INVERTER

Stages of an Inverter
As the name suggests DC to AC inverter is an electronic device which is able to "invert" a DC potential
normally derived from a lead-acid battery into a stepped-up AC potential. The output from an inverter is
normally quite comparable to the voltage that is found in our domestic AC Mains outlets. Repairing
sophisticated inverters are not easy due to their many involved complex stages and require expertise in the
field. Inverters which provide sine wave outputs or the ones which use PWM technology to generate
modified sine wave can be difficult to diagnose and troubleshoot for the folks who are relatively new to
electronics. However, simpler inverter designs that involve basic operating principles can be repaired even
by a person who is not specifically an expert with electronics. Before we move into the fault finding
details it would be important to discuss how does an inverter work and the different stages normally an
inverter may comprise: An inverter in its most basic form may be divided into three fundamental stages
viz. oscillator, driver and the transformer output stage.

Oscillator:

This stage is basically responsible for the generation of oscillating pulses either through an IC circuit or a
transistorized circuit. These oscillations are basically the productions of alternate battery positive and
negative (ground) voltage peaks with a particular specified frequency (number of positive peaks per
second.) Such oscillations are generally in the form of square pillars and are termed as square waves, and
the inverters operating with such oscillators are called square wave inverters. The oscillator that generated
square wave pulses are too weak and can never be utilized to drive high current output transformers.
Therefore these pulses are fed to the next amplifier stage for the required task.

Booster or Amplifier (Driver):

Here the received oscillating frequency is suitably amplified to high current levels using either power
transistors or MOSFETS. Though the boosted response is an AC, it is still at the battery supply voltage
level and therefore cannot be used to operate electrical appliances which work at higher voltage AC
potentials. The amplified voltage is therefore finally applied to the output transformer secondary winding.

Output Power Transformer:

We all know how a transformer works; in AC/DC power supplies it is normally used to step-down the
applied input mains AC to the lower specified AC levels through magnetic induction of its two windings.
In inverters a transformer is used for similar purpose but with just opposite orientation, i.e. here the low
level AC from the above discussed electronic stages is applied to the secondary windings resulting in an
induced stepped up voltage across the primary winding of the transformer. This voltage is finally utilized
for powering the various household electrical gadgets like lights, fans, mixers, soldering irons etc.
Basic Principle of Operation of an Inverter
The above diagram shows the most fundamental design of an inverter, the working principle becomes the
back bone for all conventional inverter designs, from the simplest to the most sophisticated ones. The
functioning of the shown design may be understood from the following points:

1) The positive from the battery powers the oscillator IC (Vcc pin), and also the center tap of the
transformer.
2) The oscillator IC when powered starts producing alternately switching High/low pulses across its
output pins Pin A and Pin B, at some given frequency rate, mostly at 50Hz, or 60Hz depending as
per the country specs.
3) These pin-outs can be seen connected with the relevant power devices 1, and 2, which could be
MOSFETS or power BJTs.

4) At any instant when Pin A is high, and Pin B is low, the Power Device 1 is in the conducting
mode, while Power Device 2 is held switched OFF.
5) This situation connects the upper tap of the transformer to ground via the power device 1, which in
turn causes the battery positive to pass through upper half of the transformer, energizing this
section of the transformer.
6) Identically, in the next instant when the pin B is high and Pin A is low, the lower primary winding
of the transformer becomes activated.
7) This cycle repeats continuously causing a push-pull high current conduction across the two halves
of the transformer winding.
8) The above action within the transformer secondary causes an equivalent amount of voltage and
current to switch across the secondary by means of magnetic induction, resulting in the production
 of the required 220V or the 120V AC across the secondary winding of the transformer, as
indicated in the diagram.

DC to AC Inverter, Repairing Tips

In the above explanation a couple of things become very critical for obtaining correct results from an
inverter.

1) First, the generation of the oscillations, due to which the power MOSFETs are switched ON/OFF,
initiating the process of electromagnetic voltage induction across the primary/secondary winding
of the transformer. Since the MOSFETs switch the primary of the transformer in a push-pull
manner, this induces an alternating 220V or 120V AC across the secondary of the transformer.
2) The second important factor is the frequency of the oscillations, which is fixed as per the country’s
specifications, for example countries that supply 230 V, generally have a working frequency of 50
Hz, in other countries where 120 V is specified mostly work at 60 Hz frequency.
3) Sophisticated electronic gadgets like TV sets, DVD players, computers etc. are never
recommended to be operated with square wave inverters. The sharp rise and fall of the square
waves are just not suitable for such applications.
4) However there are ways through more complex electronic circuits for modifying the square waves
so that they become more favorable with the above discussed electronic equipment. Inverters
using further complex circuits are able to produce waveforms almost identical to the waveforms
available at our domestic mains AC outlets.

How to Repair an Inverter

Once you get well versed with the different stages normally incorporated in an inverter unit as explained
above, troubleshooting becomes relatively easy. The following tips will illustrate how to repair DC to AC
inverter:

Inverter is “Dead”:

If your inverter is dead, do preliminary investigations such as checking battery voltage and connections,
checking for a blown fuse, lose connections etc. If all these are OK, open the inverter outer cover and do
the following steps:

1) Locate the oscillator section; disconnect its output from its MOSFET stage and using a frequency
meter confirm whether or not it is generating the required frequency. Normally, for a 220V
inverter this frequency will be 50 Hz, and for 120V inverter this will be 60 Hz. If your meter reads
no frequency or a stable DC, it may indicate a possible fault with this oscillator stage. Check its IC
and the associated components for the remedy.
2) In case you find the oscillator stage working fine, go for the next stage i.e. the current amplifier
stage (power MOSFET). Isolate the MOSFETS from the transformer and check each device using
a digital multi-meter. Remember that you may have to completely remove the MOSFET or the
BJT from the board while testing them with your DMM. If you find a particular device to be
faulty, replace it with a new one, and check the response by switching ON the inverter. Preferably
connect a high wattage DC bulb in series with the battery while testing the response, just to be on
the safer side and prevent any undue damage to the battery
3) Occasionally, transformers can also become the major cause for a malfunction. You can check for
an open winding or a loose internal connection in the associated transformer. If you find it to be
suspicious, immediately change it with a new one.
Although it won't be that easy to learn everything about how to repair DC to AC inverter from this chapter
itself, but definitely things will start "cooking" as you delve into the procedure through relentless practice,
and some trial and error.

Sine Wave Inverters

Changing DC current to sine wave AC current requires more complex electronics. Sine wave inverters
work in three stages: the oscillator stage, the booster or amplifier stage, and finally the transformer stage.
The oscillator stage does what the title says it does: changes the DC current to an oscillating AC current.
The oscillating current can be set to a particular frequency: for the United States the frequency is 60 Hz.
This means there are 60 full waves per second. The DC current is converted to this type of AC current
using integrated circuits. However at this stage the oscillations or wave heights are quite small, too small
to power anything useful. The wave heights need to be increased, hence the next stage. The booster stage
simply takes the signal from the oscillator stage and amplifies it. This creates waveforms with much
higher wave heights, high enough for useful power. However there is one thing left to get right before the
power can go to a home or business: the voltage. The final transformer stage gets the voltage right. A
typical residential array may have DC voltages up to about 600V. Commercial arrays can have even
higher voltages, for example 1000V or even higher. In the United States, AC power is delivered at 120 V.
Stability of this voltage is very important for stability of the grid and equipment that runs off the grid.
Hence voltage control is a very important part of an inverter.

Pure Sine Wave vs Modified Sine Wave Inverters

Sine wave inverters are available in two basic types: pure sine wave inverters and modified sine wave
inverters. The difference is basically in the electronics. Modified sine wave inverters use simpler and
cheaper electronics to produce a wave that is not quite a smooth sine wave. Pure sine wave inverters use
more expensive electronics to generate a wave that is very close to a pure sine wave. The figure below
compares outputs from a modified sine waver inverter and a pure sine wave inverter.
A) Single Phase Half bridge Inverter

This type of inverter consists of two thyristors and two diodes and connection is as shown in below figure.

In this case, total DC voltage is Vs and divided into two equal parts Vs/2. Time for one cycle is T sec.

For half cycle of 0 <t <T/2, thyristor T1 conducts. The load voltage is Vs/2 due to the upper voltage
source Vs/2.

For the second half cycle of T/2 <t <T, thyristor T1 is commutated and T2 conducts. During this period,
the load voltage is -Vs/2 due to the lower source Vs/2.

Vo = Vs/2
By this operation, we can get alternating voltage waveform with 1/T Hz frequency and Vs/2 peak
amplitude. The output waveform is a square wave. It will be passed through the filter and remove
unwanted harmonics which give us pure sine waveform. The frequency of the waveform can be controled
by the ON time (Ton) and OFF time (Toff) of the thyristor. The magnitude of the output voltage is half of
the supply voltage and source utilization period is 50%. This is a disadvantage of half bridge inverter and
solution of this is full bridge inverter.

B) Single Phase Full-bridge Inverter

In this type of inverter, four thyristors and four diodes are used. The circuit diagram of single-phase full
bridge is as shown in below figure.

At a time two thyristors T1 and T2 conduct for first half cycle 0 < t < T/2. During this period, the load
voltage is Vs which is similar to the DC supply voltage.

For second half cycle T/2 < t < T, two thyristors T3 and T4 conducts. The load voltage during this period
is -Vs.

Here we can get AC output voltage same as DC supply voltage and the source utilization factor is 100%.
The output voltage waveform is square waveform and the filters are used to convert it into a sine wave.

If all thyristors conduct at the same time or in a pair of (T1 and T3) or (T2 and T4) then the source will be
short-circuited. The diodes are connected in the circuit as feedback diode because it is used for the energy
feedback to the DC source. If we compare full bridge inverter with half bridge inverter, for the given DC
supply voltage load, output voltage is two times and output power is four times in full bridge inverter.

2) Three Phase Bridge Inverter

In case of industrial load, three phase ac supply is used and for this, we have to use a three-phase inverter.
In this type of inverter, six thyristors and six diodes are used and they are connected as shown in below
figure.

It can operate in two modes according to the degree of gate pulses.

 180-degree mode
 120-degree mode

PWM Inverter

Pulse Width Modulated inverters(PWM inverter) replaced the older versions of inverters and has a wide
range of applications. Practically these are used in the power electronics circuits. The inverters based on
the PWM technology possess MOSFETs in the switching stage of the output. Most of the inverters
available nowadays possess this PWM technology and are capable of producing ac voltage for varying
magnitudes and frequencies. There are multiple protection and control circuits in these types of inverters.
The implementation of PWM technology in the inverters makes it suitable and ideal for the distinct loads
connected.

An inverter whose functionality depends upon the pulse width modulation technology is referred to as
PWM inverters. These are capable of maintaining the output voltages as the rated voltages depending on
the country irrespective of the type of load connected. This can be achieved by changing the switching
frequency width at the oscillator.
Working Principle PWM Inverter

An inverter designing involves various topologies of power circuits and the methods to control the
voltage. The most concentrated part of the inverter is its waveform generated at the output. For the
purpose of filtering the waveform inductors and the capacitors are used. In order to reduce the harmonics
from the output low pass filters are used. If the inverter possesses a fixed value of output frequencies
resonant filters are used. For the adjustable frequencies at the output, filters are tuned above the maximum
value of fundamental frequency. PWM technology changes the square wave characteristics. The pulses
used for switching are modulated and regulated before it supplied to the connected load. When there is no
requirement for voltage control fixed width of the pulse is used.

PWM Inverter Types & Waveforms

The technique of PWM in an inverter comprises of two signals. One signal is for the reference and the
other will be the carrier. The pulse required for switching the mode of the inverter can be generated by the
comparison among those two signals. There are various PWM techniques.

Single Pulse Width Modulation (SPWM)

For every half cycle, there is only one pulse available to control the technique. The square wave signal
will be for reference and a triangular wave will be the carrier. The gate pulse generated will be the result
of the comparison of the carrier and the reference signals. Higher harmonics is the major drawback of this
technique.

Multiple Pulse Width Modulation (MPWM)

MPWM technique is used to overcome the drawback of SPWM. Instead of a single pulse, multiple pulses
are used for every half cycle of the voltage at the output. The frequency at the output is controlled by
controlling the frequency of the carrier.

Sinusoidal Pulse Width Modulation

In this type of PWM technique, instead of a square wave, a sine wave is used as a reference and the carrier
will be a triangular wave. The sine wave will be the output and its RMS value of voltage is controlled by
the modulation index.

Modified Sinusoidal Pulse Width Modulation

The carrier wave is applied for the first and the last sixty-degree interval per every half cycle. This
modification is introduced to improve the harmonic characteristics. It decreases the loss due to switching
and increases the fundamental component.
Three Phase Inverter
Definition: We all know that the function of an inverter is to convert DC current to AC current. We have
discussed two types of inverters above. A three-phase inverter is used to convert DC voltage to a three-
phase AC supply. This inverter is commonly used in high power and variable frequency drive applications
such as HVDC power transmission.

Electricity is transmitted across the network with the help of three different currents in a three-phase
inverter. Which are out of phase with each other. When in a single-phase inverter the power can go
through one phase. For example, if our house has a connection of three-phase power supply in our house
then this can be connected to any one phase.

Working Principle of Three Phase Inverter:

The working principle of this inverter is that it consists of three inverter switches with a single phase. In
which each switch can be connected to the load terminal. Three switches can be synchronized to the
operation of the basic control system. So that a switch works to create a line / to-line output waveform,
including six steps, at every 60 degrees of the basic output waveform.

This wave involves a zero voltage stage between two sections like the positive and negative of a square
wave. Once the carrier-based PWM technology is applied to this wave. The original shape of the wave can
then be taken. So that the third harmonic including its multiplication will be canceled.

What is Current Source Inverter?

The current source inverter is also known as current fed inverter which converts the input dc into ac and
its output can be three-phase or single phase. According to the definition of the current source, an ideal
current source is the kind of source in which current is constant and it is independent of voltage.