as we do not violate the rights of others.
3. The right not to be injured: We have the right not to be harmed or injured unless
we freely and knowingly do something to deserve punishment or we freely and
knowingly choose to risk such injuries.
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4. The right to what is agreed: We have a right to what has been promised by those
with whom we have freely entered into a contract or agreement.
B. In deciding whether an action is moral or immoral, we must ask, does the action respect
the moral rights of everyone? Actions are wrong to the extent that they violate the
rights of individuals; the more serious is the violation, the more wrongful is the action.
The RIGHTS theory as promoted by John Locke states that the actions are right, if
they respect human rights of every one affected. He proposed the three basic human
rights, namely life, liberty, and property. His views were reflected in the modern
American society, when Jefferson declared the basic rights as life, liberty, and pursuit
of happiness.
C. As per A.I. Melden’s theory based on rights, nature mandates that we should not harm
others’ life, health, liberty or property. Melden allowed welfare rights also for living
a decent human life. He highlighted that the rights should be based on the social
welfare system.
D. Human rights: Human rights are explained in two forms, namely liberty rights and
welfare rights. Liberty rights are rights to exercise one’s liberty and stresses duties on
other people not to interfere with one’s freedom. The four features of liberty rights
(also called moral rights), which lay the base for Government Administration, are:
a. Rights are natural in so far as they are not invented or created by government.
b. They are universal, as they do not change from country to country.
c. They are equal since the rights are the same for all people, irrespective of
caste, race, creed or sex.
d. They are inalienable i.e., one cannot hand over his rights to another person such
as selling oneself to slavery.
e. The Welfare Rights are the rights to benefit the needy for a decent human life,
when one cannot earn those benefits and when those benefits are available in
the society.
E. Economic rights: In the free-market economy, the very purpose of the existence of the
manufacturer, the sellers and the service providers is to serve the consumer. The
consumer is eligible to exercise some rights. The consumers’ six basic rights are: Right
to Information, Right to Safety, Right to Choice, Right to be Heard, Right to Redressal,
and Right to Consumer Education.
A few rights are absolute, i.e., unlimited and have no justifiable exceptions. For example,
rights ethicists view that the rights have not been violated if the people purchase a
(technological product) hang glider and they get injured by flying them carelessly or under bad
weather conditions. But human rights imply that one not to be poisoned or killed by
technological products, whose dangers are not obvious or wantonly hidden. They imply a right
to be informed, when the purchase was made, of the possible dangers during use or service
(obtaining informed consent).
Rights ethics is distinctive in that it makes human rights the ultimate appeal — the moral
bottom line. Human rights constitute a moral authority to make legitimate moral demands on
others to respect our choices, recognizing that others can make similar claims on us. Thus, we
see that the rights ethics provides a powerful foundation for the special ethical requirements in
engineering and other professions.
4. The Virtue Theory
This emphasizes on the character rather than the rights or duties. The character is the pattern
of virtues (morally-desirable features). The theory advocated by Aristotle, stressed on the
tendency to act at proper balance between extremes of conduct, emotion, desire, attitudes to
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find the golden mean between the extremes of ‘excess’ or ‘deficiency’. The examples shown
below illustrate the theory:
Virtue Excess Golden mean Deficient
Truthfulness (governs Revealing all in Necessary and Secretive
communication) violation of tact sufficient, to
and confidentiality proper person
Courage (face danger, Roguishness, bold Firm and humble Cowardice
risk)
Generosity (giving) Wasting resources Give, in appropriate Miserly
measure
Friendliness (governs Without anger, Within decent Bad-tempered
relationship) effusive limits
Green environment Exploitation Protection Neglect
Work and earn Tiresome work Balance of work Lazy (no work)
(strained) and leisure and more pay

5. Self-realisation Ethics
Right action consists in seeking self-fulfillment. In one version of this theory, the self to be
realized is defined by caring relationships with other individuals and society. In another
version called ethical egoism, the right action consists in always promoting what is good for
oneself. No caring and society relationships are assumed.
6. Justice (Fairness) Theory
The justice or fairness approach to ethics has its roots in the teachings of the ancient Greek
philosopher Aristotle, who said that “equals should be treated equally and unequals unequally.”
The basic moral question in this approach is: How fair is an action? Does it treat everyone in
the same way, or does it show favoritism and discrimination?
Issues create controversies simply because we do not bother to check the fairness or justice.
Favoritism gives benefits to some people without a justifiable reason for singling them out;
discrimination imposes burdens on people who are no different from those on whom burdens
are not imposed. Both favoritism and discrimination are unjust and wrong.

2.12 SELF-CONTROL
It is a virtue of maintaining personal discipline. It means a strong will and motivation and
avoidance of fear, hatred, lack of efforts, temptation, self-deception, and emotional response. It
encompasses courage and good judgment also. Self-respect promotes self-control.

2.13 SELF-INTEREST
Self-interest is being good and acceptable to oneself. It is pursuing what is good for oneself.
It is very ethical to possess self-interest. As per utilitarian theory, this interest should provide
for the respect of others also. Duty ethics recognizes this aspect as duties to ourselves. Then
only one can help others. Right ethicist stresses our rights to pursue our own good. Virtue ethics
also accepts the importance of self-respect as link to social practices.
In Ethical Egoism, the self is conceived in a highly individualistic manner. It says that every
one of us should always and only promote one’s own interest. The ethical egoists do not accept
the wellbeing of the community or caring for others. However, this self-interest should not
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degenerate into egoism or selfishness, i.e., maximizing only own good in the pursuit of self-
interest. The ethical egoists hold that the society benefits to maximum when (a) the individuals
pursue their personal good and (b) the individual organizations pursue maximum profit in a
competitive enterprise. This is claimed to improve the economy of the country as a whole,
besides the individuals. In such pursuits, both individuals and organizations should realize that
independence is not the only important value. We are also interdependent, as much as
independent. Each of us is vulnerable in the society. Self-respect includes recognition of our
vulnerabilities and interdependencies. Hence, it is compatible with caring for ourselves as well
as others. Self-interest is necessary initially to begin with. But it should be one of the prime
motives for action; the other motive is to show concern for others, in the family as well as
society. One’s self-interest should not harm others. The principles of ‘Live and let (others)
live’, and ‘reasonably fair competition’ are recommended to professionals by the ethicists.

2.14 CUSTOMS
Ethical Pluralism: Various cultures in our pluralistic society lead to tolerance for
various customs, beliefs, and outlooks. Accordingly ethical pluralism also exists. Although
many moral attitudes appear to be reasonable, the rational and morally concerned people
cannot fully accept any one of the moral perspectives. There are many varied moral values,
which allow variation in the understanding and application of values by the individuals or
groups in their everyday transactions. It means that even reasonable people will not agree on
all moral issues and professional ethics.
Ethical Relativism: According to this principle, actions are considered morally right
when approved by law or custom, and wrong when they violate the laws or customs. The
deciding factor is the law or the customs of the society. Should we accept the principle of
relativism or not? A few reasons to accept this are explained in the following paragraphs:
1. Laws appear to be objective ways for judging values. The laws and customs tend to be
definite, clear and real, but not always. Further moral reasons allow objective criticism
of laws, as being morally lacking. For example, the Apartheid laws of South Africa
violated the human rights of the native Africans. No legal protection was available for
native citizens for a long time. Now, of course, these laws have been repealed.
2. Ethical relativism assumes that the values are subjective at the cultural level. Moral
standards also vary from culture to culture. The objectivity is supported by the existing
laws of that society. The relative morality accepted, supports the virtue of tolerance of
differences among societies. This argument is also not fully acceptable. As per ethical
relativism, the actions and laws of the Nazis and Hitler who vowed on Anti-Semitism
and killed several million Jews would be accepted as right.
3. Moral relationalism or moral contextualism: According to this, the moral judgments
must be made in relation to certain factors, which may vary from case to case. The
morally important factors for making judgments include the customs and laws. The
virtue ethicists hold that the practical wisdom should prevail upon assessing the facts
and in the judgment.

2.15. RELIGION
Religions have played major roles in shaping moral views and moral values, over
geographical regions. Christianity has influenced the Western countries, Islam in the Middle-
East countries, Buddhism and Hinduism in Asia, and Confucianism in China. Further, there is
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a strong psychological link between the moral and religious beliefs of people following various
religions and faiths. Religions support moral responsibility. They have set high moral
standards. Faith in the religions provides trust and this trust inspires people to be moral. The
religions insist on tolerance and moral concern for others. Many professionals who possess
religious beliefs are motivated to be morally responsible.
Each religion lays stress on certain high moral standards. For example, Hinduism holds
polytheistic (many gods) view, and virtues of devotion and surrender to high order.
Christianity believes in one deity and emphasizes on virtues of Love, Faith, and Hope.
Buddhism is non-theistic and focuses on compassion and Islam on one deity and adherence of
ishan (piety or pursuit of excellence) and prayer. Judaism stresses the virtue of ‘tsedakah’
(righteousness). But many religious sects have adopted poor moral standards, e.g., many
religious sects do not recognize equal rights for women. The right to worship is denied for
some people. People are killed in the name of or to promote religion. Thus, conflicts exist
between the ‘secular’ and religious people and between one religion and another. Hence,
religious views have to be morally scrutinized.
2.15.1 Divine Command Ethics
As per this principle, the right action is defined by the commands by God. It implies
that to be moral, a person should believe in God and an action is right only if it is commanded
by God. There are some difficulties in this approach, namely, (a) whether God exists or not is
not clear. (b) How to know what are the God’s commands? and (c) How to verify the
genuineness of the commands? Further, religions such as Hinduism, Islam, and Christianity
accept the existence of God. But Buddhism, Taoism, and Confucianism adopt only faith in a
right path and do not believe in God.
Socrates was said to have argued that God, an entity which is responsible, morally good,
and beyond fear or favor, would not command murder, rape, torture, immoral activities, and
even mass suicide. Many such crimes were committed in the name of God then and continue
even now in different parts of the world. Some Western leaders had claimed that God had
commanded them to invade against the Middle-East countries. If anyone claims to have
obtained commands from God to kill people merciless, then we have to conclude that the
person is not religious but insane.
2.16 SELF-RESPECT
It is defined as valuing oneself in morally suitable ways. Self-respect includes (a)
recognition, which means respect to others, their ideas, decisions, ability, and rights and (b)
appraisal, which means properly valuing ourselves as to how well we face moral standards and
our personal commitments (aims). An intensive but balanced feeling of self-respect is sense of
honor. This includes intense agony and guilt for wrong doings. Self-control is a virtue of
maintaining personal discipline (self-regulation). Courage is a bye-product of self-respect,
which makes a person face the hardship in rational way
Self-respect is different from self-esteem in the following manner:
Self-respect Self-esteem
1. A moral concept 1. A psychological concept
2. Valuing oneself in morally-suitable ways 2. Having a positive attitude towards
3. It includes virtues of recognition and oneself. It may be excessive or un-
appraisal. It promotes virtues of sense of honor, warranted or normal
self-control and courage
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2.17 CASE STUDY: CHOICE OF THE THEORY

The choice of the ethical theory to study a problem is illustrated herein with an
example. In tackling ethical problems, we can apply all the theories and analyze the actions and
results from different angles and see what result each theory gives rise to. This enables us to
examine the problem in different perspectives. Many a time, the result will be the same though
we have applied various theories.
Case: A chemical plant near a small town is discharging hazardous wastes into the fields
nearby. The ground water gets contaminated and significant health problems surface in the
community.
Since harm is caused to the residents, the action is unethical as per rights ethics. The
agriculturists who have the agrarian right of water supply have been over looked. The
pollutants may endanger their profession and welfare. Hence, rights ethics also concludes that
the action is unethical.
The effects of polluted water and the cost to purify the water by the municipality may
out weigh the economic benefits of the plant. Hence, the utilitarian analysis leads to the same
conclusion.
The groundwater harms the people and caused health problems. Hence, discharging the
pollutants is unethical as per duty ethics.
Generally, because the rights of the individuals should weigh strongly than the needs
of the society as a whole, rights and duty ethics take precedence over utilitarian considerations.
Caution is necessary in applying theory of virtue ethics. When we use the word ‘honor’,
we mean it to be a measure of dignity and integrity. It is a positive virtue. When it points to
‘pride’ it is not a virtue and has a negative connotation. History abounds with examples of war,
which have been fought and atrocities were committed on innocent people in order to preserve
the honor (pride) of an individual or a nation. In using virtue ethics, we have to ensure that the
traits of virtue are actually virtuous and will not lead to negative consequences.