Research Methodology in Education notes

Ongwediva Campus

By: Sakaria Epandulo-LyaKalunga Lyagwana Iyambo

2019 Academic year

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What is a research?

 It is an organized and systematic way to find answers to questions.

 It can also be defined as the systematic investigation into and study of
materials and sources in order to establish facts and reach new conclusion.
Our main focus will be on educational research

What is an educational research?

 Refers to variety of educational methods, in which individual evaluate different

aspects of education including students learning, teaching methods, teacher
training and classroom dynamics.
Purpose of educational research

 Educational research uses the scientific methods to study best practices

 To develop new knowledge about teaching –learning situation to improve
educational practices.
 Provide instruction that maximize student learning
 To provide solutions to educational problems
 To understand and support the developmental needs of students.
 It helps us to understand our past (Historical research)
 To uncover the unknown (experimental research)
 To identify the relationship that that the past has to the present.

Educational research can address the following variable:

1. Learning – how do students’ best learn various subjects?

2. Teaching- What are the teaching practices to foster students’ achievements?
3. Motivation- What are the best practices for teachers to motivate their students
to excel
4. Development-How do children and adults change over time in term of
cognitive, social and emotional skills?

Classroom management- What classroom or school practices make the

classroom optimal for

Types of research

1. Action Research

 It is a process in which teachers investigate teaching and learning so as to

improve their own and their students' learning.
• Action research is a form of investigation designed for use by teachers to
attempt to solve problems and improve professional practices in their own
classrooms. It involves systematic observations and data collection which can
be then used by the practitioner-researcher in reflection, decision-making and

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 the development of more effective classroom strategies.

GOAL/PURPOSE OF ACTION RESEARCH

(Best and Khan, 1998)
• The goal is the involvement of both research specialist and classroom teacher
in the study and application of research to educational problems in a particular
classroom setting.
• Its purpose is to improve the practices: to combine the research processes,
habits of taking, ability to work harmoniously with others and professional
spirit.

• Teachers investigate their own practice in new ways, looking deeper in what
they and their students actually do and fail to do.

• Teachers develop a deeper understanding of students, the teacher learning

process and their role in the education of both teachers and students.

• Teachers are viewed as equal partners in deciding what works best and what
needs improvement in their classroom or classrooms.

• In most cases, solutions for identified problems are arrived cooperatively

among teachers.

• Teachers are often more committed to action research because they identify
the areas they view as problematical and in need of change.

• Action research is an ongoing process and its strategies can be widely

applied.

• Professional development and school improvement are core aspects for any
teacher who engages in action research.

• Teacher reflection can be conducted individually or in a school-based team

composed of students, teachers and administrators.

2. Experimental research

Experimental research is any research conducted with a scientific approach, where a

set of variables are kept constant while the other set of variables are being
measured as the subject of experiment.

The simplest example of an experimental research is conducting a laboratory test.

As long as research is being conducted under scientifically acceptable conditions – it
qualifies as an experimental research.

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 Types of Experimental Research Design

There are three primary types of experimental research design:

 Pre-experimental research design

 True experimental research design
 Quasi-experimental research design
The different types of experimental research design are based on the how the
researcher classifies the subjects according to various conditions and groups.

1. Pre-Experimental Research Design: This is the simplest form of experimental

research design. A group, or various groups, are kept under observation after factors
are considered for cause and effect. It is usually conducted to understand whether
further investigation needs to be carried out on the target group/s, due to which it is
considered to be cost-effective.

2. True Experimental Research Design: True experimental research is the most

accurate form of experimental research design as it relies on statistical analysis to
prove or disprove a hypothesis. It is the only type of Experimental Design that can
establish a cause-effect relationship within a group/s. In a true experiment, there are
three factors which need to be satisfied:

 Control Group (Group of participants for research that are familiar to the
Experimental group but experimental research rules do not apply to them.) and
Experimental Group (Research participants on whom experimental research rules
do apply.)
 Variable which can be manipulated by the researcher

3. Quasi-Experimental Research Design: The word “Quasi” indicates

resemblance. A quasi-experimental research design is similar to experimental
research but is not exactly that. The difference between the two the assignment of a
control group.

Advantages of Experimental Research

 Researchers have a stronger hold over variables to obtain desired results.

 Subject or industry is not a criterion for experimental research due to which any
industry can implement it for research purposes.
 Results are extremely specific.
 Once the results are analyzed, they can be applied to various other similar
aspects.
 Cause and effect of a hypothesis can be derived so that researchers can analyze
greater details.
 Experimental research can be used in association with other research methods

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3. Case study
Case studies are in-depth studies of a phenomenon, like a person, group, or
situation. The phenomenon is studied in detail, cases are analysed and solutions or
interpretations are presented. It can provide a deeper understanding of a complex
topic or assist a person in gaining experience about a certain situation.

The general purpose of a case study is to:

 describe an individual situation (case)into more details, e.g. a person,

business, organisation, or institution, in detail;
 identify the key issues of the case (your assignment question should tell you
what to focus on);
 analyse the case using relevant theoretical concepts from your unit or
discipline;
 Recommend a course of action for that particular case (particularly for
problem-solving case studies).

4. Historical Research
The process involves investigating, recording, analyzing, and interpreting the events
of the past for the purpose of discovering generalizations that are helpful in
understanding the past and the present and to a limited extent, in anticipating the
future.

Purpose of Historical research

 It is the only research method that can study evidence from the past.

 The historical method is well suited for trend analysis.

 Help the researcher to understand about the past.

 To establish the relationship between the past and present.

5. Survey

Survey research is the collection of data attained by asking individuals questions

either in person, on paper, by phone or online. Conducting surveys is one form of
primary research, which is the gathering data first-hand from its source.

Purpose of conducting a survey

 Uncover the answers. In a non-intimidating survey environment, you will

learn about what motivates survey respondents and what is important to
them, and gather meaningful opinions, comments, and feedback. A non-
intimidating survey environment is one that best suits the privacy needs of the
survey respondent. Respondents are more likely to provide open and honest
feedback in a more private survey method. Methods such as online surveys,
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 paper surveys, or mobile surveys are more private and less intimidating than
face-to-face survey interviews or telephone surveys.
 Evoke discussion. Give your survey respondents an opportunity to discuss
important key topics. Communicate with your respondents about your survey
topic. This allows you to dig deeper into your survey, and can incite topics
related to your survey within a broader perspective.

 Base decisions on objective information. Conducting surveys is an

unbiased approach to decision-making. Don’t rely on “gut feelings” to make
important business decisions. You can collect unbiased survey data and
develop sensible decisions based on analysed results. By analysing results,
you can immediately address topics of importance, rather than waste time and
valuable resources on areas of little or no concern.
 Compare results. Surveys results provide a snapshot of the attitudes and
behaviours – including thoughts, opinions, and comments – about your target
survey population. This valuable feedback is your baseline to measure and
establish a benchmark from which to compare results over time

6. Correlational research

A correlational study determines whether or not two variables are correlated. This
means to study whether an increase or decrease in one variable corresponds to an
increase or decrease in the other variable.

One purpose for doing correlational research is to determine the degree to which a relationship
exists between two or more variables.

7. Longitudinal research

longitudinal study is correlational research which follows one group of individuals

over a long period of time, perhaps decades. Researchers must evaluate the
subjects at a minimum of two different time periods so they can be compared.

8. Ex post facto design is a quasi-experimental study examining how an

independent variable, present prior to the study, affects a dependent variable.
9. Ethnographic research is a qualitative method where researchers observe
and/or interact with a study’s participants in their real-life environment.

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10. Phenomenology is a qualitative research method that is used to describe how
human beings experience a certain phenomenon. A phenomenological study
attempts to set aside biases and preconceived assumptions about human
experiences, feelings, and responses to a particular situation. It allows the
researcher to delve into the perceptions, perspectives, understandings, and feelings
of those people who have actually experienced or lived the phenomenon or situation
of interest. Therefore, phenomenology can be defined as the direct investigation and
description of phenomena as consciously experienced by people living those
experiences. Phenomenological research is typically conducted through the use of
in-depth interviews of small samples of participants.

2. Conducting a research study

Sources of research topics

 Personal interest (your favorite course, subject, topic)

 Information/observation (any behavior that arouses your curiosity)
 Practical problems (problems in your class, school, job)
 Pop ups -fleeting thoughts (falling apples)
 Readings (books, magazines, web sites, even cartoons, advertisements)
 Theories (theories that predict a behavior- opposing theories for the same
behavior)

3. Conducting literature review

What is literature review?

 Is an evaluation report of information found in literature related to selected

area of study.
 It can also be described as the process of reading, analysing, evaluating and
summarizing scholarly materials about a specific topic.
 A literature review is a descriptive, analytic summary of the existing material
relating to a particular topic or area of study.

 The literature review process involves a systematic examination of

prior scholarly works

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The purpose of a literature review is to:
 Literature review educates the researcher about what studies have been
conducted in the past and how those studies were conducted and the
conclusion made in that area
 It identifies what is already known about an area of study.
 Enable the researcher to learn from previous theory on the subject.
 Outline the gaps in previous research

 Provide foundation of knowledge on topic

 Identify areas of prior scholarship to prevent duplication and give credit to
other researchers
 Identify inconstancies: gaps in research, conflicts in previous studies, open
questions left from other research
 Identify need for additional research (justifying your research)
 Identify the relationship of works in context of its contribution to the topic and
to other works
 Place your own research within the context of existing literature making a
case for why further study is needed.

4. Research proposal

Is a research plan outlining the research problem, the subjects (Who are to be
studied) and the methods by which the problem is to be investigated.

Why research proposal is important?

 It makes it easy to understand the study a researcher intends to carry out.

 It provides direction to the researcher in that possible to be focused without
loosing
 it gives clear picture of activities to be carried out at every stage
 It provides for orderliness in carrying out the research activities
 Helps examine what the researcher intends to do.
 Research proposal can serve as a document of contract for the project.
 Research proposals can be effective starting places to discuss projects with
your professors, too.
 The research proposal is able to give an overview of the research project so
that other people understand the scope of the research, the significance of
the research, as well as your proposed methodology and chosen research
method.
 Advantages of research proposal Fund to support your research
 Allow you to review and critically evaluate your current research program.
 Convince yourself and others that your research is worth supporting
 Keep you focused on your research program

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  Develop novel ideas during writing proposal

5. Ethical issues in conducting the research

Research ethics are the principles of right or wrong that guide the
researchers when conducting their researches.

1. Seek approval from the relevant authority to conduct the research.

2. Informed consent

 The subjects must be informed about the research topic before they
decide to take part in the research.
 The researcher should further explain the purpose of the research
 An explanation of how and why the subjects were selected to participate.

3. Confidentiality
 The respondent should be assured that their responses would be treated in
the strictest of confidence.
 The researcher should assure the responded that no one else will have
access to data collected except the researcher

4. Privacy
 The researcher should not coerce (force) their respondents to release the
information which they think are private to them.

5. Plagiarism
 Plagiarism is an academic crime. The researcher should try by all means not
to commit this offence. Do your own work and contribute to the existing
knowledge.

6. Deception
 Deception lies in not telling the subjects the truth about the research. The
responded might give you the necessary information that you need.

7. Respect the respondents

8. Right to withdraw

 The researcher should inform the participants that they have the right to
withdraw from the research at any stage.

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Research method

Research population

 Refers to all the individuals, units, subjects that will be considered in a

research project.

Sample

 A smaller group or subset of the population selected from the population.

Relationship of Sample and Population in Research

A sample is simply a subset of the population. The concept of sample arises from the
inability of the researchers to test all the individuals in a given population. The
sample must be representative of the population from which it was drawn and it must
have good size to warrant statistical analysis.

The main function of the sample is to allow the researchers to conduct the study to
individuals from the population so that the results of their study can be used to derive
conclusions that will apply to the entire population. It is much like a give-and-take
process. The population “gives" the sample, and then it “takes" conclusions from the
results obtained from the sample.

Two Types of Population in Research

Target Population

Target population refers to the ENTIRE group of individuals or objects to which

researchers are interested in generalizing the conclusions. The target population
usually has varying characteristics and it is also known as the theoretical population.

Accessible Population

The accessible population is the population in research to which the researchers can
apply their conclusions. This population is a subset of the target population and is

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also known as the study population. It is from the accessible population that
researchers draw their samples.

Sampling techniques

Probability sampling techniques

Simple Random Sampling: Every element has an equal chance of getting selected
to be the part sample. It is used when we don’t have any kind of prior information
about the target population.

For example: Random selection of 20 students from class of 50 student. Each

student has equal chance of getting selected. Here probability of selection is 1/50

Stratified Sampling

This technique divides the elements of the population into small subgroups (strata)
based on the similarity in such a way that the elements within the group are
homogeneous and heterogeneous among the other subgroups formed. And then the
elements are randomly selected from each of these strata. We need to have prior
information about the population to create subgroups.

Cluster Sampling

Our entire population is divided into clusters or sections and then the clusters are
randomly selected. All the elements of the cluster are used for sampling. Clusters are
identified using details such as age, sex, location etc.

Systematic Clustering

Here the selection of elements is systematic and not random except the first element.
Elements of a sample are chosen at regular intervals of population. All the elements
are put together in a sequence first where each element has the equal chance of
being selected.

Non-Probability Sampling

It does not rely on randomization. This technique is more reliant on the researcher’s
ability to select elements for a sample. Outcome of sampling might be biased and
makes difficult for all the elements of population to be part of the sample equally. This
type of sampling is also known as non-random sampling.

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Convenience Sampling

Here the samples are selected based on the availability. This method is used when
the availability of sample is rare and also costly. So based on the convenience
samples are selected.

For example: Researchers prefer this during the initial stages of survey research, as
it’s quick and easy to deliver results.

Purposive Sampling

This is based on the intention or the purpose of study. Only those elements will be
selected from the population which suits the best for the purpose of our study.

For Example: If we want to understand the thought process of the people who are
interested in pursuing master’s degree then the selection criteria would be “Are you
interested for Masters in..?”

All the people who respond with a “No” will be excluded from our sample.

Quota Sampling

This type of sampling depends of some pre-set standard. It selects the representative
sample from the population. Proportion of characteristics/ trait in sample should be
same as population. Elements are selected until exact proportions of certain types of
data are obtained or sufficient data in different categories is collected.

For example: If our population has 45% females and 55% males then our sample
should reflect the same percentage of males and females.

Referral /Snowball Sampling

This technique is used in the situations where the population is completely unknown
and rare.

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Therefore we will take the help from the first element which we select for the
population and ask him to recommend other elements who will fit the description of
the sample needed.So this referral technique goes on, increasing the size of
population like a snowball.

Research instruments used to collect data

What is data collection?
 The process by which the researcher collects the information needed to
answer the research problem.

In collecting the data, the researcher must decide:

 Which data to collect

 How to collect the data
 Who will collect the data
 When to collect the data
The selection of data collection method should be based on the following:
 The identified hypothesis or research problem
 The research design
 The information gathered about the variables

Types of Research Instruments

 Questionnaire.
 Interview
 Observation
 Document analysis

Questionnaire: A series of questions designed to elicit information, which is filled in
by all participants in the sample.

Advantages of a Questionnaire
 Relatively simple method of obtaining data.
 Less time is consumed.
 Researcher is able to gather data from a widely scattered sample.

Disadvantages of a Questionnaire:
 Responses to a questionnaire lack depth.
 Respondent may omit or disregard any item he chooses.
 Some items may force the subject to select responses that are not his actual
choice
 Length of the questionnaire is limited according to the respondent’s interest.
 Printing may be costly especially if it is lengthy.
 Data are limited to the information that is voluntarily supplied by the
respondents.
 Some items may be misunderstood.

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Interview
 This involves either structure or unstructured verbal communication between
the researcher and subject, during which information is obtained for a study.

.Advantages of Interview

 Data from interview are usable

 Depth of response can be assured
 In an exploratory study, the interview technique provides basis for the
formulation of questionnaire
 Clarification is possible 5. No items are overlooked 6. Higher proportion of
responses is obtained
 Greater amount of flexibility is allowed

Observation

Advantages of Observation.

 Produces large quantities of data.

 All data obtained from observation are usable.
 Relatively inexpensive.
 All subjects are potential respondents.
 Subjects are usually available.
 The observation technique can be stopped or begun at any time.
 Observation may be recorded at the time they occur eliminating bias because
of recall.

Disadvantages of Observation
 Accurate prediction of a situation or event to be observed is unlikely.

Research Design

There are three types of research design:

 Qualitative
 Quantitative
 Mixed approach

The difference between qualitative and quantitative research

It’s important to understand the difference between qualitative and quantitative

research, especially if you’re new to the field. There’s a common misconception that
one is ‘better’ than the other, however qualitative and quantitative research serve

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vastly different purposes. Read on to learn about what makes them different, how
you can turn one into the other, and when you might use which method.

Qualitative research

Qualitative (‘qual’) research is often used for exploring. It helps researchers gain an
understanding of underlying reasons, opinions, and motivations. It provides insights
into the problem or helps to develop ideas or hypotheses for potential quantitative
research.

Qualitative data collection methods vary using unstructured or semi-structured

techniques. Common methods include focus groups, individual interviews,
observation or immersion, and diary studies. The sample size is typically small, and
respondents are selected to fulfil a given quota.

Quantitative research

Quantitative (‘quant’) research is used to quantify the problem by way of generating

numerical data that can be transformed into useable statistics. It is used to quantify
attitudes, opinions, behaviours, and other defined variables, and generalize results
from a larger sample population. Quantitative research uses measurable data to
formulate facts and uncover patterns in research.

Mixed approach

The researcher uses both elements of qualitative and quantitative research

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