THE INSTITUTION OF ENGINEERS (INDIA)

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TWELFTH NATIONAL CONVENTION OF CIVIL ENGINEERS, HYDERABAD

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26 - 28 SEPTEMBER 1996
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STATE OF ART LECTURE ON REHABILITATION OF STRUCTURES

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BY
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S.A. REDDI*
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INTRODUCTION

During the past fifty years, there has been a perceptible change-
over in favour of concrete structures. While the advantages of
concrete as a medium are obvious, deficiencies during service
life and even failures in extreme cases are being increasingly
reported all over the World. However, it must be appreciated that
the majority of structures are functioning satisfactorily; it is
only the bad news that makes headlines!

In the past, structures were designed and constructed with

strength as prime consideration. The concept of durability in
addition to strength is of recent origin. Also, the requirements
of a minimum maintenance programme for concrete structures is
also being appreciated only now. Under the circumstances, it is
only to be expected that some of the concrete structures built in
the past experience deficiencies and failures during the intended
service life.

An attempt is made to enumerate suitable methodologies to

investigate the structures for possible deficiencies, analyse the
reasons for the same, assess the limitations, if any, and look at
the methods available for repairs and strengthening of structures
already in service.

DURABILITY OF CONCRETE

The concrete structures were in the past designed and constructed

primarily based on the structural strength and deformation con-
siderations. The importance and the need for designing and con-
structing the structures for durability is being realised only

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now after having been exposed to a number of premature deteriora-
tion of concrete structures all over the World. Concrete mixes
are designed and produced almost entirely on the basis of
strength requirements. Very little attention was being paid to
the need for detailing to facilitate effective placement of
concrete and guard against attack from aggressive elements. Codes
and specifications are usually silent on requirements of
durability. The construction agency are equally unaware of re-
quirements of durability.

All these are now changing and all concerned are being made to
realise the importance of durability the hard way. The codal re-
quirements in respect of the strength of concrete mix minimum
_________________________________________________________________
* DY. MANAGING DIRECTOR, GAMMON INDIA LIMITED, MUMBAI - 400 025

cement content, water cement ratio, concrete cover and perme-

ability of concrete are being made more stringent in many cate-
gories. The revised British Code for Concrete (BS: 8110) is a
case in point. Other countries are in the process of following
suit. If full account of knowledge of durability requirements is
taken, a long and economical service life for the concrete struc-
ture can be ensured.

With the knowledge of hindsight, it is now realised that Durable

Concrete Structures can be realised by designing for Durability
in addition to the other functional requirements. Important
parameters to be considered include :

- Impermeable concrete realised by enforcing low W/C ratio,

higher minimum cement content, higher grades of concrete,
proper compaction and curing.

- Higher values for cover of reinforcement.

- Correct choice of type of cement.

- Protective coatings to reinforcement and concrete surface.

- Periodic maintenance.

PRESENT STATUS

Primarily due to the absence of designs for durability in the

past, many of the civil engineering structures like Bridges,
Multi-storied buildings, Dams, Canals, Water retaining struc-
tures, Marine structures etc. have suffered premature deteriora-
tion. This in turn has necessitated rehabilitation of structures

2
involving substantial expenditure running to several times the
original construction cost. In particular almost all the
structures built in Coastal areas in the recent past have
suffered damages of unacceptable magnitude. Typically in a place
like Mumbai, rehabilitation of concrete components starts within
five to ten years of the original construction, an avoidable
situation. The methods and materials used for such
rehabilitation are not of proper quality. This in turn results in
repeated repairs, perhaps every five years.
A number of bridges, particularly in Coastal areas have shown
signs of distress. However, compared to buildings, percentage of
bridges requiring rehabilitation is much less. Cases of total
failure of bridges are also relatively low compared to buildings.

Considering all the aspects, it will be prudent to review the

current practice of design and construction as well as
rehabilitation and the methods and materials used for the same.
Based on such review it should be possible to refine and improve
the process of rehabilitation.

PROCESS OF DETERIORATION

The deterioration of a typical concrete structure starts from the

time it is exposed to the elements of nature particularly under
high humidity and high temperature conditions. Thus certain parts
of a structures including roofs and structural elements at the
boundaries of the building are more susceptible to deterioration.
The deterioration of materials such as concrete and reinforce-
ment reduces the strength of the structural members. While ele-
ments such as pollution, wind, temperature variation, rains,
floods etc. contribute towards deterioration, it can also be
affected by changes in the environment after construction and
also by additions and alterations to the structure. Changes in
the functional use of the structure may also contribute towards
premature deterioration.

The following may progressively lead to deterioration or failure:

a) Foundation settlements.

b) Lateral movements may result in separation of walls and floors

with the possibility of increased buckling due to greater
unbraced lengths of the supporting members.

c) The degradation of the material properties over a period of

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time.

d) Aggressive environment

The problem is particularly acute when a concrete structure

is subject to severe exposure conditions such as alternative
wetting and drying in sea water. Other factors include
emissions and industrial factories leading to chemical pollu-
tion particularly in the form of carbon and sulphur oxides.

e) Accidental overload

Any accidental overloading of the structure may result in

cracks which may close once the overloading is removed. At
first, the residual cracks tend to be very fine when the load
is removed and such fine cracks do not need any further treat-
ment at all. However, if the crack width is more than 0.3 mm,
all such cracks should be sealed against ingress of moisture,
carbonation or chlorides. Common methods of sealing include
injection of cement grout and epoxy resin under pressure.

f) Faulty construction

Common faults include inadequate compaction of concrete, use

of defective cover blocks, inadequate concrete cover, inade-
quate or improper curing etc. Such faults will eventually
reduce the service life of the structure due to carbonation
of concrete resulting in corrosion of reinforcement.

To the extent such faults can be detected early before onset

of deterioration, it is possible to take some corrective mea-
sures. While under-compacted concrete can be filled with
cement grout or resin injection, deficiencies in concrete
cover may be corrected by additional extra concrete. Perme-
ability of the concrete in the covered region may be improved
by suitable protective coatings to the concrete surfaces.

g) Faulty materials

A variety of construction materials are now being supplied

which do not strictly conform to the requirements of the
specfications. Such materials include cement, reinforcement
steel, high tensile steel etc. which form the prime components
of construction. It is necessary to ensure effective quality
assurance measures e.g. independent testing and certification

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prior to use, in addition to any tests being conducted by the
manufacturers during production.

Some of the construction materials may also be contaminated

due to improper storage before incorporation in the works.
Particularly in the coastal areas, materials such as aggre-
gates, reinforcement and prestressing wires are likely to be
contaminated with chlorides if not properly stored.

h) Maintenance during service

Some degree of maintenance is required even for concrete

structures. A maintenance regime based on a maintenance manual
prepared at the time of completion of the structure and handed
over to the used should form the basis.

The cost and frequency of such activities will depend on the

type and condition of the structure, on the causes of its
deterioration and on the type and quality of the initial
repair work carried out.

Immediately on detecting any deterioration or defects in any

part of the structure necessary repairs and rectification
should be carried out without any loss of time. Any delay will
mean much larger repair cost at a later date, which may exceed
the original capital cost of the structure, if the inflation
factors are considered.

i) Replacement of structural parts

Under certain circumstances, it may be necessary to replace

the deteriorating parts instead of repairing the same. Con-
siderations for replacement should be based on the additional
cost, operational conditions, structural problems in providing
temporary supports etc.
j) Demolishing/reconstruction

The concrete structure that has deteriorated beyond repairs

may have to be replaced with a new structure. Any premature
failure of the structure is because of inadequacy in design,

quality of materials, detailing, construction or a combination

of one or more of these. The replacement structure should be
planned to guard against similar pitfalls.

THE FUTURE LIFE OF THE STRUCTURE

After having ascertained the condition of the structures in

service by resorting to suitable condition survey including non-

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destructive testing of materials, a decision is required to be
made regarding the future of the structure. Having accepted the
position that a certain degree of deterioration has already taken
place, it is necessary to arrive at the future life expectancy of
the structures before a detailed evaluation of the structural
adequacy and repair methods. The following typical options may
be considered :

1) In as-is-where-is condition, the structure is considered to

have an estimated life of `X'years based on the present main-
tenance programme and this life expectancy is considered as
adequate for the intended purpose.

2) The structure is required to service the user for a longer

period of say 20 years beyond `X'. In this case the degree of
repairs to be contemplated may be designed at a certain cost.

3) For a longer life expectancy requirement say 40 years beyond

`X'. more intensive repair programme will have to be decided
upon with cost levels much higher than that indicatedin Alter-
native 2.

EVALUATION OF STRUCTURE

After having decided on the required life expectancy of the

structure, a detailed evaluation of the condition of the struc-
ture may be carried out :

a) Study the history of the structure

b) Carry out a Condition Survey to identify the deficiencies such

as excessive deflections, cracking, spalling of concrete or
corrosion of reinforcement.

c) Establish and verify the basic geometry of the structure. This

can be carried out by actual field survey measurements supple-
mented by study of available as-built drawings.

d) Establish the shape, locations, size and cross-sections of

embedded reinforcement or structural steel.

e) Based on non-destructive/destructive tests, establish the

actual strength potential of the component materials such as
concrete, steel etc.

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f) Utilising the data available from steps (a) to (e). compute
the structural capacity of the structure, its components and
the foundations.

g) Carry out a full scale load test of either part or whole of

the structure in case of doubts regarding the actual strength
or load carrying capacity of the members.

h) Based on the results, design a suitable repair system to over

come the existing defects and upgrade the carrying capacity
wherever required.

CONDITION SURVEY OF CONCRETE STRUCTURES

A condition survey is generally necessitated in order to obtain a

knowledge of the in-situ strength of the structural member. The
survey will also enable to pinpoint the cause of deterioration of
structures, the load bearing capacity as well as the need and
extent of repairs required.

Insitu strength of concrete may be suspect due to one or more of

the following :

1) Doubts regarding non-compliance of standard cube test results

with the specifications.

2) Questionable workmanship.

3) Degradation of concrete due to fatigue, chemical action, fire,

explosion, weathering, unequal settlements etc.

Typical methods of condition survey include :

1) Non-destructive testing methods which facilitate mapping large

areas of the structures.

2) Detailed non-destructive and destructive sampling and measure-

ments on small areas and

3) Laboratory analysis on samples to provide detailed and precise

information.

A combination of all three categories may provide reliable data

from which conclusions can be drawn concerning mechanism and
causes of deterioration, as well as the extent of deterioration.

ASSESSMENT OF CONCRETE STRENGTH

There are no Indian Standard Specifications or Codes of Practice

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providing guidelines for the assessment of concrete strength in
existing structures. However, in the International context,
reference may be made to British Standard ~Guide to Assessment of
Concrete Strength in the Existing Structures - BS: 6089'. The

document provides detailed guidelines regarding the following

aspects :

- Planning and investigation

- Information expected from tests
- Acceptance of test data
- Choice of the test methods
- Description of test methods
- Interpretation of results.

A series of British Standards provide guidelines on the use of

non-destructive tests for hardened concrete.

1) BS : 1881 - Part 201 : Guide to the Use of Non-Destructive

Methods of Test for Hardened Concrete.

2) BS : 1881 - Part 202 : Recommendations for Surface Hardness

Testing by Rebound Hammer.

3) BS : 1881 - Part 203 : Recommendations for the measurement of

Velocity of Ultrasonic Pulses in Con-
crete

4) BS : 1881 - Part 204 : Recommendations for the Use of Electro-

Magnetic Cover Devices.

5) BS : 1881 - Part 205 : Recommendations for the Determination

of Concrete.

6) BS : 1881 - Part 206 : Recommendations for the Determination

of Strain in Concrete.

7) BS : 1881 - Part 207 : Recommendations for Near- to -Surface

Tests for Concrete.

8) BS : 1881 - Part 208 : Recommendations for the Determination

of Initial Surface Absorption of Con-
crete.

9) BS : 1881 - Part 209 : Recommendations for the Dynamic Modulus

of Elasticity.

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INSPECTION AND TESTING

Basic equipment items required for initial inspection :

* As-built drawings and supporting design details

* 35mm camera with telephoto and close-up lenses
* Small steel rule with 0.5mm divisions
* Optical crack width gauge
* Hand lens with 10 magnification
* Measuring tape 15m
* Plumb bomb
* Binoculars 10 magnification

* Small hammer for sounding concrete hollowness

* Sharp 12mm cold chisel for chipping concrete
* Light weight extending ladder or step-up ladder
* Hand held dictaphone
* Self-adhesive labels for making reference points
* Power drill for collecting dust samples
* Blow lamp for drying wet concrete surfaces
* Phenolphthalein spray for testing concrete for carbonation

Equipment for detailed inspection and testing :

* Cover meter
* Schmidt rebound hammer
* Electrical resistivity meter
* Ultrasonic pulse velocity apparatus
* Demountable mechanical strain gauges
* Boroscope for examining internal surface and cored holes
* Strain measuring equipment for live loads
* Equipment for half cell potential measurements.

Inspection of Cracking

Cracks tend to weaken the concrete structure. Cracks may also

indicate rusting of reinforcement. There are several types of
cracks and some are listed below and the significance of each
crack is different. As such it is necessary to identify the type
of crack during the initial survey.

Some type of cracks

* Longitudinal cracks
* Transverse cracks, shear cracks
* Plastic shrinkage cracks
* Plastic settlement cracks

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The longitudinal cracks generally result from corrosion of the
reinforcement. Transverse cracks may be caused by shrinkage,
thermal contraction or by structural overloading. Shear cracks
are caused by overloading or due to defects in detailing of the
reinforcement. The plastic shrinkage cracks are generally formed
during construction due to rapid evaporation of the water from
the surface of concrete. These cracks are generally harmless
unless the concrete surface is likely to be exposed to salt or
similar contaminants. The plastic settlement cracks are also
formed during construction phase due to settlement and bleeding
in concrete. They generally form longitudinally over the rein-
forcement and may sometimes lead to corrosion of reinforcement.

Identification of cracks

Cracks with widths less than 0.05mm may be identified by spraying

the concrete surface with water and allowing the water to dry
off.

An experienced observer can assess the approximate width of

cracks by eye judgement. However, crack width gauges are avail-
able for measuring the widths. Crack widths of upto 0.3mm are
acceptable in reinforced concrete structures. During periodical
inspection, any change in the width or length of the cracks or
the patterns of the crack should be recorded.

Examination of the concrete surface

Any hollows beneath the concrete surface can be detected by

tapping the concrete surface with a light hammer. Floor slabs can
be sounded by dragging a suitable object over the floor.

Testing for carbonation

The test consist of spraying the suspect concrete surface with a

chemical solution that changes colour with variation in
alkalinity of concrete. The preferred chemical solution is
phenolphthalein in dilute alcohol because it has a contrast in
colour on normal concrete but is colourless on concrete which is
no longer alkaline enough to protect the steel from rusting. The
change in colour takes place as pH value reduces.

Measuring the depths of carbonation can provide advance warning

of corrosion before serious damage has occurred provided the test

10
is conducted early enough. In early stages carbonation can be
delayed or even prevented from reaching the reinforcement by
coating the concrete surface with a suitable material. Epoxy or
acrylic based paint systems are available for the purpose.

The rate of carbonation increases in poorly compacted concrete.

It is important to test the depth of carbonation in such loca-
tions. The effects of carbonation are severe at relative humidi-
ties in the range of 65 to 75%. This aspect shall be taken into
account while deciding on the location and frequency for carbona-
tion tests.

Determination of chloride content

The chloride content of concrete is a critical factor in any

evaluation of deterioration and damage of the structure. The
permissible value as generally adopted by the various Specifica-
tions/Codes of Practice in terms of chloride ions as a percentage
of the mass of cement used in the concrete are given below :

a) Reinforced concrete structures - 0.15%

b) Prestressed concrete structures - 0.06%

In non-reinforced structures much higher values may be admitted.

The risk of reinforcement corrosion due to chloride contamination

depends on the concentration of chlorides above the threshold
values given above, in addition to the level alkalinity of the
concrete, type of cement and whether the chloride was present at
the time of mixing and placement of concrete or whether the
contamination took place later on by way of penetration through
the cover region of the hardened concrete.

Thus it is very necessary to determine the chloride content of

concrete as part of any Condition Survey of concrete structures.
Normally samples are obtained either by breaking off pieces of
concrete or by drilling holes in the concrete and collecting the
dust. However, before collecting the samples the surface of the
concrete must be thoroughly cleaned and any surface contaminants
removed. The chloride content should be determined for various
depths by collecting samples separately. Thus the chloride
profile at various depths may be ascertained. Such a profile may
give an indication as to whether chloride was present in the
concrete at the time of placement or whether it was subsequently
ingested from the surrounding environment.

Measurement of reinforcement cover

Even though the drawings will indicate the reinforcement cover,

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it is likely the actual cover may be more or less due to
construction deficiencies. The extent of actual cover available
is vital for assessment of protection of reinforcement from
corrosion. The actual location of reinforcement in relation to
the concrete surface can be checked by using cover meters. Port-
able instruments with digital readouts are available for the
purpose.

INSITU STRENGTH OF CONCRETE

Rebound Hammer Test

The simplest device available for non-destructive testing of the

strength of concrete insitu is the Rebound Hammer (Schmidt
hammer). This is a spring loaded impact hammer, incorporating a
scale to measure the rebound energy. The test takes a few
minutes only to conduct. Average value of about 20 readings may
be used to roughly estimate the concrete strength. Prior cali-
bration is necessary for such site and for different angles at
which the instrument is used. However, limitations include
sensitivity to moisture content, hardness and surface finish of
the concrete.

Core Test

More accurate and reliable information is obtained by taking core

samples and testing them for strength. This is relatively more
expensive, but gives more reliable data. Normally 150mm dia x
300mm long cores are taken; but it is possible to go in for
lower diameters upto 50mm and reduced lengths. Portable core
cutting machines are now available. The machines also cut
through the reinforcement bars. Apart from testing for strength
of concrete, other properties e.g. density, permeability, cement
content and type, chloride content, water-cement ratio, aggre-
gate type etc. can also be tested.

Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity (UPV) Tests

An indirect measure of the strength of concrete is obtained by

sending pulses through the concrete from a transmitting source on
one side to a receiving target on the other side. The speed of
travel of the ultrasonic pulse through concrete depends on the
density and modulus of elasticity of concrete and thus gives an

12
idea of strength. Portable instruments such as PUNDIT are avail-
able for the purpose. This device is very valuable in locating
faults in concrete including honeycombs, hollows etc.

Permeability Tests

Permeability of concrete is measured under laboratory conditions

on slices cut from concrete samples. Water absorption of the
concrete surface can be measured by ISAT or similar test methods.
Both the tests give an idea of proneness to contamination by
chlorides, carbonation etc.

METHODS OF REPAIRS

Repairs to cracks

Plastic shrinkage cracks should be sealed with cement or polymer

modified grouts. Plastic settlement cracks may be treated
similarly, if required. Inactive shear and transverse cracks can
be sealed by injection with epoxy resin. Active cracks should be
sealed with a suitable joint sealant after widening the groove.
No treatment is generally called for if the width of crack is
less than 0.3mm. Even low viscosity resins will not be able to
penetrate cracks below 0.3mm wide.

Treatment of longitudinal cracks due to corrosion involves first

removing the concrete cover, cleaning the reinforcement, coating
the reinforcement and replacing the concrete. Concrete in the
cover region can be removed by chiselling, scabbling, using high
pressure water jetting involving water pressures of upto 1000
bars, using power hammers etc.

Removal of cover concrete

The concrete shall be removed to the necessary depth to expose

the reinforcement on the far side and to allow some space for
replacement as well. If the concrete inside of the reinforcement
is also carbonated, this should also be removed.

Reconcreting

After removing the cover concrete, the exposed reinforcement

shall be inspected and any rust or corrosion products removed by
sand blasting or high pressure water jetting described above. The
cross sectional area available after corrosion should be assessed
and any deficiency beyond 20% made good by additional reinforce-

13
ment. The cover region shall then be restored by one of the
following methods :

* Recast with concrete

* Patch with trowelled mortar (cement or resin)
* Shotcrete
* Prepack with aggregates and grout.

The concrete mix for reconcreting should be designed with care to

produce a dense, impermeable concrete and free from
contamination. The repair mix should use the same type of aggre-
gate originally used. A smaller maximum aggregate size is pre-
ferred due to limited space available for concreting. The water
cement ratio should be very low, not exceeding 0.4, to minimise
drying shrinkage stresses. Admixtures may be used to improve
workability . The cement content should be high to ensure coating
of interface and reinforcement.

Compaction of replaced concrete is more important than the

original due to confined space available. It is preferable to
have flowing concrete with high slump in the range of 200mm.
This can be realised by using superplasticisers, while keeping
the water cement ratio low. External vibrators fixed to the
formwork are a great help.

Patchwork

Relatively small areas of localised damage can be repaired by

patching with cement mortar or epoxy mortar. This is suitable
for a depth of upto 50mm. After removing affected concrete, the
substrata is first prepared to be free from cement grout,
laitance, loose or segregated material, voids or flows and any
bond breakers e.g. oils, grease etc. The surface is then
thoroughly wetted for several hours before applying cement
mortar.

Epoxy mortars are expensive and should only be selectively used.

They have a short pot life and gain strength within a few hours
of application. Before applying epoxy mortar, the surface should
be made dry. Sometimes, primer is also used before applying the
epoxy mortar. Epoxy resin and hardening from separate packs are
combined and mixed prior to use. Fillers include ordinarily
sand, as well as silica.

Shotcrete

Shotcreting or sprayed concrete is a technique similar to

guniting, but with the addition of coarse aggregates. This
method is very effective and widely used in repair work. The
maximum aggregate size is limited to 20mm. Spraying may be by

14
dry or wet process. In the dry process, cement and aggregates are
batched and dry mixed in conventional mixers and then sprayed
through a nozzle using compressed air. Water is added through
the nozzle. In the wet process, all ingredients including water
are first mixed as for pumped concrete and then propelled through
a nozzle by a high pressure air stream.

Sprayed concrete is most suitable for large areas of 30mm - 60mm

concrete thickness and is ideal for restoring concrete in the
cover region. Small-mesh small diameter reinforcement is used to
reinforce the sprayed concrete.

Prepacked aggregate concrete

After preparing the old concrete substrata as described earlier,

single sized coarse aggregate is packed inside the forms to fill
the voids completely and cement-sand-water mix grouted from the
lowest point of the void to fill the spaces between the
aggregate. The properties may be vastly improved by using
COLCRETE mixers to prepare COLLOIDAL grouts using normal cement,
sand and water. Besides being more homogenous, the system is
ideal for any underwater repair work.

PROTECTIVE COATINGS

While the concrete structure designed for strength and durability

and properly constructed does not require protective coating,
additional preventive measures are necessary for aggressive
exposure conditions and where deterioration has set in. These
include structures exposed to sea water and salt sprays as well
as environmental pollution. The last factor is causing concern
all over the world. Pollutants are discharged through air and
water by various industrial and petrochemical process factories.
Many of the pollutants such as carbon dioxide reduced the pH
value of concrete, increasing the vulnerability of reinforcement
bars to corrosion.

Protective coatings for reinforcement and concrete surface are

found to be effective under the circumstances. Coating for rein-
forcement include the following :

* Cement slurry
* Phosphatic coating
* Glavanising
* Epoxy coating

The first two systems provide short-term protection until

15
placement of concrete. Galvanising has limited service life and
in some instances may accelerate corrosion. Fusion bonded epoxy
coating provide long term protection.

Coatings for surface protection of concrete can be classified as

under :

* Bitumens
* Elastomers
* Polymers
* Silicons
* Silanes
* Vegetable oils

FUNCTIONAL REQUIREMENTS OF COATINGS

Coatings are recommended to be applied to prevent corrosion of

reinforcement. The following properties are essential for
concrete coatings :

* Controlling carbonation of concrete

* Resistance to chloride penetration
* Control of moisture content of concrete
* Supplementary protection in case of inadequate cover
* Protect concrete from sulphate attack
* Protect reinforcement from corrosion

Coating for reinforcement bars must

- Ensure uniform coating on the deformed surface. Configuration

of the bars,

- flexible enough to allow post-coated bending of bars,

- be mechanically stable to sustain handling, transportation and

fixing of reinforcement,

- provide facility of easy application,

- resist the corrosion.

APPLICATION OF COATINGS

The method of application is very important for the success of

coatings for protection of reinforced/prestressed concrete

16
bridges. For atypical bridge structure having water spans, the
cost of providing and maintaining access for the painters is
expected to be a major factor. Any cost effective solution must
include proper design and provision of access system. It may
also be economical to think in terms of application of protective
coatings during construction of the bridge, thereby using the
scaffolding/access systems provided for the bridge construction.
Early application also affords more effective protection. The
specification for application is similar to that used for
painting steel surfaces. By and large, the methods detailed in
BS: 6150 (Code of Practice for Painting of Buildings) are
relevant subject to supplementary precautions detailed below.

Surface preparations

To ensure effective bond, the concrete surface shall be clean,

dry and mechanically sound. All traces of mould oil, laitance,
fins etc. shall be removed. The surface may be sand blasted if
necessary. Cleaning with acids is not recommended. High pressure
water jetting is also effective.

Time of application

After deshuttering, concrete member must undergo sufficient

period of curing. Necessary strength is achieved at 28 days and

by this time atleast a good deal of shrinkage of concrete would

have taken place. Hence, the coating to concrete surface may be
applied in general at 28 days after concreting.

Surface Condition for Application

After mechanical cleaning, all loose materials shall be removed

by air jetting. The surface should be dried. all fins and
protrusions shall be removed and blow holes filled with cement
slurry or mortar. Cracks, if present, require to be closed using
appropriate specifications. Water leakage through cracks or
persistent dampness must be prevented. However, any surface
textural difference of the otherwise sound parent concrete shall
be allowed to remain.

Service Life

None of the coatings for concrete surface can outlast the service
life of the structure. The coating life may be around three to
five years, depending on the type of material offered. The need
for regular maintenance based on annual inspection is obvious.

Appearance

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The surface coating for concrete may be transparent coloured. The
choice is required to be made well in advance.

ECONOMIC CONSIDERATION

A number of parameters are involved in evaluating the cost

effectiveness of surface treatment. Factors such as temperature
compatibility, sensitivity to humidity, need to protect the
surface from wind and rain, wind conditions during application,
the conditions of concrete surface, cost of access system etc.
initially influence the costs.

TRENDS AND CURRENT RESEARCH AND REHABILITATION

Transport Research Laboratory in U.K. has carried out extensive
work on durability and repairs such as alkali-silica reaction,
concrete repair criteria and techniques and durability of new
construction.

Repair Techniques
The current works on the subject includes the following :
* Structurally effective patch repairs* Polymer mortars.
* Structural adhesives * Bonded external plates
* Bonded plates to improve shear

Protection
The following are the areas of research work :* Chloride
protection
* Surface treatment for concrete* Bridge deck waterproofing
* Desalination of concrete

PERMEABILITY
As a good deal of deterioration concrete arises out of
permeability, extensive works have been carried out on techniques
to refine the measurement of concrete permeability. However,
most of the tests can be conducted only in the laboratories at
the moment.

POST TENSIONED TENDONS

Extensive work has been carried out regarding the condition of
grouts in Post-tensioned tendons using endoscopic techniques.
Holes are drilled carefully into the ducts and if void are
present these are inspected and photographed with the help of
endoscope. While its use is fairly widespread elsewhere, it has
been used in India for the first time for investigating the
condition of Sharavathy Bridge in the West Coast.

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The problem of grout deficiencies in post-tensioned tendons has
assumed alarming proportions all over the World, primarily
because of absence of proper specifications and also because of
lack of attention to grouting during construction. In the U.K.,
there has been a ban on the use of post-tensioned tendons with
grouting since 1992 until such time a proper specification is
developed. The Concrete Society, U.K. has since developed an
improved specifications and the ban is expected to be lifted
shortly.

PRESTRESSING TENDONSNo suitable NDT is available for monitoring

the condition of tendons. As such, a stringent regime of
inspection and appraisal of existing prestressed concrete
structures should be introduced.

EXTERNAL PRESTRESSING
To get out of the problems detailed above, there have been
increasing trend towards the use of external prestressing cables
which are open for inspection all the time and which can be
easily replaced in the event of any distress. In the last five
years over 25% of the prestressed concrete bridge structures
constructed in the developed countries have used external pre-
stressing.

THE FUTUREOn detailed review of possible deterioration of

structures as well as maintenance and rehabilitation
requirements, it is clear that a typical concrete structure can
be constructed to last 50 to 75 years with normal maintenance
provided necessary precau- tions are taken during design and
construction of the structures. These include the following :

* Simple geometry* Slope for drainage of water* Higher grades

of concrete* Use of blended cements* Adequate cover, compaction
and curing* Periodical inspection and maintenance
HIGH PERFORMANCE CONCRETE
This is being increasingly used to prolong the life of the
structures. Compressive strengths upto 150 MPa have been realised
with the use of normal concrete making material plus admixtures
and silica fume.
Non-ferrous reinforcement and prestressing tendons such as carbon
fibre materials are being seriously considered.
Desalination and re-alkalination of concrete have been applied
successfully and are likely to find increased usage.
The present codes will eventually be revised taking into account
the current and the future trends.
The use of ISO-9000 series of Quality Assurance specifications
will assist an improvement in quality of structures and also

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channelise the rehabilitation methods in the right direction.

23/09/1996

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