Chapter

Improving Maize Shelling

Operation Using Motorized
Mobile Shellers: A Step towards
Reducing Postharvest Losses in Low
Developing Countries
Denis Nsubuga, Isa Kabenge, Ahamada Zziwa,
Nicholas Kiggundu, Joshua Wanyama and Noble Banadda

Abstract

Maize shelling is still a challenge in low developing countries with more efforts
required to advance this operation. In Uganda, motorized immobile maize shellers
have been fabricated locally to enhance the shelling operation. However, their
performance has not elated the farmers. The unsatisfactory performance is a result
of these shellers being fabricated by local artisan with finite understanding of the
maize grain characteristics and operation factors to optimize maize shelling. In
addition, farmers in these countries have a deficiency of power to operate the
motorized maize shellers available. Transportation of these motorized maize
shellers is also still a challenge and it imposes an extra cost to the farmers hence
reducing their profits from maize growing. In this chapter, we reviewed maize
shelling process in low developing countries particularly the categories of maize
shelling, maize sheller design requirements, use of equations to design sheller
parts, modification of the motorized maize shellers and case studies on the mobile
maize shellers, comparing them with immobile maize shellers. The study con-
cluded that on addition to other sheller performance attributes, motorized mobile
maize shellers can solve transportation challenges associated with motorized
immobile maize shellers.

Keywords: maize, shelling, mobile motorized shellers, post-harvest operations

1. Introduction

Maize is among the three critical cereal grains in the world, others being wheat
and rice [1]. Maize was first identified in central Mexico 7000 years ago from a wild
grass and Indigenous Americans converted it into food [2]. This cereal grain con-
tains starch (60–80%), protein (8–12%), fat (3–5%), and minerals (1–2%) [3, 4].
It is grown worldwide, with Unites States, China, and Brazil as the top three maize-
producing countries with a combined production of approximately 563 of the 717
million tons/year [2]. Maize contains nutrients for both humans and animals but it

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Maize Genetic Resources - Breeding Strategies and Recent Advances

is also used for production of starch, oil and protein, alcoholic beverages, food
sweeteners, and biofuels [5]. The significance of maize as a staple food in low
developing countries can be compared to that of wheat in Asia. It is mostly con-
sumed in Eastern, Western and Southern Africa in different forms such as kenkey in
Ghana, Ogi in Nigeria, stiff porridge (nsima) in Malawi, maize meal (ugali) in Kenya
[6], and posho and porridge in Uganda. In Sub Saharan Africa (SSA), over 208
million people bank on maize as a food source and being economically empowered
[7]. Out of the 22 countries in the world where maize is mostly consumed, 16 of
them are found in Africa [7]. This makes maize a very important cereal in Africa.
Despite its importance, the losses of maize after harvest have decreased its avail-
ability among the poor people in Africa. In Uganda, for example, maize postharvest
losses are about 30% [1] which has escalated hunger especially among the poor in
the villages.
Maize processing include harvesting, dehusking, drying, shelling, storing, and
milling. Compared to other operations, shelling still stand out as the most chal-
lenging operation that requires more work to improve it [8]. For the maize
farmers to fully enjoy the financial benefits from their maize, appropriate tech-
nology that suits their needs is a requirement. In this regard, motorized immobile
maize shellers have been fabricated locally to enhance the shelling operation.
However, their performance has not elated the farmers. The unsatisfactory per-
formance is a result of these shellers being fabricated by local artisans with finite
understanding of the maize grain characteristics and operation factors to optimize
maize shelling [1]. In addition, farmers in low developing countries have a defi-
ciency of power to operate the motorized maize shellers available. It has been
reported that transportation of these immobile maize shellers with the engines to
run them from place to place is a big problem to sheller service providers; often
requiring an additional carrier to move shellers to the farmers’ field. The shelling
service providers hence ask for an extra cost, which is usually passed on to
farmers. These shellers also require extra time and energy to arrange the maize
shelling environment at the farm level [9].
To consider the shelling power and sheller transportation problems, low cost
motorized mobile maize shelling technologies have been developed as a result of
modifying the available motorized immobile maize shellers. Some motorized mobile
maize shellers were fabricated in 2012 by industrious fabricator Munyegera Agro-
Machinery in Eastern part of Uganda [10]. Later, the multipurpose vehicle mobile
maize shelling technology was introduced [1]. In Bangladesh, a two-wheel tractor
mounted mobile sheller for small scale farmers was also introduced [9]. In this book
chapter, maize shelling operation in low developing countries has been described with
focus on encouraging a paradigm shift from the motorized immobile maize shellers to
mobile maize shellers as a solution to the maize shelling constraints in these countries.

2. Maize shelling as a postharvest operation

Maize shelling as a postharvest operation is the removal of maize seeds from the
cob [11]. This operation can be carried out either in the field or at the storage
facility. Maize shelling is therefore an important step towards the processing of
maize to various finished products like flour and maize bran.

2.1 Maize shelling in developed countries

In developed countries like Europe, North America, and China, maize shelling
operation is done using combine harvesters [12]. Combine harvesters (Figure 1)

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Figure 1.
Different components of a combine harvester [13].

simultaneously perform operations of ear picking, threshing, separation, and

cleaning on the mature maize plants in the field. The purpose of this mechanized
maize harvesting technology is to replace manual labor to harvest maize from fields
in time with minimum loss while maintain high quality standards [14]. Some of the
advantages of mechanized maize shelling include: reduced drudgery, enhanced
productivity, time consciousness of agricultural operation, and availing labor for
other agricultural operations. Combine harvester designers are working towards the
quality of the process automatic controls and protecting the environment [15].

2.2 Maize shelling in low developing countries

Maize shelling in low developing countries is still a challenge to its value addition
as it is tiresome and requires a number of labor hours [11]. A major issue for maize
value chain is that good quality maize is difficult to find among farmers. Many
times, buyers are ready to pay a high price for maize grains from farmers with good
quality maize. However, good quality maize is often unavailable due to poor
postharvest handling. The impacts of quality at postharvest level can be attributed
to poor drying and storage methods among other factors. For example, maize
drying on the bare ground, and storage in dump places and aflatoxin growth [10].
Beside drying and poor storage, maize post-harvest losses are also due to use of
rudimentary tools like tapered cylindrical metallic shelling device [16].
Maize shelling methods can be categorized as traditional maize shilling, manual
maize shelling, and motorized maize shelling based on the technology used.

2.2.1 Tradition maize shelling

Maize is shelled traditionally by hand (Figure 2). Here, the grains are detached
from the cob by pressing them with the thumb [2]. The technique produces unbro-
ken kernels but the process is tedious. A few kilograms can be shelled in an hour,
with damages left on shellers’ fingers. Another simple and common method of
traditional maize shelling is to rub two maize cobs against each other in order to

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Maize Genetic Resources - Breeding Strategies and Recent Advances

Figure 2.
Maize shelling by hand [16].

detach the maize kernels [17]. However, these traditional methods of shelling are,
not efficient, consume a lot of time, and require a lot of energy with very low
productivity since farmers can shell only a few kilograms/hour.

2.2.2 Manual maize shelling

This method is almost similar to the traditional method of shelling except that it
requires more energy compared to traditional methods to run manual maize sheller
(Figure 3). For some manual shellers, two people are required during shelling, one
person constantly feeds the maize cobs and the other operates the equipment by
rotating the handle [8] while other manual shellers require one person [2]. Hand-
operated shellers, requires less time to shell the maize compared to the traditional
methods. These come in several models, and they are usually driven by rotating the
handle or a pedal. With the output capacity of 14–100 kg/min, they are more
suitable for small-scale maize production [2]. Hand-operated maize shellers are also
suitable for shelling maize for seed purpose since damaged maize kernels are fewer
compared to motorized maize shellers [18].

2.2.3 Motorized maize shellers

This method uses the same concept as hand-operated maize shellers except that
the shellers are powered using a motor or an engine (Figure 4). The shellers under
this method can be categorized into immobile and mobile maize shellers [10]. These
shellers save time and they reduce on the drudgery during maize shelling. However,
the challenges with some of these shellers is that they are heavy [8], do not clean
the maize kernels and are characterized with a broken percentage of 8.4 [1] which is

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Figure 3.
Manual maize sheller [18].

Figure 4.
Motorized maize shelling [19].

above the recommended 2% [20]. Motorized maize shellers use mechanically

generated power to shell the maize. To facilitate speedy shelling of maize in large
scale maize production, motorized maize shellers are recommended compared to
hand-operated maize sheller [2]. The output of motorized maize shellers range
between 500 and 2000 kg/hour and they can be operated by tractor power take off
(PTO) or engines with power varying from 5 to 15 hp depending on the equipment
used [2].

3. Maize sheller design considerations

The design objective is to obtain maximum shelling performance from the

equipment. The performance of shellers in terms of shelling efficiency, grain

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Maize Genetic Resources - Breeding Strategies and Recent Advances

damage percentage, output capacity, cleaning efficiency, and power requirement is

a function of design parameters, operating factors, physical and engineering
properties of maize [21].

3.1 Design parameters

Design parameters include: cylinder diameter, cylinder speed, shelling length,

clearance between the spikes and the concave, diameter holes in the concave, spike
shape, size, and arrangement on the shelling drum and the blower type. Uttam et al.
[11] recommended 886 rpm and 12.05–13.64% for shelling speed and moisture
content, respectively [1] for the best shelling results. At these conditions, the study
concluded that the shelling efficiency, cleaning efficiency, grain recovery effi-
ciency, total grain losses, and output capacity were 87.08, 95.89, 95.48, 2.96, and
623.99 kg/h respectively. Chilur and Kumar [22] developed and evaluated the
performance of a modified dehusker cum sheller. In their study, they recommended
a clearance of 25 mm between the spikes and the concave for good shelling results.

3.2 Operating factors

Operating factors include grain moisture content, shelling speed, and the
feeding rate. An evaluation of these factors depends on the knowledge and
understanding of the equipment’s mode of operation.
Shelling efficiency is increased by reducing the moisture content [23]. This can
be attributed to less resistance to the removal of maize grains from the cobs due to
low moisture. The grain damage percentage increases with a reduction in moisture
content [1]. This can be attributed to less deformability of the grains which reduces
the breakage at low moisture content. The sheller output capacity also increases
with a reduction in moisture [24]. This can be attributed to the reduced time needed
to remove maize grains from maize cobs as moisture content lowers. Likewise
cleaning efficiency increases with a decrease in moisture content [25]. This can be
attributed to the negligible moisture content of the chaff as the grain moisture
content reduces.
The shelling efficiency is increased by an increase in shelling speed [23]. This can
be attributed to the increased ease in the removal of maize grains from the cobs as a
result of increased impacts and resistance created between the shelling drum and the
concave as the shelling speed increases. Increased shelling speed increases the grain
damage percentage [1]. This can be attributed to the more force exerted to the maize
grains on the cobs as a result of higher cylinder speed and frequency of impacts at
higher shelling speed. Increased shelling speed causes an increase in the output
capacity. The output capacity of the sheller also increases with an increase in shelling
speed [24]. This can be attributed to more removal of maize grains from the maize
cobs due to increased impacts and resistance created between shelling drum and the
concave with the increased shelling speed. Likewise, the cleaning efficiency increases
with an increase in the shelling speed [25]. This may be attributed to an increase in
the air flow rate produced by the sheller blower as the shelling speed raises.
Increasing the feeding rate decreases the shelling efficiency [26]. This can be
attributed to the increase in unshelled grains that comes with the increase in the
feeding weight as the feeding rate increases. The increased feeding weight causes an
imperfect contact between concave and shelling drum. Also, increasing the feeding
rate, decreases the broken grain percentage. This is due to increasing the weight
entering the sheller through the hopper which acts as a cushion that reduces the
effect of the grains with the shelling unit and this reduces the broken grain
percentage.

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To find out how different design and operating factors of maize shellers affect
their performance, studies have been conducted. Aremu et al. [27] designed,
constructed, and assessed the performance of the motorized maize shelling machine.
The experiment used three pulleys to change the shelling speed between 623 and
886 rpm with moisture content at levels of 13, 15, and 17%. Their study noted that
maize grains of lower moisture contents were easily removed from the maize cobs.
This was in agreement with what [28] found out when they conducted a similar
experiment under the same conditions. The study further noted that shelling speed is
directly proportional to the shelling efficiency and output capacity.
In most of the earlier studies, one operation factor was studied at ago using
different experiments. However, using factorial experiments, the researcher can
compare all treatments that can be created by different factor levels [29]. Factorial
experimentation is highly recommended because every observation gives informa-
tion about all the factors in the experiment. Srison et al. [30] used a factorial
experiment to study different factors affecting losses and power consumption of
axial flow corn shelling unit at different levels of the main effects. The study results
revealed that peg tooth clearance, concave rod clearance, and concave clearance had
significant difference on the shelling losses and power consumption, but not on
grain breakage. Ugwu and Omoruyi [31] conducted an experiment to find out the
effect of moisture content and feeding rate on the shelling efficiency. A 2 hp electric
motor was used to provide the drive through belt connections to drive the pulley on
the shelling chamber. The factorial experiment was conducted using three different
moisture contents and feeding rates. The feeding rates were 3.75, 4.75, and 5.75 kg/s.
The moisture contents were 10, 15, and 20%. The study observed that the shelling
efficiency of the maize sheller was significantly and negatively affected by moisture
contents of more than 15%. The results obtained also showed that shelling efficiency
of the equipment was 99.01% at a moisture content of 10%.

3.3 Physical factors

The important crop physical factors include the moisture content, the biometric
properties such as length, width, arithmetic and mean diameter, shape, volume and
surface area of the grains [32], grain cob ratio, grain bulky density, sphericity, angle
of response, terminal velocity, one thousand grain mass, and porosity [2]. One
thousand grain weight, density, sphericity, and surface area of different grains are
required when designing different separating, handling, storing, and drying sys-
tems. Bulky density, true density, and porosity are needed when sizing grain
hoppers and storage facilities [33]. They can also affect the rate of heat and mass
transfer of moisture during aeration and drying processes. Density is used to sepa-
rate materials with different densities or specific gravities.
The arithmetic mean diameter (Da) in mm and geometric mean diameter (Dg) in
mm of the grains can be calculated using Eqs. (1) and (2) according to [32].

ðL þ W þ T Þ
Da ¼ (1)
3
1
Dg ¼ ðL  W  T Þ3 (2)

where
L: length of the maize grain, mm
W: width of the maize grain, mm
T: thickness of the maize grain, mm

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Maize Genetic Resources - Breeding Strategies and Recent Advances

The sphericity (ϕ) is surface area of a sphere with the same volume of the maize
grain can be determined using Eq. (3) according to [34].
1
ðL  W  T Þ3
ϕ¼ (3)
L
The surface area, S in mm2 of agricultural products generally indicates the
patterns of behavior in a flowing fluid such as air, as well as the ease of separating
additional materials from the product during cleaning by pneumatic means. The
surface area of the grains can be calculated using Eq. (4) according to [33].

2
S ¼ π Dg (4)

The bulk density of the main grains can be calculated using Eq. (5) according
to [34].

4M
ρb ¼ (5)
πD2 h

where
ρb: bulky density, gcm3
M: mass of grains that fills the height of 150 cm measuring cylinder, g
D: internal diameter of glass sampler, cm
h: height of the maize in the glass jar sampler, cm
The angle of response can be calculated using Eq. (6) according to [35].
 
h0
θ ¼ tan 1 (6)
r

θ: angle of response, degrees

h0: height of the maize heap, m
r: radius of the maize heap, m
For primary processing of maize, particularly maize shelling, it is important to
determine these physical properties mostly dependent on moisture content. Atere
et al. [36] carried out a study on the physical properties of the maize varieties
commonly grown in Nigeria. Properties determined included tri-axial dimensions
(length, width, and thickness), sphericity, bulky density, true density, porosity, one
thousand seed grain weight, and co-efficient of static friction. The data obtained
was subjected to analysis of variance (ANOVA) and least significance difference
(LSD) tests. The moisture contents of maize in this experiment were 11.35, 11.34,
and 11.25%. The ANOVA results showed that maize grain properties of length,
thickness, and effective diameter, bulky density, true density, porosity, and
response were significantly different (p < 0.05) within the three varieties.

3.4 Engineering factors

Engineering properties are divided into frictional and aerodynamic properties

and they are used in designing equipment for solid flow, conveying systems, and
separation equipment [37]. Frictional properties include the coefficient of friction
and angle of response, which can be measured using the angle of response apparatus
(Figure 5). It consists of a plywood box of 60 mm  60 mm  60 mm (a) and a
protractor (c) for measuring the angle in degrees and provided with a fixed and
adjusted plates [32]. It also has a control (b) for raising and lowering the box during

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Figure 5.
Angle of response apparatus [32].

measurements. The box is filled with maize and adjustable plate inclined gradually
allowing the grains to slide and assume a natural slope. The static coefficient of
friction of maize grains on different surfaces can then be determined by this
apparatus. Aerodynamic properties include drag coefficient and terminal velocity
measured using the terminal velocity apparatus [37].
Identifying the physical and engineering characteristics of grains is important
when designing, improving and optimizing the separation and cleaning equipment
[34]. The engineering selection and design of grains equipment requires knowledge
of these grain properties because they are of great importance in the simulation and
design of these equipment. Their influence is more pronounced in problems of
conceptual design where a wrong estimation of a property can lead to a design plan
that is not feasible. The knowledge of maize properties also gives information about
the product quality, its acceptability by different groups of consumers and its
behavior in post-production, during storage, and consumption.

4. Designing a maize sheller

To ensure safe food, the equipment used for shelling maize should be designed,
fabricated, and tested according to the required food grade design requirements.
Mild steel can be used for maize sheller fabrication because it does not contaminate
dried foods like maize grains. Besides, mild steel is smooth textured, mechanically
stable, easily cleaned, and readily available at a relatively low cost. Bako and Batule
[38] used mild steel to construct the shelling drum, spikes, conveyor, sieve, upper
casing, hopper, exit cutes, and the frame of the maize sheller. Akoy and Ahmed [39]
noted that mild steel can be used to achieve the equipment objective at the lowest
cost possible. Designing a maize sheller requires designing the individual parts and
then assembling them. These parts include main and other shafts, hopper, power
transfer systems, and other parts.
The main shaft of the maize sheller can be designed using a hollow shaft because
it has less weight, it is better in absorbing torsional loads and with great strength to
weight ratio. Torsion theory [40] as shown by Eq. (7) can be used to calculate the
minimum and maximum shaft diameters.

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Maize Genetic Resources - Breeding Strategies and Recent Advances

T τ
¼ (7)
J R

where
T: applied external torque, Nm
J: polar second moment of area of the shaft cross section
τ: shear stress at radius R and is the maximum value for both solid and hollow
shafts
R: outer radius of the hollow shaft
For hollow shafts J is calculated using Eq. (8) [40].


π D4  d 4
J¼ (8)
32

where
D: outer shaft diameter
d: inner shaft diameter
Calculation of the Torque generated by the available power required to shell the
maize can be done using Eq. (9) [27].

P ¼ Tω (9)

where ω is angular velocity in rad/s calculated from Eq. (10) [27].

2πN
ω¼ (10)
60

where N is shelling speed in rpm

Using a diameter ratio of d = 0.833D and a maximum allowable shear stress τmax
of 42 MNm2 for a mild steel hollow shaft, the minimum shaft diameters can be
calculated [40].
The concept of calculating the volume of the frustum of the pyramid using
Eq. (11) can be used to size the hopper [1]. Volume of the frustum (hopper) is the
difference between big pyramid volume and the small pyramid volume.

1
V ¼ bh (11)
3
where
V: volume of the pyramid, m3
b: base area, m2
h: pyramid height, m
The maximum bending moment Mbmax can be obtained by taking moments
about any point along the shaft while considering all the forces acting on the
shaft and their respective distances from the chosen point [1]. A shear force
diagram and bending moment diagram are then drawn from which the maximum
bending moment is read.
The torsional moment Mt can be determined using Eq. (12) according to [24, 27].

P
Mt ¼ (12)
2πN
where
Mt: torsional moment, Nm

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P: power, watts
N: speed, rpm
The bending, load, bending stress (tension and compression) can be calculated
from Eq. (13) [24].

Mb R
Sb ¼ (13)
I
π ðD4 d4 Þ
But for hollow sections, I ¼ 64 [40].
where
Sb: bending stress, MNm2
D: outer diameter
D: internal diameter
I: moment of inertia
The torsional stress can be determined using Eq. (14) according to [41].

Mt R
τxy ¼ (14)
J

where
τxy: torsional stress, Nm2
Mt: torsional moment
R: outer radius of the shaft
J: polar moment of inertia
d: inner diameter of the shaft
Torsional rigidity of the shaft can be based on permissible angle of twist. The
amount of twist permissible depends upon the particular application and it can vary
from 0.3 m1 for machine tools shaft to 3 m1 for line shafting [41]. Torsional
rigidity can be calculated from Eq. (15) according to [41].

TL
θ¼ (15)
GJ

where
θ: angle of twist, degrees
L: length of the shaft, m
G: torsional modulus of rigidity, Nm2
The lateral rigidity of the shaft can be based upon the permissible lateral
deflection for proper operation, accurate machine tool performance, shaft
alignment, and other factors. The amount of deflection can be calculated by two
successive integrals shown by Eq. (16) according to [40].

d2 y Mb
¼ (16)
dx2 EI

where
Mb: bending moment, Nm2
E: modulus of elasticity, Nm2
I: moment of inertia, m4
The sheller main shaft speed and the engine shaft speed can be related by power
transfer equation shown by Eq. (17) according to [24].

N 1 D1 ¼ N 2 D2 (17)

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Maize Genetic Resources - Breeding Strategies and Recent Advances

where
N1: speed of the driver pulley, rpm
D1: diameter of driver pulley, m
N2: speed of the driven pulley, rpm
D2: diameter of the driven pulley, m

5. Economic feasibility of maize shelling as a business

Most fabricators, wholesalers, and retailers of maize shellers in many countries

do not have definite capacity building and after-sale services to the maize sheller
users [42] and no adequate instructions on equipment maintenance. Hence the
entrepreneurs mostly learn on their own the operation and maintenance of their
maize shellers. As a result, the economic lives of maize shellers become shorter and
cause a financial loss to entrepreneurs. Thus, determining the key indicators relat-
ing to the financial feasibility of a maize shelling business is of greater importance
before getting into the maize shelling business. These indicators include benefit–
cost ratio and payback period [43]. The payback period is the period within
which the initial investment will paid. It can be estimated using Eq. (18) according
to [24].

I
P¼ (18)
NA

where
P: payback period, years
I: investment cost, USD
NA: net annual returns, USD
The benefit–cost ratio can be defined as the comparison of the present worth of
the costs with the present worth of the benefits [42]. The benefit–cost ratio can be
calculated using Eq. (19) according to [24] and it is recommended to be greater than
one for the shelling business to be financially viable.

DB
BC ¼ (19)
DC

where
BC: benefit–cost ratio
DB: discounted benefits
DC: discounted costs

X
n
Bt
Discounted Benefits ¼
t¼1 ð1 þ rÞt

X
n
Ct
Discounted costs ¼
t¼1 ð1 þ rÞt

Bt: returns for year t, USD

Ct: cost for year t, USD
t: economical life, years
r: discounted rate

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6. Modification and improvement of mobile maize shellers

Modification of maize shellers can lead to improvement of the existing shellers

for better performance. Most engineering designs are classified as systems created
by human effort and did not exist before or improvements on the existing ones.
These designs do not suddenly appear from nowhere. They result from merging
technologies to meet or solve existing problems from time to time. Modification of
maize shellers can be aimed at improving the performance of the existing shellers
by adjusting mechanisms to certain working conditions [44]. Abagissa and Befikadu
[45] noted that modification of maize shellers can result in causing no damage to
maize kernels at all. Their study further revealed that the shelling efficiency was
99.67% at a moisture content of 14.7%. The evolution of motorized mobile maize
shellers is a result of modification of the immobile motorized maize shellers to solve
the power and transportation problems.

6.1 Case study 1: multi-purpose farm vehicle mobile maize sheller

According to [1], a study was conducted to evaluate the performance and opti-
mize the shelling operation of the multi-purpose farm vehicle shelling technology.
The study was aimed at: (i) improving the available market maize sheller and
evaluate its performance and (ii) optimizing the shelling operation of the multi-
purpose farm vehicle using the modified sheller. At present, transportation of maize
shellers and engines (power source) from place to place is a big challenge in maize
shelling. In Uganda, shellers and engines are transported on motorcycles, which not
only require an extra cost, but also extra time and energy. In an effort to improve
maize shelling in the country, a multi-purpose farm vehicle with a provision for
hitching a maize shellers was developed to solve the power and transport problems
faced by maize farmers. The three-wheeled vehicle can be used for water pumping,
maize shelling, rural transport, and phone charging. This technology involves use of
a multi-purpose farm vehicle power take off (PTO) power to run the maize shellers
using a V-belt and a pulley. The multi-purpose farm vehicle was evaluated using a
motorized market sheller and the mean broken percentage of the shelled maize was
8.43%, which was higher than the 2% recommended [20]. As a result, the holes of
the concave were increased to 15 mm from 12 mm so that maize grains could easily
fall through, a hollow shaft was used instead of the solid shaft for the main shelling
shaft, the clearance between the concave and the spikes was modified from 22 to
25 mm which was just enough to allow the grain from being detached from the cob
without damaging them and the number of the fun blades was increased from 4 to 8
[1]. The modified maize sheller was evaluated (Figure 6) to assess if the results
were satisfactory. One way analysis of variance (ANOVA) was done using R-studio.
The economic feasibility of the shelling technology was also conducted.
It was noted that the output capacity, cleaning efficiency, and grain damage
percentage of the modified maize sheller was significantly different (P < 0.05)
from the values obtained by the market maize sheller (Table 1). However, there
was no significant difference between the shelling efficiency of the modified maize
sheller and the market maize sheller. Hence in terms of shelling efficiency, both the
market maize sheller and the modified maize sheller were good since their values
were all above 97%.
The results of the benefit–cost analysis of the modified maize sheller powered by
the multi-purpose farm vehicle are presented in Tables 2 and 3.
The benefit–cost-ratio and pay back period of the modified maize sheller were
1.07 and 1.37 years, respectively (Table 3). These results were in agreement with
[42] who obtained a benefit–cost ratio of 2.34 for a maize sheller for which it

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Maize Genetic Resources - Breeding Strategies and Recent Advances

Figure 6.
Operational view of the modified multi-purpose vehicle maize sheller [1].

Performance indicator Units Market maize sheller Improved maize sheller p-values

Output capacity kg/h 608.0 1581.0 P < 0.05

Shelling efficiency % 97.4 98.0 P > 0.05

Cleaning efficiency % 18.4 98.3 P < 0.05

Grain damage percentage % 8.4 0.7 P < 0.05

Table 1.
Market maize sheller versus modified maize sheller [1].

Particulars Cost, USD

Fixed cost (cost of the sheller) 577.0

Annual variable cost 2982.9

Annual gross income from shelling 3405.4

Annual net returns 422.6

Table 2.
Various costs for the modified maize sheller [1].

Particulars Details

Payback period (years) 1.37

Benefit–cost ratio 1.07

Table 3.
Payback period and benefit–cost ratio of modified maize sheller [1].

required to be greater that one. In addition, the modified sheller investment

would pay back the initial investment within 1.5 years or approximately three
maize growing seasons. Hence the maize shelling operation of the modified maize
sheller powered by the multi-purpose vehicle is a profitable venture for
entrepreneurs.

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Improving Maize Shelling Operation Using Motorized Mobile Shellers…
DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.101039

6.2 Case study 2: two-wheel tractor mounted mobile maize sheller

According to [9], a study was conducted to develop a cost effective two wheel
tractor mounted mobile maize sheller for small-scale farmers in Bangladesh in
South Asia. Two-wheel tractor (power tiller) is a common tillage tool in Bangladesh
agriculture because it can easily access fragmented land that is affordable to small
scale farmers. Traditionally, maize shellers need to be carried from place to place by
hooking with two-wheel tractor (2WT) and set it up again for shelling operation.
This takes longer time for preparation of maize shelling.
To consider this problem and constraint, a small cost-effective mobile maize
sheller was developed, which is mounted on the front side of the two-wheel tractor
(Figures 7 and 8).
So, the driver of the 2WT carry and move the sheller along in the 2WT driving
position. The engine of 2WT is used as a power source for operating the maize
sheller.
The mobile maize sheller eradicates the transportation problem and can start
shelling operation instantly at any place since it is attached together with 2WT. It is
counter clockwise rotating cylinder, axial flow type sheller and grain separated with
a resistance between spike tooth and the concave. The maize sheller is attached with
nuts and bolts in front of the engine base of 2WT. The operating power of the
sheller comes from the fly wheel of the engine of the tractor through a V-belt and a
pulley.
The shelling performance of the mobile maize sheller is shown in Table 4. The
shelling capacity, shelling broken kernel and cylinder loss of the mobile maize
sheller were 2100 kg/h, 2.3 and 0.35%, respectively. The efficiency of the mobile
maize sheller was 97%.
Effective operating hours of mobile maize sheller is more than that of the
traditional maize sheller (Table 5). This is because shelling unit of the mobile maize
sheller is assembled with the transportation power unit and service providers freely
carry the maize sheller to different farmers’ home yards in assembly position. This
therefore, reduces the maize sheller installation and starting time. The effective
operating hours/day were 6.5 and 4.5 hours for the mobile maize sheller and immo-
bile maize sheller, respectively. Mobile maize sheller saves 2 hours/day that is this
sheller can be used for an additional 2 hours in day compared to the immobile maize
sheller. The shelling cost for mobile maize sheller was 0.0026 USD/kg of grain
which was lower than 0.012 USD/kg for the immobile maize sheller (Table 6).

Figure 7.
Side view of the two-wheel tractor with the mobile maize sheller [9].

15
Maize Genetic Resources - Breeding Strategies and Recent Advances

Operator

Maize sheller

Shelled
Two-wheel
maize
tractor

Figure 8.
Operational view of the two-wheel tractor mobile maize sheller [9].

Performance parameter Units Measured value

Cylinder speed rpm 1250

Throughput capacity kH/h 3150

Average shelling capacity kg/h 2100

Cylinder loss % 0.35

Separating loss % 0.40

Broken kernel % 2.20

Shelling efficiency % 97

Table 4.
Shelling performance of the mobile maize sheller [9].

Maize sheller name Average effective use, hours/day Time saving, hours/day

Mobile maize sheller 6.5 2

Immobile maize sheller 4.5 —

Table 5.
Effective use hours of mobile maize sheller versus immobile maize sheller [9].

Maize sheller types Shelling cost, Shelling cost, Net return, Net return, BCR
USD/kg USD/year USD/kg USD/year

Mobile maize sheller 0.0026 3.416.72 0.012 17,646.94 5.16

Immobile maize sheller 0.012 — — — —

Table 6.
Shelling cost of the mobile and immobile [9].

The lower shelling cost of the mobile sheller can be attributed to the extra two
hours that it can operated per day compared to the immobile maize sheller. The
benefit–cost ratio (BCR) of the mobile maize sheller was 5.15.

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DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.101039

Figure 9.
Operational view of the Munyegera Agro-Machinery mobile maize sheller [10].

6.3 Case study 3: Munyegera Agro-Machinery mobile maize sheller

The last case study is from [10] about a mobile maize sheller (Figure 9)
designed and fabricated by an enterprising fabricator Munyegera Agro-Machinery
in Eastern Uganda with encouragement, advice, training, and initial funding from
Non-Government Organization (NGO) Sasakawa 2000.
Although there is not much scientific information on its design, fabrication, and
evaluation, it can be noted that this mobile maize sheller capacity is 2000–3000 kg/h
[10] which is higher than most motorized immobile maize shellers. This can be
attributed to the bigger shelling unit of the mobile maize sheller compared to the
motorized immobile maize shellers. Operation of this mobile maize sheller requires
three to four workers. Hence, whether a self-employed agent or large-scale farmer
service enterprise like the Bugiri Agribusiness Initiative Development Association,
youth are typically hired to operate and maintain the maize shellers which has
contributed to rural enterprise growth and job creation.
Feed the Future Uganda Commodity Production and Marketing (CPM) initially
cost-shared 70 these mobile maize shellers in 2015, particularly with large traders
and farmer organizations linked to village agents to demonstrate the benefits of this
technology [10]. On observing the benefits, some traders started buying the mobile
shellers and have their village agents operate them. Apex farmer organization also
purchased the mobile maize shellers to provide the mobile maize shelling service to
their members. As of March 2016, many CPM clients acquired 280 mobile maize
shellers [10]. CPM worked with Munyegera Agro-Machinery to train more than
200 operators in operations and maintenance, as well as maize quality control with
an idea that shellers will be offering premium prices on behalf of their buyers.

7. Conclusion

This book chapter’s main aim was to describe the maize shelling operations in
low developing countries with focus on the need for a paradigm shift from immo-
bile maize shellers to mobile maize shellers. Compared with immobile maize
shellers, mobile maize shellers have the potential to solve the power problem as well
as sheller transportation problem and the extra energy required to lift the maize

17
Maize Genetic Resources - Breeding Strategies and Recent Advances

shellers up and down during the shelling process. In addition, mobile maize shellers
save time hence increasing their effective use hours in the field. To maximize the
shelling operation, it is recommended that the moisture content of maize is
maintained between 12 and 13% at a shelling speed of 880 rpm. Also, the clearance
between the spikes and the concave should always be designed depending on the
maximum and minimum diameters of the maize cobs.

Acknowledgements

The Presidential Initiative for Scientific Research at the School of Food

Technology, Nutrition and Bioengineering, Makerere University is acknowledged
for sponsoring the research and technology development leading to design and
construction of the multi-purpose farm vehicle shelling unit.

Conflict of interest

The authors declare that there is no conflict of interest.

Author details

Denis Nsubuga1*, Isa Kabenge1, Ahamada Zziwa1, Nicholas Kiggundu1,

Joshua Wanyama1 and Noble Banadda1,2†

1 Department of Agricultural and Biosystems Engineering, Makerere University,

Kampala, Uganda

2 Department of Agricultural and Biosystems Engineering, Ames, IA, USA

*Address all correspondence to: dnsubuga5@gmail.com

†Dedicated to the author Noble Banadda who passed away while this book chapter
was being prepared.

© 2021 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms
of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/
by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium,
provided the original work is properly cited.

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Improving Maize Shelling Operation Using Motorized Mobile Shellers…
DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.101039

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