REHABILITATION AND RETROFITTING OF STRUCTURES

UNIT I
INTRODUCTION

Syllabus:
Distress in structures
Causes of damages, effects of damage Case studies,
Deterioration of structures with aging,
Need for rehabilitation

Definitions and Terminologies:

Rehabilitation: The process of repairing or modifying a structure to a desired useful condition
Repair: The process of replacing or correcting the deteriorated, damaged or faulty materials, components or elements
of a structure
Restoration: The process of re-establishing the materials, form and appearance of a Structure
Strengthening: The process of increasing the load-resistance capacity of a structure or portion
Retrofitting: The process of strengthening structure along with the structural system if required so as to comply all
relevant codal provisions in force during that period
Demolition: The process of pulling down of the structure not deemed to be fit for Service
Service life: The time taken from the completion of the structure till the structure is no longer usable due to
deterioration
Structural degradation: It is the loss of strength that a component or structure may suffer when subjected to
deteriorating agents that could be mechanical, physical or chemical
Evaluation: The process of determining the structural adequacy for its intended use or performance
Failure: It is the ultimate manifestation of distress that results into termination of the ability of a component or
system to perform its intended or required function
Defects: The defects are the flaws those creeps into structure because of design mistakes or poor workmanship during
manufacturing, fabrication and construction, before it begins its service life, or (less frequently) by inappropriate
operation and maintenance during its service life. The flaw that has a potential to lead to a failure, becomes a defect.
Deterioration: It is the gradual loss of desired material properties due to different degradation factors. Deterioration
unlike defects, may not surface at the beginning of the service life of a structure, but is rather time-dependent.
However, some forms of deterioration may develop early in the service life of structure and others manifest later
Distress: It is a collective term for the physical manifestation of problems such as cracks, spalls, pop-outs, staining,
decay or corrosion. Distress can be thought of as the symptoms indicating that the defects are present

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MAINTENANCE OF STRUCTURES:
Maintenance is preventive in nature. Activities include inspection and works necessary to fulfill the intended function
or to sustain original standard of service. The maintenance of structure is done to meet the following objective
Prevention of damages due to natural agencies and to keep them in good appearance and working condition. Repair of
the defects occurred in the structure and strengthen them, if necessary.
The Maintenance work is broadly classifies as
a) Preventive Maintenance
b) Remedial Maintenance
c) Routine Maintenance
d) Special Maintenance
a) Preventive Maintenance: The maintenance work done before the defects occurred or damage developed in the
structure is called preventive maintenance. It includes thorough inspection, planning the programs of maintenance
and executing the work It depends upon the specifications, condition and use of structure.
b) Remedial Maintenance: It is the maintenance done after the defects or damage occurs in the structure. It involves
the following basic steps. - Finding the deterioration - Determining the causes - Evaluating the strength of the existing
structure - Evaluating the need of the structure - Selecting and implementing the repair procedure
c) Routine Maintenance: It is the service maintenance attended to the structure periodically. The nature of work
done and interval of time at which it is done depends upon specifications and materials of structure, purpose, intensity
and condition of use. It includes white washing, parch repair to plaster, replacement of fittings and fixtures, binding of
road surface.
d) Special Maintenance: It is the work done under special condition and requires sanction and performed to rectify
heavy damage. It may be done for strengthening and updating of the structure to meet the new condition of usage or to
increase its serviceability. It may include particular or complete renewal occurring at long interval, such as floors,
roofs etc.
Causes which necessitate the maintenance:
The causes which effects the service and durability of the structure are as follows:
Atmospheric Agencies 1. Rain 2.Wind 3.Temperature.
Normal wear and tear.
Failure of structure.
Atmospheric Agencies:
1. Rain: -important source of water which affects the structure in the following ways. Physical: Dissolving and
carrying away minerals as it is universal solvent.
2.Wind: which transports the abrasive materials and assists the physical weathering.
3.Temperature: The temperature variation may also change in the structure and chemical composition of the materials.
Normal wear and tear: During the use of structure it is subjected to abrasion and there by it losses appearance and
serviceability. Concrete damage was found to be a serious threat to the structural integrity of spillway.
Failure of structure:
-behavior of structure not in agreement with expected condition of stability -or lacking freedom from necessary repair
or non- compliance with desired use of and occupancy of the completed structure.

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Structural
1. Caused by faulty design, faulty
construction or overloading.
2. Endangers building safety
3. Needs immediate attention.

DISTRESS IN STRUCTURES
Non-Structural
1. Caused by internally induced stresses in
components
2. Looks unsightly
3. Indirectly leads to structural weakening.

FACTORS CAUSING DISTRESS

External

Internal

1. Overloads due to dead load, live load,

wind load, seismic loads, etc. which
are not accounted in the design.
2. Differential settlements in the
foundations.

1. Dimensional changes induced by

1.1 Moisture penetration
1.2 Temperature changes
1.3 Horizontal shifts of building components
1.4 volume changes due to chemical action.
2. Weakness in tensile and shear stresses.

EFFECTS AND CAUSES OF DAMAGES:

EFFECTS
Leakage
Settlement
Deflection
Wear
Spalling
Disintegration
Cracking
Determination
Scaling

CAUSE
Defect

Damage

Deterioration

Design
Materials
Construction
Overloading
Chemical spill
Earthquake
Fire
Freeze-Thaw
Erosion
Corrosion of metals
Alkali-aggregate Reaction
Sulfate Attack

Degradation factors: The degradation factors that initiate or accelerate the deterioration of the building materials or
components are listed as follows
a) Weathering factors: Deterioration from exposure to water, temperature wind and air contaminants
b) Biological factors: Attack on material by living organism such as bacteria or insect
c) Stress factors: Due to sustained or periodic loads on system such as gravity loads, thermal loads, shrinkage,
swelling or settlement
d) Incompatibility factors: Chemical reactions such as chloride attack on steel sulfate attack
e) Use factors: wear and tear associated with construction and service, or application of loads that exceed the
strength of the system.

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SIGNS (SYMPTOMS/DISTRESS) OF CONCRETE DETERIORATION

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Distresses due to overloading

Common types of damage

Flexural cracking
Shear and diagonal tension cracking
Shear bond failure (rebar splitting)
Compressive crushing
Column cover spalling
Large deflections

Total or partial collapse

Spalling leading to size reductions
Decoloration
Buckling
twisting
Large deflections

CAUSES OF DETERIORATION:
1. Local settlement of sub-grade.
2. Movement of formwork.
3. Vibrations
4. Internal settlement of concrete suspension
5. Setting shrinkage.
6. Premature removal of forms.
7. Drying shrinkage
8. Temperature stresses:
(i) This may be due to Difference in temperature between the inside and outside of the building
(ii)Variation in internal temperature of the building structure.
9. Absorption of moisture by concrete
10. Corrosion of reinforcement, This could be caused by
(i)Entry of moisture through cracks or pores
(ii)Electrolytic action
11. Aggressive action of chemical
12. Weathering action
13. Action of shockwaves
14. Erosion
15. Weathering action
16. Action of shockwaves
17. Erosion.
18. Poor design details at
(i) Re- entrant corners, (ii) Changes in cross section, (iii)Rigid joint precast elements, (iv)Deflections
Poor design details leads to
1. Leakage through joints
2. Inadequate drainage
3. Inefficient drainage slope
4. Unanticipated shear stresses in piers, column and abutments etc
5. Incompatibility of materials of sections.
6. Neglect in design
7. Errors in design
8. Errors in earlier repairs
9. Overloading
10. External influences such as (a) Earthquake (b) Wind (c) Fire Cyclone Flash floors etc..

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MECHANISMS OF DAMAGE:
Mechanisms of Deterioration Damage in Fresh Concrete and In Hardened Concrete
I. DAMAGES IN FRESH STATE OF CONCRETE
1) Early Frost Damage:
When fresh concrete is exposed to extremely low temperatures, the free water in the concrete is cooled below its
freezing point and transforms into ice, leading to a decrease in the compressive strength of concrete. When freezing
takes place after an adequate curing time, the decrease in compressive strength does not occur.
2) Plastic Deformation: (A) Shrinkage Cracks
Rapid loss of water from the surface of concrete before it has set causes these cracks. It is critical when rate of
evaporation of surface moisture exceeds the rate at which rising bleed water can replace it. If the concrete surface has
started to set and has developed sufficient tensile strength to resist these tensile forces, cracks do not form If the
surface dries very rapidly before concrete starts to set then cracks develop as the plastic concrete begins to stiffen.
Remedial measures:
1. Dampen the sub-grade and forms when conditions for high evaporation state exists.
2. Prevent excessive surface moisture evaporation by providing fog sprays and erecting wind breaks.
3. Cover concrete with wet burlap or poly-ethylene sheets between finishing operations.
2) Plastic Deformation: (B) Settlement (subsidence)
Plastic settlement is caused due to bleeding, which refers to the migration of water to the top of concrete and the
movement of solid particles to the bottom of fresh concrete. The expulsion of water during bleeding results in the
reduction of the volume of fresh concrete. This induces a downward movement of wet Concrete.
If such movement is hindered by the presence of obstacles like steel reinforcement, cracks will be formed.
Plastic-settlement cracks appear in fresh concrete directly over embedded objects such as reinforcing bars or posttensioning tendons. They occur because the concrete settles and the embedded objects do not. In some cases the whole
reinforcing grid appears as cracks on the floor surface. Plastic-settlement cracks are most likely where reinforcing
bars or post-tensioning tendons are large in diameter and close to the surface.
Causes: Poor construction practices Low sand content and high water content - Large reinforcement bars Poor
thermal insulation Restraining settlement due to irregular shape Excessive, uneven absorbency Low humidity
Insufficient time between top-out of columns and placement of slab and beam Insufficient vibration Movement
of formwork.
Remdial measures: Use the largest possible coarse aggregate. Ensure the coarse aggregate is evenly graded. Use less
water in the concrete mix (but beware the effect on workability and finishability). Leave a generous surcharge when
striking off. Place deep sections in two or more lifts. This is worth considering when a slab is being cast
monolithically with thick joists or beams.
3) Construction Movement: (Subgrade movement):
Prevention : Pour concrete on compacted subgrade to prevent cracking. If the subgrade is not compacted, the soil,
and concrete above it, will settle and cause the slab to crack. Most rental companies have equipment available to
properly compact the subgrade, and it is well worth the investment.

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II. DAMAGES IN HARDENED CONCRETE

Physical Cause: (A) Aggregate Shrinkage
Mechanism: Some rocks exhibit the property of absorbing water with attendant change in dimension. The
shrinkage that occurs as the aggregate dries up is called aggregate drying shrinkage. Change in volume of aggregate
induces cavities and leads to shrinkage, weakening of compressive strength.
Preventive measure: Choose aggregate which do not have these problems.
Physical Cause: (B) Drying Shrinkage
Mechanism: On exposure to the atmosphere, concrete loses some of its original water through evaporation and
shrinks. Normal weight concrete shrinks from 400 to 800 microstrain. One microstrain is equal to 1 X 10-6 in./in. If
unrestrained, results in shortening of the member without a build-up of shrinkage stress. If the member is restrained
from moving, stress build-up may exceed the tensile strength of the concrete. this over stressing results in dry
shrinkage cracking.
Some of the measures that can be taken to reduce the drying shrinkage of concrete include:
Use the minimum water content (consistent with placing and finishing requirements).
Use highest possible volume fraction of good quality aggregate and maximum possible aggregate size.
Use Shrinkage limited Cement (Type SL) where available.
Do not use admixtures known to increase drying shrinkage, eg those containing calcium chloride.
Ensure concrete is properly placed, compacted and cured.
Ensure proper placement of reinforcing steel to distribute shrinkage stresses and control crack widths.
Chemical Cause: Alkali Aggregate Reaction (AAR)
Alkaliaggregate reaction (AAR) is a term mainly referring to a reaction which occurs over time in concrete between
the highly alkaline cement paste and non-crystalline silicon dioxide, which is found in many common aggregates.
This reaction can cause expansion of the altered aggregate, leading to spalling and loss of strength of the concrete.
The alkali-aggregate reaction is a general, but relatively vague expression. More precise definitions are: (1) Alkali
silica reaction(ASR); (2) Alkalisilicate reaction and; (3) Alkalicarbonate reaction
(1) Alkali Silica Reaction (ASR)
The alkalisilica reaction (ASR), more commonly known as "concrete cancer", is a reaction which occurs over time
in concrete between the highly alkaline cement paste and the reactive non-crystalline (amorphous) silica found in
many common aggregates, given sufficient moisture.
This reaction causes the expansion of the altered aggregate by the formation of a swelling gel of calcium silicate
hydrate (C-S-H). This gel increases in volume with water, and exerts an expansive pressure inside the material,
causing spalling and loss of strength of the concrete, finally leading to its failure.
ASR can cause serious cracking in concrete, resulting in critical structural problems that can even force the demolition
of a particular structure. ASR is the same as the pozzolanic reaction, which is a simple acid-base reaction
between calcium hydroxide, also known as Portlandite, or (Ca(OH)2), and silicic acid (H4SiO4, or Si(OH)4). For the
sake of simplicity, this reaction can be schematically represented as following:
Ca(OH)2 + H4SiO4 Ca2+ + H2SiO42 + 2 H2O CaH2SiO4 2 H2O
The mechanism of ASR causing the deterioration of concrete can be described in four steps as follows:
(1) The alkaline solution attacks the siliceous aggregate, converting it to viscous alkali silicate gel.
(2) Consumption of alkali by the reaction induces the dissolution of Ca2+ ions into the cement pore water. Calcium
ions then react with the gel to convert it to hard C-S-H.
(3) The penetrated alkaline solution converts the remaining siliceous minerals into bulky alkali silicate gel. The
resultant expansive pressure is stored in the aggregate.
(4) The accumulated pressure cracks the aggregate and the surrounding cement paste when the pressure exceeds the
tolerance of the aggregate.

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(2) Alkali Silicate Reaction:

In the alkalisilicate reaction, the layer of silicate minerals (clay minerals), sometimes present as impurities, are
attacked and thus the concrete is deteriorated.
(3) Alkali Carbonate Reaction:
The alkalicarbonate reaction is a process suspected for the degradation of concrete containing Dolomite aggaregate.
Alkali from the cement might react with the dolomite crystals present in the aggregate inducing the production
of brucite, (MgOH)2, and calcite (CaCO3). This mechanism was tentatively proposed by Swenson and Gillott
(1950 and may be written as follows:
CaMg(CO3)2 + 2 NaOH CaCO3 + Na2CO3 + Mg(OH)2
Brucite (Mg(OH)2), could be responsible for the volumetric expansion after de-dolomotisation of the aggregate, due to
absorption of water.
Prevention:
ASR can be controlled using certain supplementary cementitious materials. In proper proportions, Silica fume, fly
ash, and ground granulated blast-furnace slag have significantly reduced expansion due to alkali-silica reactivity. In
addition, lithium compounds have been used to reduce ASR.
It is also important to note that not all ASR gel reactions produce destructive swelling. ACR is relatively rare because
aggregates susceptible to this phenomenon are less common and are usually unsuitable for use in concrete for other
reasons. Aggregates susceptible to ACR tend to have a characteristic texture that can be identified by petrographers.
(C) Sulphate Attack
Sulfate attack is a chemical breakdown mechanism where sulfate ions attack components of the cement paste. The
compounds responsible for sulfate attack are water-soluble sulfate-containing salts, such as alkali-earth (calcium,
magnesium) and alkali (sodium, potassium) sulfates that are capable of chemically reacting with components of
concrete.
Sulfate sources:
1. Internal Sources: This is more rare but, originates from such concrete-making materials as hydraulic cements, fly
ash, aggregate, and admixtures. portland cement might be over-sulfated. presence of natural gypsum in the aggregate.
Admixtures also can contain small amounts of sulfates.
2. External Sources: External sources of sulfate are more common and usually are a result of high-sulfate soils and
ground waters, or can be the result ofatmospheric or industrial water pollution. Soil may contain excessive amounts of
gypsum or other sulfate. Ground water be transported to the concrete foundations, retaining walls, and other
underground structures. Industrial waste waters. Atmosphere near the oceans may carry sulphate contents
Mechanism:
Sulphates react chemically with cement paste's hydrated lime and hydrated calcium aluminate. The products of this
reaction are solids with volume greater than the compounds entering the reaction.
The formation of gypsum and ettringite expands, pressurizes and disrupts the paste. As a result, surface scaling and
disintegration set in, followed by mass deterioration.
Prevention:
The quality of concrete, specifically a low permeability, is the best protection against sulfate attack. The concrete
must have the following other characteristics:
(a) Adequate concrete thickness
(b) High cement content with low tricalcium aluminate
(c) Low w/c ratio
(d) Proper compaction and curing
(e) Proper proportions of admixtures such as silica fume, fly ash and ground slag improve resistance against sulfate
attack.

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(D) Cement carbonation:

Carbonatation is a chemical reaction in which calcium hydroxide reacts with carbon dioxide and forms
insoluble calcium carbonate.
Ca(OH)2 + CO2 CaCO3 + H2O
The process of forming a carbonate is referred to as "carbonation", although this term usually refers to the process of
dissolving carbon dioxide in water. The creation of calcium carbonate requires three equally important substances:
carbon dioxide (CO2), calcium phases (Ca), and water (H20). Carbon dioxide (CO2) is present in the surrounding air,
calcium phases (mainly Ca(OH)2 and CSH) are present in the concrete, and water (H20) is present in the pores of the
concrete.
Mechanism: The carbon dioxide in the air reacts with the alkali in the cement and makes the pore water more acidic,
thus lowering the pH. The normal pH-value of concrete is above 13 and the pH-value of fully carbonated concrete is
below 9. Once the carbonation process reaches the reinforcement, and the pH-value drops beneath 13 the passive
"film" on the re-bars will deteriorate and corrosion will initiate on the reinforcement. This carbonatation process will
start at the surface, then slowly move deeper and deeper into the concrete. The rate of carbonatation is dependent on
the relative humidity of the concrete - a 50% relative humidity being optimal. If the object is cracked, the carbon
dioxide in the air will be better able to penetrate into the concrete.
Prevention:
The speed of the carbonation process through the concrete mainly depends on two parameters:
1) The porosity of the concrete 2) The moisture content of the Concrete.
In good quality concrete, the carbonation process is slow. Lesser the porosity lesser the penetration of CO2. The
carbonation process requires constant change in the moisture levels (dry to damp to dry). The process dos not occur
when concrete pores are filled with water or when concrete is constantly underwater.
Thermal cause: (A) Freeze Thaw Disintegration:
Concrete is porous, so if water gets in and freezes it breaks off small flakes from the surface. Deicing salts make it
worse. This is typically called scaling and it can occur during the first winter and get worse over time. When severe, it
can lead to complete destruction of the concrete.
Precaution / prevention: To protect concrete from freeze/thaw damage, it should be air-entrained by adding a surface
active agent to the concrete mixture. This creates a large number of closely spaced, small air bubbles in the hardened
concrete. The air bubbles relieve the pressure build-up caused by ice formation by acting as expansion chambers.
About 4% air by volume is needed and the air-bubbles should be well distributed and have a distance between each
other of less than 0.25 mm in the cement paste.
Thermal cause: (c) Early thermal contraction
Fresh concrete undergoes temperature rise due to cement hydration. When concrete is cooling to the surrounding
ambient temperature in a few days, the concrete has very little tensile strength. Weak tensile strength thermally
contracting concrete tension cracks
Factors affecting early temperature rise in fresh concrete are:
1. Initial temperature of materials: Warm materials lead to warm concrete. Aggregate temperature is most critical.
2. Ambient temperature: Higher ambient temperature leads to higher peaks
3. Dimensions: Large sections generate more heat.
4. Curing: Water curing dissipates the build-up of heat. Avoid thermal shock.
5. Formwork removal: Early removal of formwork reduces peak temperature.
6. Type of formwork: Wood form produces higher temperatures than steel forms
7. Cement Content: More cement in the mix means more heat.
8. Cement Type: Type III cement produces more heat than most other cements
9. Admixtures: Fly ash reduces the amount of heat build-up
Structural cause: 1. Underestimated Design Loads 2. Creep: Creep is the time-dependent part of the strain resulting
from stress. Steady state Creep In other words, creep is the Primary increase in strain under sustained stress.

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Deterioration of structures
Possible causes of deterioration/defects
Preconstruction stage
Poor design
Poor design detailing
Causes
Poor deflection estimations
Faulty design of rigid joints in precast elements
Faulty design estimations at changes in sections
Leakage through joints
Inadequate drainage
Effects

Inefficient drainage slopes

Structural collapse

Cracks due to unanticipated or underestimated stresses

Incompatibility of materials at critical sections

Prevention

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Thorough and careful design by experienced design engineers

Construction stage defects

Local
settlements
of subgrade

Causes

Cure
Causes
Swelling of
formwork

Causes

Prevention

Internal
settlement of
concrete

Causes

Prevention

Causes
Setting
shrinkage of
concrete
Premature
removal of
shores

Prevention
Causes

Prevention
Vibrations

Causes
Prevention

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Pouring fresh concrete sometimes may cause subgrade below it

to compress or settle. Uneven stresses thus created cause cracks
in the concrete.
Cracks of this sort are cured while applying final finish to the
concrete.
1) formwork absorbs moisture from concrete or the
atmosphere,which results in swelling of the form.
2) Crushing of wale in the formwork also causes
movements of forms
3) These result in cracks in the concrete while setting
1) Coating of the formwork with moisture resistant
material.
2) Using unyielding lateral ties with good end anchorage
1) Differential settlement between the surface and the
interior volume of the concrete suspension causes
surface cracks.
2) Concrete on the surface sets faster than the interior
suspension.
1) surface cracks can be cured and closed by delay
finishing.
2) Curing of concrete must start immediately after casting
to delay setting of the surface concrete.
3) Good compaction will also help prevent this defect.
While setting the concrete shrinks giving rise to surfacial cracks
resembling the scales of the alligator.
Good and timely curing will help avoid this type of damage.
1) premature removal of shores from freshly poured concrete
causes redistribution of stresses on formwork, causing
movements and crackingof concrete.
Shores must be removed only after the concrete has gained
sufficient strength.
1) Vibrations due to indiscreet walking over concrete and
dumping construction materials, etc., can also lead to cracking.
Workers have top be trained in avoiding such carelessness.

Post-construction stage defects

Temperature Stresses

Causes

Causes

Prevention
Corrosion of
reinforcement

Causes

Prevention

Aggressive action of
chemicals

Causes

Prevention

Weathering action

Causes

Prevention

Overloading
Moisture effects
Natural disasters
Fire

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Cracks in concrete can be produced due to temperature

stresses due to:
1) Difference in temperature inside and outside the
building
2) Variation in the internal temperature.
1) The finishing of the surface should be such that it
reflects solar radiation and not absorbs it.
Corrosion of reinforcement bars can be due to:
1) entry of moisture through cracks
2) electrochemical action
Seal the crack before it reaches the reinforcement bar
Protect against corrosive chemical action by
1) Keeping structure clean
2) Painting
3) Prevent from absorbing moisture
4) Provide bituminous or zinc coatings.
5) Encase using fibre wrapping systems.
1) Sulphate attack
2) Acid attack
3) Action of salts
4) Alkali-aggregate reactions
1) in sulphate environment, the concrete must be made of
sulphate-resistant cement. Bituminous coating can also be
provided.
Shock waves
1) shock waves could be mechanical or thermal
2) concrete is heterogeneous- different constituents
have different wave transmission rates
3) Erosion
1) providing sufficient reinforcement is said to an
excellent resistance to shock waves.
2) Use of high strength concrete
3) Proper curing
4) Proper finishing

NEED FOR REHABILITATION AND RETROFITTING:

1. Retrofitting and rehabilitation of any structure reduces the vulnerability of damage of an existing structure
during distress in future.
2. The applications include different types of buildings, industrial structures, bridges, urban transport structures,
marine structures and earth retaining structures.
3. The benefits of retrofitting or rehabilitation include the reduction in the loss of lives and damage of the
essential facilities, and functional continuity of the life line structures.
4. For an existing structure of good condition, the cost of retrofitting tends to be smaller than the replacement
cost. Thus, the retrofitting of structures is an essential component of long term disaster mitigation.
5. To ensure a higher level of safety, reduce the risk of exorbitant repair costs and minimize building down time
after an earthquake, it was intended that the seismic upgrade of the structural system will target the
performance standard of immediate occupancy.
6.

Improves the life of structure and ensures safety to occupants.

7.

Better appearance and aesthetically appealing.

8.

Better serviceability of elements and components

9.

Prevents major deterioration and leading to collapse

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