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UNIT IV -DMSP-II

PART I - COMMUNITY ORGANISATION

Sociologist And their Contributions

Mary Richmond - Pioneer of social casework.
- Developed the first comprehensive theory and method for social casework.
- Authored "Social Diagnosis" (1917), outlining principles and methods for casework.
Jane Addams - Co-founder of Hull House in Chicago.
- Pioneered the settlement house movement.
- Focused on social reform and community organization to address urban poverty and social
issues.
Eduard Lindeman - Early proponent of group work as a method in social work practice.
- Emphasized the importance of group processes and dynamics in social work.
- Authored "The Meaning of Adult Education" (1926).
Grace Coyle - Further developed the practice and theory of social group work.
- Emphasized the role of group work in social development and community building.
- Authored "Group Experience and Democratic Values" (1947).
Kurt Lewin - Introduced field theory and the concept of group dynamics.
- Conducted research on group behavior, leadership styles, and change processes.
- Developed the Lewin's Change Management Model, useful in organizational and
community settings.
Saul Alinsky - Father of community organizing.
- Developed methods for grassroots organizing and community mobilization.
- Authored "Rules for Radicals" (1971), providing strategies for community activists.
Murray G. Ross - Developed principles and processes for community organization.
- Emphasized the role of community organizers in fostering collective action and social
change.
- Authored "Community Organization: Theory and Principles" (1955).
Jack - Formulated three models of community organization: locality development,
Rothman social planning, and social action.
- Contributed to the understanding of macro social work practices.
- Emphasized the need for tailored approaches based on community context.
Florence Hollis - Advanced the method of psychosocial casework.
- Integrated psychological theories with social work practice.
- Authored "Casework: A Psychosocial Therapy" (1964).
Helen Perlman - Developed the problem-solving model in social work.
- Emphasized a structured approach to addressing client issues.
- Authored "Social Casework: A Problem-Solving Process" (1957).
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Wilbur - Contributed to the development of social group work theory and

Newstetter practice.
- Emphasized the educational and therapeutic potential of group experiences.
- Worked on integrating group work into social work education and practice.

IMPORTANT CONCEPTS

Concept/Term Description
Assessment The process of gathering information about a client’s situation and needs.
Actions taken by social workers to address identified issues and support
Intervention
clients.
Casework Direct work with individuals to help them solve personal and social problems.
Group Facilitating group activities to promote personal development and mutual
Work support.
Community Working with communities to address collective issues and
Organization improve conditions.
Empowerment Helping clients gain control over their lives and increase their capacity.
Confidentiality Ensuring that client information is kept private and secure.
Client-Centered Focusing on the client’s needs, preferences, and goals in the
Approach intervention process.
Strengths-Based Identifying and leveraging the client’s strengths and
Perspective resources.
Crisis Intervention Immediate assistance provided during a client’s crisis situation.
Cultural Awareness and sensitivity to the client’s cultural background and
Competence identity.
Ethics Standards and principles that guide social work practice.
Boundaries Maintaining professional limits in the client-social worker relationship.
Advocacy Supporting and promoting the rights and interests of clients.
Self- Respecting and supporting the client’s right to make their own
Determination decisions.
Empathy Understanding and sharing the feelings of the client.
Social Justice Ensuring fair and equitable treatment and opportunities for all clients.
Micro Practice Social work practice focused on individuals and small groups.
Macro Practice Social work practice focused on communities and larger systems.
Mezzo Social work practice focused on intermediate groups, such as families or
Practice organizations.
Case Management Coordinating services and resources for clients to meet their needs.
Reflective Actively listening and reflecting back what the client says to ensure
Listening understanding.
Therapeutic Alliance Building a trusting and collaborative relationship with the client.
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Holistic Considering the whole person, including physical, emotional, social, and
Approach environmental factors.
Evidence-Based Using interventions and practices that are supported by research and
Practice evidence.
Genogram A visual representation of a client’s family relationships and history.
Ecomap A diagram that shows the social and personal relationships of a client.
Intake The initial process of gathering information from a new client.
Contracting Agreeing on goals and methods with the client.
Ending the client-social worker relationship when goals are met or services are
Termination
no longer needed.
Dual Engaging in multiple roles with a client, which can create conflicts of
Relationships interest.
Physical and emotional exhaustion from prolonged stress and overwork in social
Burnout
work practice.
Supervision Guidance and support provided by a more experienced social worker.
Activities and practices that social workers engage in to maintain their well-
Self-Care
being.
Trauma-Informed An approach that recognizes and responds to the impact of trauma
Care on clients.
Cognitive Behavioral Therapy A therapeutic approach that addresses dysfunctional
(CBT) thoughts and behaviors.
Motivational Interviewing A client-centered counseling style for eliciting behavior change.
Narrative A therapeutic approach that explores the stories clients tell about their
Therapy lives.
Family Systems Understanding clients in the context of their family dynamics and
Theory relationships.
Ecological Viewing clients within the context of their environment and social
Perspective systems.
Person-In-Environment Assessing individuals in the context of their physical and social
(PIE) environments.
Resource Mobilization Identifying and utilizing resources to support clients’ needs.
Risk Assessment Evaluating potential risks to the client’s safety and well-being.
Resilience The ability of clients to recover and adapt to adversity.
Working together with clients and other professionals to achieve common
Collaboration
goals.
Social Networks The web of relationships and connections that support clients.
Human Rights The basic rights and freedoms that all individuals are entitled to.
Advocacy Planning Developing strategies to support clients in achieving their goals.
Social The assistance and comfort received from friends, family, and the
Support community.
Life Skills Training Teaching clients practical skills to manage daily life challenges.
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Introduction

• Three Basic Methods in Social Work: Working with individuals, groups, and communities.

• Social Casework: Helps individuals on a one-to-one basis.

• Social Group Work: Facilitates development through group activities.

• Community Organization: Aims at developing community capacity by organizing it to handle

its needs and problems.

Meaning and Definition of Community Organization

Meaning

• General Understanding: Community organization is often synonymous with community

work, development, and mobilization.

• Purpose: Helps communities solve their problems through organized efforts.

• Community Structure: Not just individuals living together, but linked through systems like
economy, politics, values, and social interactions.

• True Organization: Requires interaction, integration, and coordination among existing

institutions and groups, and the creation of new ones as needed.

Definition

• Murray G. Ross (1967):

o Process: Community identifies needs, prioritizes them, develops confidence, finds

resources, and fosters cooperative attitudes.

o Role of Professional Workers: Initiate, nourish, and develop this process, making it
conscious and deliberative.

o Community: Refers to people in a geographic area or those with common interests

or functions.

• Kramer and Specht (1975):

o Intervention: Professional change agents help community action systems engage in

planned collective action.

o Concerns:

▪ Interaction Process: Identifying, recruiting, and working with members to

develop relationships.

▪ Technical Tasks: Identifying problems, analyzing causes, formulating plans,

developing strategies, and mobilizing resources.

Analysis of Definitions

• Common Elements: Both definitions emphasize "Need-Resources Adjustment" and "Social

Relationships."

• Three Dimensions of Community Organization Practice:

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1. Setting and Focus: Community and its problems.

2. Goals: Enhanced functional capacity of the community and influence on social

welfare policy.

3. Techniques: Affecting inter-personal and inter-group relationships.

Historical Context

• Community Work in Social Work:

o Often used interchangeably with community development, organization, and

empowerment.

o Long history as a part of social work, recognized globally.

o Preceded formal social work education, dating back to the 1800s with movements
like charity organization and settlement house movements in the UK and USA.

• India's Experience:

o Community work in Mumbai's slums led to the first social work education institution
in 1936.

o Focused on developing local initiatives in education, health, and agriculture.

o Aimed at encouraging community members to express needs and use existing

resources.

Community Work Approaches

• Three Main Approaches:

1. Community Development: Focuses on overall development initiatives within a

community.

2. Community Organization: Works on organizing community efforts and resources.

3. Community Relations Services: Aims to improve relationships within the

community.

Objectives and Methods

• Shared Goals with Other Social Work Methods:

o Removal of growth blocks for individuals, groups, or communities.

o Full utilization of internal resources.

o Development of capacity to manage own affairs.

o Enabling the community to function as an integrated unit.

• Specific to Community Organization:

o Initiation of processes to overcome blocks like apathy, vested interests, and

discrimination.

o Facilitating the release of potentials and use of indigenous resources.

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o Growth of cooperative attitudes and skills for achieving increasingly difficult

objectives.

Evolution of Community Organization

• Maturation Process: Community organization evolved as a product of maturation in social

work, not just as a profession's beginning.

• Complexity: Addressing the increasingly complex needs and problems of communities.

Value Orientation of Community Organization

Key Questions

• How should community organization be practiced?

• Are there value orientations and principles to guide community organization?

• How can success be improved in achieving community organization objectives?

Values in Community Organization

• Unique Frame of Reference: Community organization is based on specific value orientations.

• Personal and Professional Values: Influence the style of intervention and skills used by
workers.

• Beliefs and Preferences: Values dictate how one should behave, although they have
subjective elements and can vary between groups and individuals.

Basic Ethical and Social Values

• Essential Dignity and Worth: Every individual has intrinsic value and dignity.

• Potential and Resources: Each person has the potential and resources to manage their own
life.

• Freedom of Expression: Individuals should have the freedom to express their individuality.

• Capacity for Growth: All social beings have the capacity to grow.

• Basic Necessities: Right to food, shelter, and clothing is fundamental to fulfilling life.

• Struggle and Improvement: Individuals have the right to strive for a better life and
environment.

• Help in Need: Right to assistance during times of need and crisis.

• Social Responsibility: Importance of feeling responsible for social organization.

• Encouraging Growth: A social climate that fosters individual growth and development.

• Participation: Right and responsibility to participate in community affairs.

• Problem-Solving Methods: Discussion, conference, and consultation are practical methods

for solving individual and social problems.

• Self-Help: The foundation of community organization lies in the principle of self-help.

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Principles of Community Organization

General Guiding Rules

• Generalized Guiding Rules: Principles are expressions of value judgments, guiding sound
practice in community organization.

• Democratic Society Values: Emphasize dignity, worth, freedom, security, participation, and
the wholesome life of every individual.

• Democratic Practice Principles: Betterment of marginalized groups, transparency, honesty,

sustainability, self-reliance, partnerships, and cooperation.

Dunham's Principles (1958)

Grouped under seven headings:

1. Democracy and Social Welfare

2. Community Roots for Community Programs

3. Citizen Understanding, Support, and Participation and Professional Service

4. Cooperation

5. Social Welfare Programs

6. Adequacy, Distribution, and Organization of Social Welfare Services

7. Prevention

Ross's Principles (1967)

Outlined twelve specific principles:

1. Initiation by Discontent: Discontent with existing conditions must initiate and nourish
development.

2. Focused Discontent: Channel discontent into organization, planning, and action on specific
problems.

3. Shared Discontent: Discontent must be widely shared in the community.

4. Involvement of Leaders: Involve leaders (formal and informal) accepted by major sub-
groups.

5. Acceptable Goals and Methods: Goals, methods, and procedures should be highly
acceptable.

6. Emotional Content Activities: Include activities with emotional content.

7. Utilization of Goodwill: Use manifest and latent goodwill in the community.

8. Effective Communication: Develop active and effective communication lines within and
outside the association.

9. Support and Strengthen Groups: Support and strengthen groups working together.
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10. Pace of Work: Work at a pace in line with existing community conditions.

11. Development of Leaders: Develop effective leaders.

12. Strength and Stability: Develop strength, stability, and prestige in the community.

Siddiqui's Principles (1997)

Specific to practice situations in India, outlined eight principles:

1. Specific Objectives: Define clear, specific objectives.

2. Planning: Undertake thorough planning.

3. People's Participation: Ensure active participation of the community.

4. Inter-group Approach: Utilize an inter-group approach.

5. Democratic Functioning: Function democratically.

6. Flexible Organization: Maintain a flexible organization.

7. Optimum Utilization of Indigenous Resources: Use local resources effectively.

8. Cultural Orientation: Be culturally sensitive and oriented.

Principles of Community Organization in the Indian Context

1. Community Organization as a Means, Not an End

• Process: Enhances the community's capacity to function as an integrated unit.

• Intervention: Helps individuals, groups, or organizations engage in planned collective action

to address needs and problems.

2. Promote Community Solidarity and Democracy

• Overcome Disruptive Influences: Aim to mitigate influences that threaten community well-
being and democratic institutions.

• Avoid Discrimination: Promote integration and mutual acceptance, avoiding segregation or

exclusion.

3. Clear Identification of the Community

• Identify Community: Clearly identify the community as the client.

• Whole Community Concern: Focus on the entire community's welfare rather than any single
group or agency.

4. Fact-finding and Needs Assessment

• Community Roots: Programs should originate from within the community based on a
thorough assessment of needs.

• Local Participation: Ensure vital community participation and control in the development of
services.
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• Responsive Programs: Modify or terminate programs based on community needs and

availability of comparable services.

5. Identification, Mobilization, and Utilization of Resources

• Utilize Existing Resources: Make full use of existing social welfare resources before creating
new ones.

• Mobilize Resources: Mobilize resources from various sources like community, government,
and non-government agencies.

• Optimize Human Resources: Extensively use indigenous human resources.

6. Participatory Planning

• Blueprint Preparation: Prepare a blueprint in collaboration with the community considering

needs, resources, and objectives.

• Continuous Process: Planning is continuous and based on facts, not guesswork.

• Encourage Participation: Analyse and remove factors impeding participation, encouraging

involvement at appropriate levels.

7. Active and Vital Participation

• Self-help: Encourage community members to participate actively throughout the process.

• Democratic Principle: Involve those with a primary stake in the results directly.

8. Community Right of Self-Determination

• Professional Assistance: Provide professional skills, assistance, and creative leadership.

• Community Decisions: Allow community members to make basic decisions regarding

programs and policies.

• Enable Expression: Facilitate expression and leadership without control or manipulation.

9. Voluntary Cooperation

• Mutual Understanding: Base community organization on mutual understanding, voluntary

acceptance, and mutual agreement.

• Inner Freedom: Derive action from inner freedom and the will to unite.

10. Cooperation Over Competition

• Collaborative Effort: Focus on cooperation rather than competition, fostering effective

advancements through coordinated efforts.

• Manage Conflict: Recognize that conflict can be both disruptive and creative; appropriately
manage it for community benefit.

11. Recognition and Involvement of Indigenous Leadership

• Identify Leaders: Recognize and involve leaders (both formal and informal) accepted by
various community subgroups.
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• Nourish Communication: Effective communication with leaders sustains the process of

community organization.

12. Limited Use of Authority or Compulsion

• Minimal Use: Use authority or compulsion sparingly, as a last resort, and return to
cooperative processes as soon as possible.

13. Dynamic and Flexible Programs

• Responsive to Change: Ensure programs and services are flexible and responsive to
changing community conditions, problems, and needs.

14. Continuing Participatory Evaluation

• Regular Feedback: Set aside time for regular evaluation of programs based on community
feedback.

• Effectiveness Criteria: Establish criteria to evaluate the effectiveness and accomplishments

of actions taken.

Community as a Social System

Definition and Concept

• Social System: A structured network of relationships, interactions, and institutions that

define a community.

• Community: Not just a collection of individuals, but an organized system with shared values,
norms, and goals.

Components of a Social System

1. Structures:

o Institutions: Family, education, religion, economy, and government.

o Organizations: Schools, businesses, religious organizations, and social clubs.

2. Processes:

o Interaction: Patterns of communication and relationships among members.

o Integration: The degree to which members are united and cohesive.

o Adaptation: How the community adjusts to internal and external changes.

o Goal Attainment: The community's ability to set and achieve collective goals.

3. Functions:

o Socialization: Transmitting cultural values and norms to members.

o Support: Providing emotional, financial, and social support to individuals.

o Regulation: Establishing rules and norms to govern behavior.

o Production: Generating goods and services to meet members' needs.

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Characteristics of a Social System

• Interdependence: Members and institutions rely on each other.

• Hierarchy: Social structures are organized in a hierarchical manner.

• Equilibrium: The system seeks stability and balance.

• Boundaries: Defines who belongs to the community and who does not.

Dynamics of a Social System

• Social Change: Communities evolve over time due to internal and external factors.

• Conflict and Cooperation: Both are essential for the system's functioning and adaptation.

• Power and Authority: Distribution of power influences the functioning of the community.

Types of Communities

1. Geographic Communities: Defined by physical boundaries, like neighborhoods, towns, or

cities.

2. Interest-Based Communities: Formed around shared interests or goals, such as professional

groups or hobby clubs.

3. Virtual Communities: Online networks where members interact digitally.

Importance of Community as a Social System

• Identity and Belonging: Provides members with a sense of identity and belonging.

• Collective Action: Facilitates collective action to address common issues and achieve goals.

• Social Capital: Builds networks of relationships that provide support and resources.

Challenges in a Social System

• Inequality: Disparities in power, resources, and opportunities among members.

• Social Disintegration: Breakdown of social bonds and community cohesion.

• Adaptation to Change: Struggling to adapt to rapid social, economic, and technological

changes.

Subsystems in a Community as a Social System

Definition

• Subsystems: Smaller, interrelated systems within the larger social system of a community,
each performing specific functions that contribute to the overall functioning of the
community.

Major Subsystems

1. Family Subsystem:

o Functions: Socialization of children, emotional support, economic support,

caregiving.
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o Dynamics: Parenting styles, family roles, and intergenerational relationships.

2. Educational Subsystem:

o Functions: Transmission of knowledge, skills, cultural values, and norms.

o Components: Schools, colleges, universities, and informal education institutions.

3. Economic Subsystem:

o Functions: Production, distribution, and consumption of goods and services.

o Components: Businesses, financial institutions, labor markets, and economic

policies.

4. Political Subsystem:

o Functions: Governance, law enforcement, policy-making, and maintaining order.

o Components: Government bodies, political parties, judicial system, and law

enforcement agencies.

5. Health Subsystem:

o Functions: Provision of healthcare services, promotion of public health, disease

prevention.

o Components: Hospitals, clinics, healthcare professionals, public health

organizations.

6. Religious Subsystem:

o Functions: Providing spiritual guidance, fostering community values, offering moral

support.

o Components: Churches, temples, mosques, religious organizations, and clergy.

7. Recreational and Leisure Subsystem:

o Functions: Providing opportunities for relaxation, recreation, and socialization.

o Components: Parks, sports facilities, community centers, cultural events, and

entertainment venues.

8. Social Welfare Subsystem:

o Functions: Providing support and services to vulnerable populations, addressing

social inequalities.

o Components: Social service agencies, non-profits, community support groups, and

welfare programs.

Interaction and Interdependence

• Integration: Subsystems are interdependent and must integrate to function cohesively.

• Communication: Effective communication channels between subsystems are crucial for

coordination.
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• Adaptation: Subsystems must adapt to changes within the community and external
environment.

Challenges

• Coordination: Ensuring that all subsystems work together harmoniously.

• Resource Allocation: Distributing resources equitably among subsystems.

• Conflict Management: Resolving conflicts that arise between different subsystems.

• Adaptability: Adapting to social, economic, and technological changes that impact

subsystems differently.

Types and Characteristics of Community Power Structure

Types of Community Power Structures

1. Elite Power Structure:

o Description: Power is concentrated in the hands of a small group of individuals or

families who wield significant influence over community decisions.

o Characteristics:

▪ Centralized decision-making.

▪ Limited participation from the broader community.

▪ High levels of influence in politics, economy, and social affairs.

o Examples: Prominent business leaders, long-standing political figures, influential

families.

2. Pluralist Power Structure:

o Description: Power is distributed among multiple groups and organizations, each

with varying degrees of influence.

o Characteristics:

▪ Decentralized decision-making.

▪ High levels of participation from diverse groups.

▪ Compromise and negotiation are common in decision-making.

o Examples: Various interest groups, advocacy organizations, community associations.

3. Amorphous Power Structure:

o Description: Power is fragmented and lacks a clear structure, with no single group or
individual dominating.

o Characteristics:

▪ Highly decentralized.
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▪ Fluid and dynamic power relations.

▪ Informal and ad-hoc decision-making processes.

o Examples: Grassroots movements, informal community networks.

4. Bureaucratic Power Structure:

o Description: Power is vested in formal institutions and agencies with defined roles
and responsibilities.

o Characteristics:

▪ Hierarchical and structured.

▪ Formal rules and procedures guide decision-making.

▪ Limited flexibility due to rigid structures.

o Examples: Government agencies, large non-profit organizations, public service

institutions.

Characteristics of Community Power Structures

1. Centralization vs. Decentralization:

o Centralization: Power concentrated in a few hands (common in elite structures).

o Decentralization: Power dispersed among many groups (common in pluralist

structures).

2. Inclusiveness:

o High Inclusiveness: Broad participation from diverse community members (seen in

pluralist and some bureaucratic structures).

o Low Inclusiveness: Limited participation, often restricted to an elite few (seen in

elite structures).

3. Transparency:

o High Transparency: Open and clear decision-making processes (common in pluralist

and bureaucratic structures).

o Low Transparency: Opaque decision-making, with decisions made behind closed

doors (common in elite structures).

4. Flexibility:

o High Flexibility: Ability to adapt and respond to changing conditions (common in

amorphous structures).

o Low Flexibility: Rigid and slow to change (common in bureaucratic structures).

5. Legitimacy:

o High Legitimacy: Recognized and accepted authority by the community (seen in

pluralist and some bureaucratic structures).
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o Low Legitimacy: Authority questioned or not widely accepted (potentially seen in

elite or amorphous structures).

6. Conflict and Cooperation:

o Conflict: High levels of conflict may arise in pluralist and amorphous structures due
to diverse interests.

o Cooperation: Elite structures may have less overt conflict but could lack broad
cooperation.

Core Method in Social Work

• Community Organization: One of the core methods of social work alongside case work,
group work, social welfare administration, and social work research.

• Context:

o Case Worker: Focuses on individuals.

o Group Worker: Focuses on groups.

o Community Organizer: Operates within the community context, addressing its

needs and enhancing its capacity as a cohesive unit.

Community Organization as a Macro Method

• Humanitarian Perspective: Community work has existed as long as society itself.

• Social Work Perspective: Recognized formally as a method in the Lane Committee Report
(1939).

• Macro Method:

o Addresses broad social problems affecting large groups.

o Involves a large number of people in collective problem-solving.

• Scale: Can be implemented locally, regionally, or internationally, depending on the defined

community.

Community Organization as a Problem-Solving Method

• Community as the Client: Similar to how case work and group work treat their clients.

• Goals:

o Release latent potentialities.

o Optimize use of indigenous resources.

o Develop capacity for self-management.

o Enhance the community’s ability to function as an integrated unit.

• Outcomes: Develop self-confidence, foster self-help, and encourage cooperative and

collaborative attitudes.
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Common Philosophy with Other Social Work Methods

• Assumptions:

o Dignity and worth of the client.

o Inherent capacity for growth and development.

o Ability to manage its own affairs.

• Approach:

o Accept the community as it is.

o Develop a professional relationship.

o Facilitate the community’s growth and autonomy.

Distinctive Features of Community Organization

Community as a Diverse Entity

• Sub-Groups and Sub-Cultures:

o Work with different sub-groups and sub-cultures within the community.

o Understand diverse value systems, behavior patterns, and social organizations.

• Leadership: Identify and engage formal and informal leaders.

• Cooperation and Competition: Assess the levels of cooperation and competition within the
community.

Problem-Solving Steps in Community Context

1. Study: Collect information about the problem.

2. Diagnosis: Identify the main causes of the problem.

3. Intervention/Treatment: Develop and implement solutions based on diagnosis.

Collective Involvement

• Stakeholders: Involve individuals and groups affected by the problem in the problem-solving
process.

• Example: Addressing high morbidity due to stagnant water and ineffective garbage
collection through community participation in cleaning and disposal efforts.

Community Organization Models

1. Locality Development Model

• Focus: Community building and collective participation.

• Approach: Emphasizes broad participation of community members in decision-making and

problem-solving processes.

• Goals:
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o Strengthen community bonds.

o Foster a sense of belonging and mutual support.

o Develop local leadership.

• Methods:

o Community meetings and forums.

o Participatory planning and consensus-building activities.

• Example: A neighborhood association working together to improve local parks and public
spaces.

2. Social Planning Model

• Focus: Systematic planning and policy development.

• Approach: Uses expert knowledge and technical skills to address complex social problems.

• Goals:

o Analyze social issues and needs.

o Develop comprehensive plans and policies.

o Coordinate resources and services.

• Methods:

o Data collection and analysis.

o Strategic planning and policy formulation.

• Example: A municipal government developing a city-wide housing plan to address

homelessness.

3. Social Action Model

• Focus: Addressing power imbalances and social injustice.

• Approach: Mobilizes marginalized groups to challenge existing power structures and

advocate for change.

• Goals:

o Empower disadvantaged communities.

o Promote social justice and equality.

o Achieve systemic change.

• Methods:

o Advocacy and lobbying.

o Protests and public demonstrations.

o Grassroots organizing.
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• Example: A civil rights organization campaigning for voting rights legislation.

4. Coalition Building Model

• Focus: Creating alliances to achieve common goals.

• Approach: Brings together diverse groups and organizations to collaborate on shared issues.

• Goals:

o Pool resources and expertise.

o Strengthen collective influence.

o Achieve broad-based support for initiatives.

• Methods:

o Forming partnerships and networks.

o Coordinating joint actions and campaigns.

• Example: Multiple non-profits forming a coalition to address climate change at the state
level.

5. Empowerment Model

• Focus: Building individual and community capacity.

• Approach: Enhances the skills, confidence, and autonomy of community members.

• Goals:

o Develop self-reliance.

o Increase participation in community affairs.

o Foster a sense of agency and control over one's life.

• Methods:

o Capacity-building workshops and training.

o Support groups and peer networks.

• Example: A community center offering leadership training programs for youth.

6. Participatory Development Model

• Focus: Inclusive and participatory approach to development.

• Approach: Engages community members actively in the development process.

• Goals:

o Ensure development projects meet the actual needs of the community.

o Promote ownership and sustainability of development efforts.

• Methods:
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o Participatory rural appraisal.

o Community-driven development projects.

• Example: An international NGO working with a rural village to design and implement an
agricultural improvement project.

7. Capacity Building Model

• Focus: Strengthening organizational and institutional capabilities.

• Approach: Provides support to community organizations to enhance their effectiveness.

• Goals:

o Improve organizational infrastructure and governance.

o Enhance service delivery and impact.

• Methods:

o Technical assistance and consulting.

o Organizational development programs.

• Example: A foundation offering grants and technical support to local NGOs for capacity
building.

Rothman's Social Planning Model

Jack Rothman, a prominent figure in the field of social work, conceptualized three primary models of
community organization: locality development, social planning, and social action. Here, we'll focus
on the Social Planning Model.

Social Planning Model Overview

• Focus: Systematic, data-driven approach to problem-solving and policy development.

• Purpose: Address complex social issues through technical expertise and rational planning.

• Scope: Typically involves professionals and experts rather than broad community
participation.

Key Characteristics

1. Technical and Rational Approach:

o Relies on empirical data, research, and expert analysis to understand social

problems.

o Uses logical and systematic methods to develop and implement solutions.

2. Centralized Decision-Making:

o Decisions are often made by professionals, policymakers, and planners.

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o Involves less direct participation from the general community compared to other
models.

3. Focus on Efficiency and Effectiveness:

o Emphasis on creating efficient systems and processes.

o Aims for effective outcomes through carefully designed programs and policies.

4. Structured Processes:

o Involves clear steps such as needs assessment, goal setting, planning,

implementation, and evaluation.

o Follows a structured methodology to ensure comprehensive and systematic

intervention.

5. Top-Down Approach:

o Typically initiated by government agencies, non-profit organizations, or other formal

institutions.

o Often involves high-level strategic planning and policy formulation.

Key Steps in the Social Planning Process

1. Needs Assessment:

o Collecting data to identify and understand the specific issues and needs of the
community.

o Methods include surveys, interviews, focus groups, and analysis of existing data.

2. Problem Diagnosis:

o Analyzing the data to diagnose the root causes of identified problems.

o Involves technical expertise to interpret data and identify key factors contributing to
the issues.

3. Goal Setting and Prioritization:

o Establishing clear, measurable goals based on the needs assessment and problem
diagnosis.

o Prioritizing issues and goals based on their urgency and the resources available.

4. Strategic Planning:

o Developing comprehensive plans to address the identified problems and achieve the
set goals.

o Includes defining specific actions, timelines, responsibilities, and resource allocation.

5. Implementation:

o Executing the strategic plans through coordinated efforts and actions.

o Involves mobilizing resources, assigning tasks, and ensuring adherence to the plan.
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6. Evaluation and Feedback:

o Monitoring and assessing the outcomes of the implemented actions.

o Using feedback to refine and improve ongoing and future plans.

Example Applications

• Urban Planning: Developing city plans to address housing, transportation, and public
services.

• Public Health: Creating health programs to combat epidemics, improve sanitation, and
provide healthcare services.

• Education Reform: Designing policies to enhance educational systems, address disparities,

and improve access to quality education.

Strengths and Limitations

• Strengths:

o Uses evidence-based approaches to create effective and efficient solutions.

o Can address large-scale and complex issues systematically.

o Provides clear structure and accountability in planning and implementation.

• Limitations:

o May lack grassroots participation and community engagement.

o Risks overlooking local knowledge and unique community dynamics.

o Can be seen as top-down and may face resistance from community members who
feel excluded from the process.

Murray Ross's Community Organization Principles

Murray G. Ross is a significant figure in the field of community organization and social work. His work
has provided a foundational framework for understanding the process and principles of community
organization. Here are some general content and principles based on his contributions:

Key Concepts and Principles

1. Community Discontent as a Catalyst:

o Community organization often begins with widespread dissatisfaction within the

community.

o This discontent must be identified and channeled into organized efforts to address
specific problems.

2. Shared Discontent:

o For effective community organization, the discontent must be shared among a

significant portion of the community.
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o Broad-based support and recognition of the problem are crucial for mobilizing
collective action.

3. Leadership:

o Both formal and informal leaders play a critical role in the community organization
process.

o Leaders must be identified, accepted by the community, and actively involved in the
organization.

4. Goals and Acceptability:

o The community organization should set clear, attainable goals.

o Methods and procedures should be acceptable and understandable to the

community members.

5. Emotional Engagement:

o Community programs should include activities that emotionally engage members.

o Emotional involvement can foster stronger community bonds and commitment to

the cause.

6. Utilization of Goodwill:

o Leverage existing goodwill and positive relationships within the community.

o This can help in garnering support and cooperation for community initiatives.

7. Effective Communication:

o Maintain active and effective lines of communication within the community and
between the community and external entities.

o Transparent communication helps in building trust and ensuring informed

participation.

8. Support and Strengthen Groups:

o The organization should support existing groups and help form new ones if
necessary.

o Cooperative efforts among various groups can strengthen the overall community
organization.

9. Pacing of Work:

o The pace of community organization efforts should align with the community’s
readiness and existing conditions.

o It’s essential to be mindful of the community’s capacity to absorb and implement

changes.

10. Development of Leaders:

o Invest in the development of community leaders.

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o Effective leadership is crucial for sustaining community organization efforts over

time.

11. Stability and Prestige:

o Build strength, stability, and prestige for the community organization.

o A respected and stable organization can have a lasting impact and attract more
support.

Practical Implications

• Initiation:

o Start by identifying and understanding the sources of community discontent.

o Engage with community members to ensure the discontent is broadly recognized

and shared.

• Organization and Planning:

o Develop an organized approach to channel discontent into action.

o Plan activities that are emotionally engaging and culturally relevant to the
community.

• Leadership and Participation:

o Identify and involve leaders from various subgroups within the community.

o Foster an environment that encourages broad participation and utilizes the

strengths of existing groups.

• Communication and Cooperation:

o Establish clear communication channels to keep the community informed and

involved.

o Promote cooperation among different groups and stakeholders within the

community.

• Adaptation and Sustainability:

o Adapt the pace of work to match the community’s readiness.

o Focus on building a stable and prestigious organization that can sustain its efforts
and continue to grow.

Murray Ross: Process and Skills in Community Organization

Murray Ross outlined key processes and skills essential for effective community organization (CO).
His work emphasizes the importance of structured processes and the development of specific skills
to facilitate community empowerment and problem-solving.

Process in Community Organization

1. Initiation:
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o Identify Discontent: Begin by recognizing widespread dissatisfaction or issues within

the community.

o Community Assessment: Conduct thorough assessments to understand the needs,

resources, and dynamics of the community.

o Engage Leaders: Identify and engage both formal and informal leaders who can
influence and mobilize the community.

2. Planning:

o Set Goals: Establish clear, attainable goals that address the identified issues.

o Develop Strategies: Formulate strategies and action plans to achieve these goals.

o Participatory Planning: Involve community members in the planning process to

ensure their needs and perspectives are considered.

3. Organization:

o Form Committees and Groups: Organize the community into committees or groups
focused on specific tasks or issues.

o Build Structure: Develop an organizational structure that facilitates coordination

and communication.

o Resource Mobilization: Identify and mobilize resources, including human, financial,

and material resources, necessary for the planned activities.

4. Implementation:

o Execute Plans: Carry out the planned activities according to the established
strategies.

o Monitor Progress: Continuously monitor the progress of the activities to ensure they
are on track.

o Engage Community: Maintain active engagement and participation of community

members throughout the implementation phase.

5. Evaluation:

o Assess Outcomes: Evaluate the outcomes of the implemented activities to

determine their effectiveness.

o Feedback Mechanism: Establish a feedback mechanism to gather input from the

community.

o Adjust Plans: Based on the evaluation and feedback, adjust the plans and strategies
as necessary for continuous improvement.

Skills in Community Organization

1. Interpersonal Skills:

o Communication: Effective verbal and non-verbal communication to convey

information clearly and build trust.
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o Active Listening: Listening to community members to understand their needs,

concerns, and perspectives.

o Negotiation: Facilitating discussions and negotiations to resolve conflicts and reach

consensus.

2. Leadership Skills:

o Influence and Mobilization: Ability to influence community members and mobilize

them towards collective action.

o Visionary Leadership: Providing a clear vision and direction for community

initiatives.

o Empowerment: Empowering community members to take ownership and

leadership roles within the organization.

3. Organizational Skills:

o Planning and Coordination: Effective planning and coordination of activities and

resources.

o Management: Managing committees, groups, and resources efficiently.

o Delegation: Delegating tasks and responsibilities appropriately to involve more

community members.

4. Analytical Skills:

o Problem-Solving: Identifying problems, analyzing their root causes, and developing

solutions.

o Data Analysis: Collecting and analyzing data to inform decision-making and

planning.

o Evaluation: Assessing the effectiveness of activities and making data-driven

adjustments.

5. Advocacy Skills:

o Lobbying: Advocating for community needs and interests with external

stakeholders, including government agencies and policymakers.

o Campaigning: Organizing campaigns to raise awareness and support for community

issues.

o Representation: Representing the community in various forums and platforms to

voice their concerns and demands.

6. Technical Skills:

o Resource Mobilization: Identifying and securing financial and material resources.

o Project Management: Planning, implementing, and managing projects effectively.

o Technology Utilization: Using technology tools for communication, data collection,

and analysis.
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