6/4/24, 6:26 PM Unit- 1: Introduction of operating system – B.C.

A study

B.C.A study

Unit- 1: Introduction of operating system

An Operating System (OS) is an interface between a computer user and computer hardware. An operating
system is a software which performs all the basic tasks like file management, memory management, process
management, handling input and output, and controlling peripheral devices such as disk drives and printers.

Definition

An operating system is a program that acts as an interface between the user and the computer hardware and
controls the execution of all kinds of programs.

Some popular Operating Systems include Linux Operating System, Windows Operating System, VMS, OS/400,
AIX, z/OS, etc.

Following are some of important functions of an operating System.

Memory Management
Processor Management
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Device Management
File Management
Security
Control over system performance
Job accounting
Error detecting aids
Coordination between other software and users

Applications of Operating System

Following are some of the important activities that an Operating System performs −

Security − By means of password and similar other techniques, it prevents unauthorized access to programs
and data.
Control over system performance − Recording delays between request for a service and response from the
system.
Job accounting − Keeping track of time and resources used by various jobs and users.
Error detecting aids − Production of dumps, traces, error messages, and other debugging and error
detecting aids.
Coordination between other softwares and users − Coordination and assignment of compilers,
interpreters, assemblers and other software to the various users of the computer systems.

Types of operating system

Operating systems are there from the very first computer generation and they keep evolving with time. In this
chapter, we will discuss some of the important types of operating systems which are most commonly used.

Batch operating system

The users of a batch operating system do not interact with the computer directly. Each user prepares his job on
an off-line device like punch cards and submits it to the computer operator. To speed up processing, jobs with
similar needs are batched together and run as a group. The programmers leave their programs with the operator
and the operator then sorts the programs with similar requirements into batches.

The problems with Batch Systems are as follows −

Lack of interaction between the user and the job.

CPU is often idle, because the speed of the mechanical I/O devices is slower than the CPU.
Difficult to provide the desired priority.

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Time-sharing operating systems

Time-sharing is a technique which enables many people, located at various terminals, to use a particular
computer system at the same time. Time-sharing or multitasking is a logical extension of multiprogramming.
Processor’s time which is shared among multiple users simultaneously is termed as time-sharing.

The main difference between Multiprogrammed Batch Systems and Time-Sharing Systems is that in case of
Multiprogrammed batch systems, the objective is to maximize processor use, whereas in Time-Sharing
Systems, the objective is to minimize response time.

Multiple jobs are executed by the CPU by switching between them, but the switches occur so frequently. Thus,
the user can receive an immediate response. For example, in a transaction processing, the processor executes
each user program in a short burst or quantum of computation. That is, if n users are present, then each user can
get a time quantum. When the user submits the command, the response time is in few seconds at most.

The operating system uses CPU scheduling and multiprogramming to provide each user with a small portion of
a time. Computer systems that were designed primarily as batch systems have been modified to time-sharing
systems.

Advantages of Timesharing operating systems are as follows −

Provides the advantage of quick response.

Avoids duplication of software.
Reduces CPU idle time.

Disadvantages of Time-sharing operating systems are as follows −

Problem of reliability.
Question of security and integrity of user programs and data.
Problem of data communication.

Distributed operating System

Distributed systems use multiple central processors to serve multiple real-time applications and multiple users.
Data processing jobs are distributed among the processors accordingly.

The processors communicate with one another through various communication lines (such as high-speed buses
or telephone lines). These are referred as loosely coupled systems or distributed systems. Processors in a
distributed system may vary in size and function. These processors are referred as sites, nodes, computers, and
so on.

The advantages of distributed systems are as follows −

With resource sharing facility, a user at one site may be able to use the resources available at another.
Speedup the exchange of data with one another via electronic mail.
If one site fails in a distributed system, the remaining sites can potentially continue operating.

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Better service to the customers.

Reduction of the load on the host computer.
Reduction of delays in data processing.

Real Time operating System

A real-time system is defined as a data processing system in which the time interval required to process and
respond to inputs is so small that it controls the environment. The time taken by the system to respond to an
input and display of required updated information is termed as the response time. So in this method, the
response time is very less as compared to online processing.

Real-time systems are used when there are rigid time requirements on the operation of a processor or the flow
of data and real-time systems can be used as a control device in a dedicated application. A real-time operating
system must have well-defined, fixed time constraints, otherwise the system will fail. For example, Scientific
experiments, medical imaging systems, industrial control systems, weapon systems, robots, air traffic control
systems, etc.

There are two types of real-time operating systems.

Hard real-time systems

Hard real-time systems guarantee that critical tasks complete on time. In hard real-time systems, secondary
storage is limited or missing and the data is stored in ROM. In these systems, virtual memory is almost never
found.

Soft real-time systems

Soft real-time systems are less restrictive. A critical real-time task gets priority over other tasks and retains the
priority until it completes. Soft real-time systems have limited utility than hard real-time systems. For example,
multimedia, virtual reality, Advanced Scientific Projects like undersea exploration and planetary rovers

Batch processing

Batch processing is a technique in which an Operating System collects the programs and data together in a
batch before processing starts. An operating system does the following activities related to batch processing −

The OS defines a job which has predefined sequence of commands, programs and data as a single unit.
The OS keeps a number a jobs in memory and executes them without any manual information.
Jobs are processed in the order of submission, i.e., first come first served fashion.

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When a job completes its execution, its memory is released and the output for the job gets copied into an
output spool for later printing or processing.

Advantages

Batch processing takes much of the work of the operator to the computer.
Increased performance as a new job get started as soon as the previous job is finished, without any manual
intervention.

Disadvantages

Difficult to debug program.

A job could enter an infinite loop.
Due to lack of protection scheme, one batch job can affect pending jobs.

Multitasking

Multitasking is when multiple jobs are executed by the CPU simultaneously by switching between them.
Switches occur so frequently that the users may interact with each program while it is running. An OS does the
following activities related to multitasking −

The user gives instructions to the operating system or to a program directly, and receives an immediate
response.
The OS handles multitasking in the way that it can handle multiple operations/executes multiple programs
at a time.
Multitasking Operating Systems are also known as Time-sharing systems.
These Operating Systems were developed to provide interactive use of a computer system at a reasonable
cost.
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A time-shared operating system uses the concept of CPU scheduling and multiprogramming to provide each
user with a small portion of a time-shared CPU.
Each user has at least one separate program in memory.

A program that is loaded into memory and is executing is commonly referred to as a process.
When a process executes, it typically executes for only a very short time before it either finishes or needs to
perform I/O.
Since interactive I/O typically runs at slower speeds, it may take a long time to complete. During this time, a
CPU can be utilized by another process.
The operating system allows the users to share the computer simultaneously. Since each action or command
in a time-shared system tends to be short, only a little CPU time is needed for each user.
As the system switches CPU rapidly from one user/program to the next, each user is given the impression
that he/she has his/her own CPU, whereas actually one CPU is being shared among many users.

Multiprogramming

Sharing the processor, when two or more programs reside in memory at the same time, is referred
as multiprogramming. Multiprogramming assumes a single shared processor. Multiprogramming increases
CPU utilization by organizing jobs so that the CPU always has one to execute.

The following figure shows the memory layout for a multiprogramming system.

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An OS does the following activities related to multiprogramming.

The operating system keeps several jobs in memory at a time.

This set of jobs is a subset of the jobs kept in the job pool.
The operating system picks and begins to execute one of the jobs in the memory.
Multiprogramming operating systems monitor the state of all active programs and system resources using
memory management programs to ensures that the CPU is never idle, unless there are no jobs to process.

Advantages

High and efficient CPU utilization.

User feels that many programs are allotted CPU almost simultaneously.

Disadvantages

CPU scheduling is required.

To accommodate many jobs in memory, memory management is required.

Interactivity

Interactivity refers to the ability of users to interact with a computer system. An Operating system does the
following activities related to interactivity −

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Provides the user an interface to interact with the system.

Manages input devices to take inputs from the user. For example, keyboard.
Manages output devices to show outputs to the user. For example, Monitor.

The response time of the OS needs to be short, since the user submits and waits for the result.

Real Time System

Real-time systems are usually dedicated, embedded systems. An operating system does the following activities
related to real-time system activity.

In such systems, Operating Systems typically read from and react to sensor data.
The Operating system must guarantee response to events within fixed periods of time to ensure correct
performance.

Introduction to Memory Management

Main Memory refers to a physical memory that is the internal memory to the computer. The word main is used
to distinguish it from external mass storage devices such as disk drives. Main memory is also known as RAM.
The computer is able to change only data that is in main memory. Therefore, every program we execute and
every file we access must be copied from a storage device into main memory.

All the programs are loaded in the main memeory for execution. Sometimes complete program is loaded into
the memory, but some times a certain part or routine of the program is loaded into the main memory only when
it is called by the program, this mechanism is called Dynamic Loading, this enhance the performance.

Also, at times one program is dependent on some other program. In such a case, rather than loading all the
dependent programs, CPU links the dependent programs to the main executing program when its required. This
mechanism is known as Dynamic Linking.

Swapping

A process needs to be in memory for execution. But sometimes there is not enough main memory to hold all the
currently active processes in a timesharing system. So, excess process are kept on disk and brought in to run
dynamically. Swapping is the process of bringing in each process in main memory, running it for a while and
then putting it back to the disk.

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Contiguous Memory Allocation

In contiguous memory allocation each process is contained in a single contiguous block of memory. Memory is
divided into several fixed size partitions. Each partition contains exactly one process. When a partition is free, a
process is selected from the input queue and loaded into it. The free blocks of memory are known as holes. The
set of holes is searched to determine which hole is best to allocate.

Memory Protection

Memory protection is a phenomenon by which we control memory access rights on a computer. The main aim
of it is to prevent a process from accessing memory that has not been allocated to it. Hence prevents a bug
within a process from affecting other processes, or the operating system itself, and instead results in a
segmentation fault or storage violation exception being sent to the disturbing process, generally killing of
process.

Memory Allocation

Memory allocation is a process by which computer programs are assigned memory or space. It is of three types
:

1. First Fit:The first hole that is big enough is allocated to program.

2. Best Fit:The smallest hole that is big enough is allocated to program.
3. Worst Fit:The largest hole that is big enough is allocated to program.

Fragmentation

Fragmentation occurs in a dynamic memory allocation system when most of the free blocks are too small to
satisfy any request. It is generally termed as inability to use the available memory.

In such situation processes are loaded and removed from the memory. As a result of this, free holes exists to
satisfy a request but is non contiguous i.e. the memory is fragmented into large no. Of small holes. This
phenomenon is known as External Fragmentation.

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Also, at times the physical memory is broken into fixed size blocks and memory is allocated in unit of block
sizes. The memory allocated to a space may be slightly larger than the requested memory. The difference
between allocated and required memory is known as Internal fragmentation i.e. the memory that is internal to
a partition but is of no use.

Paging

A solution to fragmentation problem is Paging. Paging is a memory management mechanism that allows the
physical address space of a process to be non-contagious. Here physical memory is divided into blocks of equal
size called Pages. The pages belonging to a certain process are loaded into available memory frames.

Page Table

A Page Table is the data structure used by a virtual memory system in a computer operating system to store the
mapping between virtual address and physical addresses.

Virtual address is also known as Logical address and is generated by the CPU. While Physical address is the
address that actually exists on memory.

Segmentation

Segmentation is another memory management scheme that supports the user-view of memory. Segmentation
allows breaking of the virtual address space of a single process into segments that may be placed in non-
contiguous areas of physical memory.

Segmentation with Paging

Both paging and segmentation have their advantages and disadvantages, it is better to combine these two
schemes to improve on each. The combined scheme is known as ‘Page the Elements’. Each segment in this
scheme is divided into pages and each segment is maintained in a page table. So the logical address is divided
into following 3 parts :

Segment numbers(S)
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Page number (P)

The displacement or offset number (D)
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