Chemistry and Methods

Method-Specific, Applications & Limitations

TG. Mani Kantan

Sr.Chemist
AL GHUBRAH INDEPENDENT WATER PROJECT 42 MIGD SWRO
 WHO Definition

∗ Defines safe drinking water as water that “does not

represent any significant risk to health over the lifetime
of consumption, including different sensitivities that
may occur between life stages.”
 Guidelines vs. Standards

∗ Guideline: a recommended limit that should not be

exceeded
∗ Standard: a mandatory limit that must not be exceeded
(often reflects legal duty or obligation)

∗ WHO Guidelines for Drinking Water Quality (2006)

∗ Guideline values to ensure safety of drinking water
∗ Standards vary among countries and regions
 Why Do We Do
Water Quality Testing?

∗ Ensure safe drinking water

∗ Identify problems
∗ Adopt precautionary measures
∗ Raise awareness
∗ Determine the effectiveness of water treatment
technologies
∗ Select an appropriate water source
∗ Influence policies to supply safe water
 Water Sampling

-Microbiological sampling
-Indicator organisms for pathogen presence

Physical sampling
-turbidity, conductivity, total dissolved solids etc

Chemical sampling
- pH, dissolved oxygen, phosphates, chemical oxygen demand,
biological oxygen demand, mineral impurities (iron,
manganese, chloride, lead, sodium etc)
 Types of Testing
∗ Mobile laboratories
∗ Advantages:
∗ Controlled environment,
∗ High level of precision and accuracy
∗ Limitations:
∗ Relatively expensive
∗ Requires skilled laboratory technicians
∗ Laboratory testing
∗ Advantages:
∗ Controlled environment,
∗ High level of precision and accuracy
∗ Limitations:
∗ Expensive
∗ Lack of flexibility to conduct own testing
 Selecting Test Methods
Depends on:
∗ Objectives
∗ Range of concentration
∗ Required accuracy and precision
∗ Time period between sampling and analysis
∗ Technical skills and equipment required
∗ Familiarity with the method
∗ Availability of resources
 WHAT WE’LL COVER TODAY

∗ Analytical Test Methods

∗ Physical Properties
∗ Inorganic Non-Metallic Constituents
∗ Halogens & Cyanide
∗ Nutrients
∗ Aggregated Organics

∗ Method-specific QA/QC issues

∗ Method Applications & Limitations

 SAMPLE COLLECTION &
PRESERVATION
Parameter Preservation Container Hold Time

Alkalinity Cool 4 ºC P or G 14 days

NH3-N Cool 4 ºC; P or G 28 days
H2SO4 to pH<2
Cl-, Br-, F- None P 28 days
CN- NaOH to pH>12; P or G 14 days
Cool 4 ºC ;
Ascorbic acid
Hardness H+ to pH<2 P or G 180 days
Kjeldahl or H2SO4 to pH<2 P or G 28 days
Organo-N
(NO3)- H2SO4 P or G 14 days
To pH<2
(NO2)- Cool 4 ºC P or G 2 days
o-(PO4)-3 Filter ASAP; P or G 2 days
Cool 4 ºC
Sp. Cond. Cool 4 ºC P or G 28 days
(SO4)-2 Cool 4 ºC P or G 28 days
TDS, TSS Cool 4 ºC P or G 7 days
Turbidity Cool 4 ºC P or G 2 days
 pH
∗ pH is really a measure of the
relative amount of free hydrogen
and hydroxyl ions in the water.
∗ pH is a measure of how
acidic/basic water is.
∗ The range goes from 0 - 14, with 7
being neutral.
∗ pHs of less than 7 indicate
acidity, whereas a pH of greater
than 7 indicates a base.
 pH
∗ References
∗ HACH-Dig Ph Meter
∗ APHA,
∗ Applies to DW , SW & WW

∗ Calibration
∗ Place the electrode in the solution of pH 7
buffer, allow the display to stabilize and, then,
set the display to read 7 by adjusting cal 1.
Remove the electrode from the buffer. 4.
Rinse the electrode with deionized water and
blot dry using a piece of tissue
 CONDUCTIVITY
∗ References
∗ HANNA-
∗ USEPA 120.1
∗ APHA-

∗ Applies to DW & SW

∗ Measures the ability to an aqueous solution to carry an

electrical current

∗ CO2 in air can cause problems @ low levels

 CONDUCTIVITY
∗ Units of measure: µS/cm (µmhos)

∗ Use KCl solutions as stds; read @ 25 ºC

∗ Distilled water 0.5-3.0 µmhos; most potable waters range

from 50-1500 µmhos

∗ Cell Constant
∗ Determine annually
∗ Verify w/each use w/known [KCl]

∗ RSDs < 1%
 TURBIDITY

∗ References
∗ HACH-2100
∗ USEPA 180.1
∗ APHA,
∗ Applies to DW & SW

∗ Caused by fine suspended matter; it’s a

measure of the clarity of water

∗ Units are NTU’s;

∗ <1 required for DW analyses of metals
 Free Residual Chlorine (FRC)
Total Chlorine

∗ Free chlorine refers to both hypochlorous acid (HOCl) and the

hypochlorite (OCl–) ion or bleach, and is commonly added to
water systems for disinfection. When ammonia or organic
nitrogen is also present, chloramines known as
monochloramine, dichloramine, and trichloramine will quickly
form. Chloramines are also known as combined chlorine.
∗ Total chlorine is the sum of free chlorine and combined
chlorine. The level of total chlorine will always be higher than or
equal to the level of free chlorine.
 TURBIDITY - NEPHELOMETROMETRY

∗ Compares intensity of scattered light

∗ Instrument sensitivity must be able to detect turbidity

differences of ±0.02 NTU

∗ Lab. reagent water may have to be filtered prior to use

∗ Anything blocking light path NG: scratches, smudges, air

bubbles, ...
 Free Residual Chlorine (FRC)
Total Chlorine
∗ Free chlorine is typically measured in drinking water disinfection
systems using chlorine gas or sodium hypochlorite to find whether
the water system contains enough disinfectant. Typical levels of free
chlorine in drinking water are 0.2 - 2.0 mg/L Cl2, although regulatory
limits allow levels as high as 4.0 mg/L.
∗ Total chlorine is measured in drinking water and is also typically
measured to determine the total chlorine content of treated
wastewater. If you are required to measure and report chlorine
levels to a regulatory agency, we advise that you check with your
regulator to find whether you are required to measure free chlorine
or total chlorine.
 Free Residual Chlorine (FRC)
Total Chlorine

∗ References
∗ HANNA- free chlorine checker
∗ iodometric method
∗ Applies to DW & SW
 Temperature

∗ Water temperature is a physical property

expressing how hot or cold water is. As hot
and cold are both arbitrary terms, temperature
can further be defined as a measurement of
the average thermal energy of a substance .
∗ This energy can be transferred between
substances as the flow of heat. Heat transfer,
whether from the air, sunlight, another water
source or thermal pollution can change the
temperature of water.
 ALKALINITY
∗ References
∗ HACH- Digital Titrator
∗ USEPA 310.1
∗ APHA,

∗ Applies to DW & SW

∗ Measures acid-neutralizing capacity (ANC)

∗ Mostly measures (CO3)-2, (HCO3)- & OH-

 ALKALINITY

∗ Oily matter, ppcts. may interfere but cannot be removed

since they contribute to ANC

∗ Analysis by HCl (or H2SO4) titration (end-pt. or

potentiometric (most accurate)

∗ For low alkalinity samples (<20), equivalence pt. determined

by extrapolation

∗ RSD’s < 5% can be commonly achieved

 HARDNESS
∗ References
∗ HACH- Digital Titrator
∗ APHA: Sum separate calculations of Ca & Mg
∗ APHA: EDTA Titration

∗ Defined as the sum of [Ca] & [Mg], expressed as

CaCO3

∗ Applies to DW & SW
 HARDNESS
∗ Ca+2 / Mg+2 sequestered by NaEDTA

∗ Titration to dark bluer; forms starch-I complex

∗ Transition metals can interfere

∗ Inhibitors are added to complex metals prior to analysis

∗ LOD ~ 0.5 mg/L as CaCO3; RSD’s of <3% common

 SOLIDS

∗ Total Solids (TS): residue left after heating sample

@ a defined T

∗ Total Suspended Solids (TSS): portion of solids

retained by a filter

∗ Total Dissolved Solids (TDS): portion of solids that

passes through a filter
 SOLIDS
∗ Sources of Error
∗ Accurate analytical balance
∗ Sample homogeneity
∗ Accuracy of T in oven
∗ Clean glassware between analyses
∗ Simple to do; easy to mess up

∗ TS + TSS: Dry to 104 ± 1 ºC

∗ TDS: Dry to 180 ± 2 ºC

 DISSOLVED OXYGEN (DO)

∗ Electrometric (Electrode)
∗ More common
∗ Rate of diffusion of molecular O2 across membrane
 DISSOLVED OXYGEN (DO)
∗ Winkler
∗ More precise & reliable
∗ Add Mn+2 + strong base, DO oxidizes Mn+2 to higher ordered
Mn(OH)x+2. Add I-/H+; Mn goes back to Mn+2 & equivalent I-
is liberated. Titrate with (S2O3)-2 w/starch indicator. (S2O3)-2
must be standardized at least quarterly. I- takes the place of
O-2
∗ Interferents include oxid.(+) & red. (-) agents; options
include adding azide [(NO2)-], & permanganate [Fe+2]
∗ Fix on-site & run w/i 8 hrs.
 BY VIS
∗ HACH 3900 Spectrophotometer

∗ Multi-element capability @ µg/l and mg/l sensitivity

∗ Anions: F-, Cl-, Br-, (NO2)-, (NO3)-, (SO4)-2, (PO4)-3

and others

∗ Works well for DW, SW and WW

HACH-3900 VIS Spectrophotometer
 Total Iron

∗ FerroVer® Method1
∗ Method 10249 Powder Pillows
∗ Range: 0.1 to 3.0, mg/L Fe
∗ Scope and application: For water and wastewater.

∗ USEPA approved for reporting wastewater analysis, Federal

Register, June 27, 1980; 45 (126:43459).

∗ Adapted from Standard Methods for the Examination of

Water and Wastewater.
 Boron

∗ Carmine Method1
∗ Method 8015 Powder Pillows
∗ Range:0.2 to 14.0 mg/L B
∗ Scope and application: For water and wastewater.

∗ Adapted from Standard Methods for the Examination

of Water and Wastewater.
 Sulfate

∗ SulfaVer 4 Method1
∗ Method 10248 Powder Pillows
∗ Range: 2 to 70, 20 to 700, 200 to 7000 mg/L SO4 2–
Scope and application: For water and wastewater.

∗ Adapted from Standard Methods for the Examination

of Water and Wastewater.
 Nitrate

∗ Cadmium Reduction Method

∗ Method 8192 Powder Pillows
∗ Range:0.01 to 0.50 mg/L NO3 ––N (LR)
∗ Scope and application: For water, wastewater and
seawater
HALOGEN IONS (F-, Cl-, Br-, I-)

∗ Analytical Options
∗ Colorimetric
∗ Titrimetric
∗ IC
∗ Ion-Selective Electrodes (ISE)
(SM Method 4500)
∗ DW only
ION SELECTIVE ELECTRODES
∗ Measure the activity of free ions in solution

∗ Interferences known & controllable

∗ Must control T & ionic strength

∗ Can measure halides, S-2, NH3 and (CN)-

∗ Electrode types:
∗ Crystalline
∗ Gas Sensing
 CYANIDE (CN-)

∗ All CN groups that can be determined as CN -

∗ Total Cyanide measures all free & bound CN-

∗ Cyanide Amenable to Chlorination includes free

CN- & all CN- complexes that are dissociable such
as metal-CN complexes. This requires a much
more rigorous digestion.
∗ Oxidation of organo-CN complexes can cause problems; keep
chlorinated fraction in the dark
 CYANIDE (CN-)
∗ Both require sample distillation; collect as HCN

∗ For CN- amenable to chlorination, divide sample in

2, and subtract CN- found in dechlorinated &
chlorinated fractions

∗ Measurement Options
∗ Titration
∗ Colorimetry
∗ ISE
 NITROGEN SPECIES
∗ Forms of N to be measured:
∗ (NO3)-
∗ (NO2)-
∗ NH3
∗ Organic N

∗ Organic N = (NO3)- + (NO2)-

∗ NH3: generally low in GW because

of particle absorption
 AMMONIA (NH3 )

∗ As per Federal regulations,a preliminary

distillation step MUST be performed unless
you can demonstrate the absence of
interferences for YOUR effluent

∗ Measurement Options
∗ Titration
∗ ISE
∗ Phenate w/ or w/o automation
 AMMONIA (NH3 )

∗ Titration
∗ Only used after distillation
∗ H3BO3 added to decrease hydrolysis of organo-N
species
∗ Titrate w/std. H2SO4; end-pt. either w/indicator or
electrometrically
∗ Useful below 5 mg/L

∗ ISE
∗ Gas-permeable membrane to measure NH3(aq) & (NH4)+
converted to NH3(aq) by pH adjust. to 10-11
 AMMONIA (NH3 )

∗ Phenate
∗ Indophenol (VERY blue) is made from reaction between
NH3, (ClO3)- & phenol catalyzed by nitroprusside
∗ Measure spectrophotometrically @ 640 nm
∗ Interfering Ca & Mg can be complexed
∗ Can be easily automated
∗ RSD’s much better than titrimetry or ISE
 (NO2)- & (NO3)-

∗ Both can be done by IC

∗ (NO2)- can also be done by spectrophotometry

∗ (NO3)-
∗ UV-Spec.
∗ ISE
∗ Cd Reduction
 ORGANIC (KJELDAHL) N

∗ Measures N as N-3; Kjeldahl N is the same as

organic N. Digest sample, convert to NH3,
and measure as per NH3 options.

∗ Does not measure e.g., azide, azo, nitro,

nitoso, nitrite or nitrate N species

∗ Macro: low [NH3], requires larger sample

volume (500 ml.)
Micro: higher [NH3]
 PHOSPHOROUS SPECIES

∗ P analyses consist of 2 steps

∗ Digestion converts phosphorous to orthophosphate
∗ Colorimetric determination

∗ Reactive P (Orthophosphate): respond to colorimetry

w/o hydrolysis or oxidation

∗ Organic P: Fraction convertible to orthophosphate by

destruction of organic matter
 SULFITE (SO3)-2

∗ Occurs in boilers & feedwaters &

treatment plant effluents

∗ Method Options
∗ Iodometric: KI titration w/starch indicator
∗ Colorimetric: (easier) Reaction w/1,10-phenanthroline &
vis. detection @ 510 nm.
 SULFATE (SO4)-2

∗ Method Options
∗ IC (BEST CHOICE)
∗ Turbidimetry: BaSO4 ppct. light scattering is measured
(MOST COMMON)
∗ Gravimetry: (Ppct. as BaSO4)
∗ Titrimetry: xs. Ba is complexed w/methylthymol blue to
yield blue color
 SULFIDE (S-2)

∗ “Total S-2” includes both H2S & HS- as well as

acid-soluble metallic sulfides; [S-2] very low

∗ There are several qualitative tests

∗ Quantitative Methods: I- oxidizes S-2 / H+

∗ Titration: OK if [S-2] > 1 ppm
∗ Iodimetric
∗ ISE
AGGREGATE ORGANIC
CONSTITUENTS
 BOD
∗ Measures molecular O2 used during the biochemical
degradation of organic matter (C) in water

∗ Usually applied to determine waste loadings to treatment

plants & efficiency of control measures

∗ w/o inhibitor is added, can also measure O2’s ability to

oxidize N species

∗ 5 day test: BOD5

∗ 20 day test: BOD20
∗ 60-90 day test: UBOD
 BOD
∗ Fill sample to overflow & seal airtight

∗ Incubate for fixed time

∗ Measure DO initially & @ end

∗ BOD = Final[DO] - Initial[DO]

∗ See SM for working ranges & DLs

 BOD
∗ Do a series of dilutions for sample analyses

∗ Some samples may need to be seeded with

microorganisms
∗ high pH, chlorination, high T

∗ CBOD (carbanaceous demand0 is used where

nitrification inhibitor is employed

∗ Holding time is 48 hrs.

 COD
∗ Amt. of O2 that certain organisms & chemicals will
consume

∗ Interferences
∗ [Cl-] > 1000 mg/l
∗ VOCs might be lost prior to oxidation

∗ Method Summary
∗ Most organics & oxidative inorganics are oxidized
by addition of K2Cr2O7 / H2SO4
∗ xs. (Cr2O7)-2 is titrated w/Fe(NH4)2(SO4)2.6H2O
 TOTAL ORGANIC CARBON (TOC)

∗ Better expression of organic content than BOD

or COD

∗ TOC is independent of the ox. state of the

organic matter and does not measure H or N

∗ Organic molecules ⇒ C ⇒ CO2

 TOTAL ORGANIC CARBON (TOC)

∗ Measurement Options
∗ Non-Dispersive IR (5310B)
∗ Sample is combusted
∗ Measures total C; inorganic C must be subtracted to give
TOC
∗ Reduce to Methane (5310C)
∗ Measure by dedicated FID analyzer
∗ Wet-Oxidative (5310D)
∗ Oxidized with KHSO4 in autoclave
∗ Resulting CO2 measured by non-dispersive IR
∗ UV-Persulfate
 GENERAL RULE

∗COD > BOD > TOC

 TOX (DOX)
∗ Measures total dissolved organic matter in H2O

∗ Contributing compounds include: THMs, org.

solvents (TCE), halogenated alkanes, alkenes, &
pesticides, PCBs, chlorinated aromatics (C6H4Cl2),
chlorinated humics

∗ Does not tell you ANYTHING about the structure

or nature of the chlorinated organic(s); does not
detect organo-F species
 TOX (DOX)
∗ Measurement consist of 4 steps
∗ Dissolved organic matter is separated from inorganic
halides by adsorption onto activated C
∗ Inorganic halides are removed by (NO3)- displacement
∗ Pyrolyze activated C
∗ C ⇒ CO2
∗ Bound halogens ⇒ HX
∗ HX species by Ag+ titration
METHOD REFERENCES

∗ Standard Methods for the Examination of

Water and Wastewater, 19th Edition

∗ Code of Federal Regulations

∗ Part 136: DW
∗ Part 141: WP

∗ American Society for Testing and Materials,

Section 11, Volumes 11.01 & 11.02
Thanks You

Gracias

Merci