SATTELITE SYSTEM

CHAPTER 1

1.1 Introduction:-
Satellites offer a number of features not readily available with other means of communications.
Because very large areas of the earth are visible from a satellite, the satellite can form the star
point of a communications net, simultaneously linking many users who may be widely separated
geographically. The same feature enables satellites to provide communications links to remote
communities in sparsely populated areas that are difficult to access by other means. Of course,
satellite signals ignore political boundaries as well as geographic ones, which may or may not be
a desirable feature.
Satellites are also used for remote sensing, examples being the detection of water pollution and
the monitoring and reporting of2 Chapter One weather conditions. Some of these remote sensing
satellites also form a vital link in search and rescue operations for downed aircraft and the like.
Satellites are specifically made for telecommunication purpose. They are used for mobile
applications such as communication to ships, vehicles, planes, hand-held terminals and for TV
and radio broadcasting. They are responsible for providing these services to an assigned region
(area) on the earth. The power and bandwidth of these satellites depend upon the preferred size
of the footprint, complexity of the traffic control protocol schemes and the cost of ground
stations. A satellite works most efficiently when the transmissions are focused with a desired
area. When the area is focused, then the emissions do not go outside that designated area and
thus minimizing the interference to the other systems. This leads more efficient spectrum usage.
Satellite’s antenna patterns play an important role and must be designed to best cover the
designated geographical area (which is generally irregular in shape). Satellites should be
designed by keeping in mind its usability for short and long term effects throughout its life time.
The earth station should be in a position to control the satellite if it drifts from its orbit it is
subjected to any kind of drag from the external forces.

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1.2 History of Satellite Communications
The first artificial satellite used solely to further advances in global communications was a
balloon named Echo 1. Echo 1 was the world's first artificial communications satellite capable of
relaying signals to other points on Earth. The first American satellite to relay communications
was Project SCORE in 1958, which used a tape recorder to store and forward voice messages. It
was used to send a Christmas greeting to the world from U.S. President Dwight D. Eisenhower.
NASA launched the Echo satellite in 1960; the 100-foot (30 m) aluminised PET film balloon
served as a passive reflector for radio communications. Courier 1B, built by Philco, also
launched in 1960, was the world's first active repeater satellite. The first
communications satellite was Sputnik 1. Put into orbit by the Soviet Union on October 4, 1957, it
was equipped with an onboard radio-transmitter that worked on two frequencies: 20.005 and
40.002 MHz. Sputnik 1 was launched as a step in the exploration of space and rocket
development. While incredibly important it was not placed in orbit for the purpose of sending
data from one point on earth to another. And it was the first artificial satellite in the steps leading
to today's satellite communications. Telstar was the second active, direct relay communications
satellite. Belonging to AT&T as part of a multi-national agreement between AT&T, Bell
Telephone Laboratories, NASA, the British General Post Office, and the French National
PTT (Post Office) to develop satellite communications, it was launched by NASA from Cape
Canaveral on July 10, 1962, the first privately sponsored space launch. Relay 1 was launched on
December 13, 1962, and became the first satellite to broadcast across the Pacific on November
22, 1963.

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 CHAPTER 2: ORBITAL MECHANICS
Satellites (spacecraft) orbiting the earth follow the same laws that govern the motion of the
planets around the sun. From early times much has been learned about planetary motion through
careful observations. Johannes Kepler (1571–1630) was able to derive empirically three laws
describing planetary motion. Later, in 1665, Sir Isaac Newton (1642–1727) derived Kepler’s
laws from his own laws of mechanics and developed the theory of gravitation.

2.1 Kepler's Laws of Planetary Motion

Kepler's First Law:- Kepler’s first law states that the path followed by a satellite around the
primary will be an ellipse. An ellipse has two focal points shown as F1 and F2 in Fig.1.

Fig.2.1 The foci F1 and F2, the semimajor axis a, and the semiminor axis b of an ellips
The foci F The eccentricity and the semimajor axis are two of the orbital parameters specified
for satellites (spacecraft) orbiting the earth. For an elliptical orbit, 0<e< 1. When e = 0, the orbit
becomes circular.

Kepler’s Second Law:- Kepler’s second law states that, for equal time intervals, a satellite will
sweep out equal areas in its orbital plane, focused at the barycenter. The center of mass of the
two-body system, termed the barycenter, is always centered on one of the foci.

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Figure 2.2. Kepler’s second law. The areas A1 and A2 swept out in unit time are equal.

Kepler’s Third Law:- Kepler’s third law states that the square of the periodic time of orbit is
proportional to the cube of the mean distance between the two bodies. The mean distance is
equal to the semimajor axis a. For the
artificial satellites orbiting the earth, Kepler’s third law can be written as follows

a3  … (1)
n2
where n is the mean motion of the satellite in radians per second and μ is the earth’s geocentric
gravitational constant.
  3.986005  1014 m3 / s 3 … (2)
The importance of Kepler’s third law is that it shows there is a fixed relationship between period
and semimajor axis.

2.2 Satellite Orbits

There are many different satellite orbits that can be used. The ones that receive the most attention
are the geostationary orbit used as they are stationary above a particular point on the Earth. The
orbit that is chosen for a satellite depends upon its application. These orbits are given in table 1.

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Geostationary or geosynchronous earth orbit (GEO)
A satellite in a geostationary orbit appears to be stationary with respect to the earth, hence the
name geostationary. GEO satellites are synchronous with respect to earth. Looking from a fixed
point from Earth, these satellites appear to be stationary. These satellites are placed in the space
in such a way that only three satellites are sufficient to provide connection throughout the surface
of the Earth. GEO satellite travels eastward at the same rotational speed as the earth in circular
orbit with zero inclination.
A geostationary orbit is useful for communications because ground antennas can be
aimed at the satellite without their having to track the satellite's motion. This is relatively
inexpensive. In applications that require a large number of ground antennas, such
as DirectTVdistribution, the savings in ground equipment can more than outweigh the cost and
complexity of placing a satellite into orbit.

Table: 1
STELLITE ORBIT SATELLITE ORBIT APPLICATION
ORBIT NAME ALTITUDE (KM
ABOVE EARTH'S
SURFACE)
Low Earth Orbit LEO 200 - 1200 Satellite phones, Navstar or
Global Positioning (GPS) system
Medium Earth MEO 1200 - 35790 High-speed telephone signals
Orbit
Geosynchronous GSO 35790 Satellite Television
Orbit
Geostationary GEO 35790 Direct broadcast television
Orbit

Low Earth Orbit (LEO) satellites

A low Earth orbit (LEO) typically is a circular orbit about 200 kilometres (120 mi) above the
earth's surface and, correspondingly, a period (time to revolve around the earth) of about 90
minutes. Because of their low altitude, these satellites are only visible from within a radius of
roughly 1000 kilometers from the sub-satellite point. In addition, satellites in low earth orbit
change their position relative to the ground position quickly. So even for local applications, a
large number of satellites are needed if the mission requires uninterrupted connectivity. s. LEO
systems try to ensure a high elevation for every spot on earth to provide a high quality

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communication link. Each LEO satellite will only be visible from the earth for around ten
minutes.
Low-Earth-orbiting satellites are less expensive to launch into orbit than geostationary satellites
and, due to proximity to the ground, do not require as high signal strength (Recall that signal
strength falls off as the square of the distance from the source, so the effect is dramatic). Thus
there is a trade off between the number of satellites and their cost. In addition, there are
important differences in the onboard and ground equipment needed to support the two types of
missions. One general problem of LEOs is the short lifetime of about five to eight years due to
atmospheric drag and radiation from the inner Van Allen belt1.

Medium Earth Orbit (MEO) satellites

A MEO satellite is in orbit somewhere between 8,000 km and 18,000 km above the earth’s
surface. MEO satellites are similar to LEO satellites in functionality. MEO satellites are visible
for much longer periods of time than LEO satellites, usually between 2 to 8 hours. MEO
satellites have a larger coverage area than LEO satellites. A MEO satellite’s longer duration of
visibility and wider footprint means fewer satellites are needed in a MEO network than a LEO
network. One disadvantage is that a MEO satellite’s distance gives it a longer time delay and
weaker signal than a LEO satellite, though not as bad as a GEO satellite. Due to the larger
distance to the earth, delay increases to about 70–80 ms. so these satellites need higher transmit
power and special antennas for smaller footprints.

Fig. 2.3 Satellite Orbits

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2.3 Spacing and Frequency Allocation
Allocating frequencies to satellite services is a complicated process which requires international
coordination and planning. This is carried out under the supervision of the International
Telecommunication Union (ITU). This frequency allocation is done based on different areas. So
this world is divided into three areas.
Area 1:- : Europe, Africa, Soviet Union, and Mongolia
Area 2: North and South America and Greenland
Area 3: Asia (excluding area 1 areas), Australia, and the south-west Pacific

Within these regions, frequency bands are allocated to various satellite services, although a given
service may be allocated different frequency bands in different regions. Some of the services
provided by satellites are:

 Fixed satellite service (FSS)

The FSS provides links for existing telephone networks as well as for transmitting
television signals to cable companies for distribution over cable systems. Broadcasting
satellite services are intended mainly for direct broadcast to the home, sometimes referred
to as direct broadcast satellite (DBS) service [in Europe it may be known as direct-to-
home (DTH) service]. Mobile satellite services would include land mobile, maritime
mobile, and aeronautical mobile. Navigational satellite services include global
positioning systems (GPS), and satellites intended for the meteorological services often
provide a search and rescue service.

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TABLE 2: ITU Frequency Band Designations

TABLE 3: Frequency Band Designations

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  Broadcasting satellite service (BSS)
Provides Direct Broadcast to homes. E.g. Live Cricket matches etc.
 Mobile satellite services
o Land Mobile
o Maritime Mobile
o Aeronautical mobile
 Navigational satellite services
o Include Global Positioning systems
 Meteorological satellite services
o They are often used to perform Search and Rescue service.

2.4 Look Angle Determination

The satellite look angle refers to the angle that one would look for a satellite at a given time from
a specified position on the Earth. The look angles for the ground station antenna are Azimuth and
Elevation angles. They are required at the antenna so that it points directly at the satellite. Look
angles are calculated by considering the elliptical orbit. These angles change in order to track the
satellite.

Azimuth angle:- The azimuth angle is an angle measured from North direction in the local
horizontal plane.

Elevation angle:- The elevation angle is the angle measured perpendicular to the horizontal
plane (in the vertical plane) to the line-of-sight to the satellite.

The three pieces of information that are needed to determine the look angles for the
geostationary orbit are
1. The earth-station latitude, denoted here by E

2. The earth-station longitude, denoted here by E

3. The longitude of the subsatellite point, denoted here by SS (this is just referred to as the
satellite longitude)

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4. ES: Position of Earth Station
5. SS: Sub-Satellite Point
6. S: Satellite
7. d: Range from ES to S
8. σ: angle to be determined

Fig. 2.4:- The geometry used in determining the look angles for a geostationary satellite.

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Figure 4.5 (a) The spherical geometry related to Fig. 4.4. (b) The plane triangle obtained from
Fig. 4.4.

There are six angles in all defining the spherical triangle. The three angles A, B,and C are the
angles between the planes. Angle A is the angle between the plane containing c and the plane
containing b. Angle B is the angle between the plane containing c and the plane containing a.

Considering figure 5 (b), it’s a spherical triangle. All sides are the arcs of a great circle. Three
sides of this triangle are defined by the angles subtended by the centre of the earth.

Side a: angle between North Pole and radius of the sub-satellite point.

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Side b: angle between radius of Earth and radius of the sub-satellite point.

Side c: angle between radius of Earth and the North Pole.

a = 90ᵒ and such a spherical triangle is called quadrantal triangle. c = 90ᵒ – λ

Angle B is the angle between the plane containing c and the plane containing a.
Thus, B  E  SS
Angle A is the angle between the plane containing b and the plane containing c.
Angle C is the angle between the plane containing a and the plane containing b.
Thus,
a=900
c=900 -λ E
B=f E -fSS

Thus, b = arcos (cos B cos E

A = arc sin (sin |B| / sin b)

2.5 Orbital Perturbation

The keplerian orbit described so far is ideal in the sense that it assumes that the earth is a
uniform spherical mass and that the only force acting is the centrifugal force resulting from
satellite motion balancing the gravitational pull of the earth. In practice, other forces which can
be significant are the gravitational forces of the sun and the moon and atmospheric drag. The
gravitational pulls of sun and moon have negligible effect on low-orbiting satellites, but they do
affect satellites in the geostationary orbit.
There are two types of perturbation:-

1- Gravitational:- when considering third body interaction and the non-spherical

shape of the earth.
The earth is very far away from perfectly spherical. This depends on the earth rotation,
earth gravitational potential.

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2- Non-gravitational:- like Atmospheric drag, solar radiation pressure and tidal
friction.
For near-earth satellites, below about 1000 km, the effects of atmospheric drag are
significant. Because the drag is greatest at the perigee, the drag acts to reduce the velocity at
this point, with the result that the satellite does not reach the same apogee height on
successive revolutions.

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 CHAPTER: 3 SATELLITES

3.1 Satellite Launching

A satellite is sent into space on top of a rocket. When a satellite is put into space, we say that it is
“launched.” The rocket that is used to launch a satellite is called a “launch vehicle.” This satellite
launching needs the earth stations in order to operate the satellite operation. The satellite
launching can be divided into four stages.
1- First Stage:- The first stage of the launch vehicle contains the rockets and fuel that are
needed to lift the satellite and launch vehicle off the ground and into the sky.

2- Second Stage:- The second stage contains smaller rockets that ignite after the first stage
is finished. The rockets of the second stage have their own fuel tanks. The second stage is
used to send the satellite into space.

3- Third Stage (Upper Stage):- The upper stage of the launch vehicle is connected to the
satellite itself, which is enclosed in a metal shield, called a “fairing.” The fairing protects
the satellite while it is being launched and makes it easier for the launch vehicle to travel
through the resistance of the Earth's atmosphere.

4- Fourth Stage (Firing):- Once the launch vehicle is out of the Earth's atmosphere, the
satellite separates from the upper stage. The satellite is then sent into a “transfer orbit”
that sends the satellite higher into space. Once the satellite reaches its desired orbital
height, it unfurls its solar panels and communication antennas, which had been stored
away during the flight. The satellite then takes its place in orbit with other satellites and is
ready to provide communications to the public.

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 Figure 3.1 Steps of Satellite Launching

The launch process can be divided into two phases: the launch phase and the orbit injection
phase.
1- The Launch Phase
The launch vehicle places the satellite into the transfer orbit. An eliptical orbit that has at
its farthest point from earth (apogee) the geosynchronous elevation of 22,238 miles and at
its nearest point (perigee) an elevation of usually not less than 100 miles.
2- The Orbit Injection Phase
The energy required to move the satellite from the elliptical transfer orbit into the
geosynchronous orbit is supplied by the satellite’s apogee kick motor (AKM). This is
known as the orbit injection phase.
3.2 Earth Station
The earth segment of a satellite communications system consists of the transmit and receive earth
stations. The station’s antenna functions in both, the transmit and receive modes, but at different
frequencies.
An earth station is generally made up of a multiplexor, a modem, up and downconverters, a high
power amplifier (HPA) and a low noiseamplifier (LNA). Almost all transmission to satellites is d
igital, and the digital data streams are combined in a multiplexor and fed to a modemthat modula
tes a carrier frequency in the 50 to 180 MHz range. An upconverter bumps the carrier into the gi
gahertz range, which goes to the HPA and antenna.
For receiving, the LNA boosts the signals to the downconverter, which lowers the freque
ncy and sends itto the modem. The modemdemodulates the carrier, and the digital output goes to

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the demultiplexing device and then to its destinations. See earth station on board vessel and base
station. A detailed block diagram is shown in fig. 3.2.

and dish.
Figure 3.2:- Block diagram of a transmit-receive earth station

3.3 Satellite Sub-systems

A satellite communications system can be broadly divided into two segments—a ground segment
and a space segment. The space segment will obviously include the satellites, but it also includes
the ground facilities needed to keep the satellites operational, these being referred to as the
tracking, telemetry, and command (TT&C) facilities. In many networks it is common practice to
employ a ground station solely for the purpose of TT&C.
In a communications satellite, the equipment which provides the connecting link between
the satellite’s transmit and receive antennas is referred to as the transponder. The transponder
forms one of the main sections of the payload, the other being the antenna subsystems.

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PAYLOAD:- The payload comprises of a Repeater and Antenna subsystem and performs the
primary function of communication.
1- REPEATER:- It is a device that receives a signal and retransmits it to a higher level
and/or higher power onto the other side of the obstruction so that the signal can cover
longer distance.
2- Transparent Repeater:- It only translates the uplink frequency to an appropriate
downlink frequency. It does so without processing the baseband
signal. The main element of a typical transparent repeater is a single beam satellite.
Signals from antenna and the feed system are fed into the low-noise amplifier through
a bandpass filter.
3- Regenerative Repeater :- A repeater, designed for digital transmission, in which
digital signals are amplified, reshaped, retimed, and retransmitted.
Regenerative Repeater can also be called as a device which regenerates incoming
digital signals and then retransmits these signals on an outgoing circuit.
4- Antennas :- The function of an antenna of a space craft is to receive signals
and transmit signals to the ground stations located within the coverage area of the
satellite. The choice of the antenna system is therefore governed by the size and shape
of the coverage area. Consequently, there is also a limit to the minimum size of the
antenna footprint.

3.4 Satellite System Link Models

System Link Budget calculations basically relate two quantities, the transmit power and
the receive power, and show in detail how the difference between these two powers is accounted
for. Link-power budget calculations also need the additional losses and noise factor which is
incorporated with the transmitted and the received signals. Along with losses, this unit also
discusses the system noise parameters. Various components of the system add to the noise in the
signal that has to be transmitted.

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3.4.1 EQUIVALENT ISOTROPIC RADIATED POWER
The key parameter in link-power budget calculations is the equivalent isotropic radiated
power factor, commonly denoted as EIRP. Is the amount of power that a theoretical isotropic
antenna (which evenly distributes power in all directions) would emit to produce the peak power
density observed in the direction of maximum antenna gain. EIRP can be defined as the power
input to one end of the transmission link and the problem to find the power received at the other
end.
EIRP = G Ps
Where,
G - Gain of the Transmitting antenna and G is in decibels.
Ps- Power of the sender (transmitter) and is calculated in watts.

[EIRP] = [G] + [Ps] dBW

3.4.2 TRANSMISSION LOSSES:-

As EIRP is thought of as power input of one end to the power received at the other, the problem
here is to find the power which is received at the other end. Some losses that occur in the
transmitting – receiving process are constant and their values can be pre – determined.

3.4.2.1 Free-Space Transmission Losses (FSL)

This loss is due to the spreading of the signal in space. Going back to the power flux
density equation
 m  Ps / 4 r 2
The power that is delivered to a matched receiver is the power flux density. It is multiplied by
the effective aperture of the receiving antenna. Hence, the received power is:
PR   M Aeff
EIRP 2 GR

4 r 2

Where
r- distance between transmitter and receiver, GR - power gain at the receiver
In decibels, the above equation becomes:
 4 r 
2

 PR    EIRP   GR   10 log  

  
 4 r 
2

[ FSL]  10 log  
  
 PR    EIRP   GR   [ FSL]
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3.4.2.2 Feeder Losses (RFL):- This loss is due to the connection between the satellite receiver
device and the receiver antenna is improper. Losses here occur is connecting wave guides, filers
and couplers. The receiver feeder loss values are added to free space loss.

3.4.2.1 Antenna Misalignment Losses (AML):- To attain a good communication link, the earth
station‟s antenna and the communicating satellite‟s antenna must face each other in such a w ay
that the maximum gain is attained.

3.4.2.1 Fixed Atmospheric (AA) and Ionospheric losses (PL):-The gases present in the
atmosphere absorb the signals. This kind of loss is usually of a fraction of decibel in quantity.
Along with the absorption losses, the ionosphere introduces a good amount of
depolarization of signal which results in loss of signal.

3.5 Link Equations

The EIRP can be considered as the input power to a transmission link. Due to the above
discussed losses, the power at the receiver that is the output can be considered as a simple
calculation of EIRP– losses.

Losses = [FSL] + [RFL] + [AML] + [AA] + [PL]

The received power that is P

 PR    EIRP   GR   [ Losses]

Where;
 PR  - Received power in dB, [EIRP] - equivalent isotropic radiated power in dBW.
[ GR ]- Isotropic power gain at the receiver and its value is in dB.
[FSL]-Free-space transmission loss in dB.
[RFL] -Receiver feeder loss in dB.
[AA] -Atmospheric absorption loss in dB.
[AML] -Antenna misalignment loss in dB.
[PL] - Depolarization loss in dB.

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 CHAPTER 4: MODULATION AND MULTIPLEXING TECHNIQUES

4.1 Multiple Access

Multiple accesses is defined as the technique where in more than one pair of earth
stations can simultaneously use a satellite transponder. A multiple access scheme is a method
used to distinguish among different simultaneous transmissions in a cell. A radio resource can be
a different time interval, a frequency interval or a code with a suitable power level.
If the different transmissions are differentiated for the frequency band, it will bedefined
as the Frequency Division Multiple Access (FDMA). Whereas, if transmissions are distinguished
on the basis of time, then it is considered as Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA). If a
different code is adopted to separate simultaneous transmissions, it will be Code Division
Multiple Access (CDMA).

4.1.1 Frequency Division Multiple Access (FDMA)

Frequency Division Multiple Access or FDMA is a channel access method used in multiple-
access protocols as a channelization protocol. FDMA gives users an individual allocation of one
or several frequency bands, or channels. It is particularly commonplace in satellite
communication.

 In FDMA all users share the satellite transponder or frequency channel simultaneously but
each user transmits at single frequency.
 FDMA can be used with both analog and digital signal.
 FDMA requires high-performing filters in the radio hardware.
 FDMA is not vulnerable to the timing problems that TDMA has. Since a predetermined
frequency band is available for the entire period of communication, stream data (a
continuous flow of data that may not be packetized) can easily be used with FDMA.
 Each user transmits and receives at different frequencies as each user gets a unique
frequency slots.

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4.1.2 Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA)

Time division multiple access (TDMA) is a channel access method for shared medium
networks. It allows several users to share the same frequency channel by dividing the signal into
different time slots. This allows multiple stations to share the same transmission medium (e.g.
radio frequency channel) while using only a part of its channel capacity.

 Shares single carrier frequency with multiple users.

 Slots can be assigned on demand in dynamic TDMA.
 Less stringent power control than CDMA due to reduced intra cell interference
 Higher synchronization overhead than CDMA
 Cell breathing (borrowing resources from adjacent cells) is more complicated than in
CDMA.
 Frequency/slot allocation complexity.

4.1.3 Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA)

Code division multiple access (CDMA) is a channel access method used by
various radio communication technologies. CDMA is an example of multiple access, which is
where several transmitters can send information simultaneously over a single communication
channel. This allows several users to share a band of frequencies (see bandwidth). CDMA is
used as the access method in many mobile phone standards such
as cdmaOne, CDMA2000 (the 3G evolution of cdmaOne), and WCDMA (the 3G standard used
by GSM carriers), which are often referred to as simply CDMA.
 One of the early applications for code division multiplexing is in the Global Positioning
System (GPS). This predates and is distinct from its use in mobile phones.
 The Qualcomm standard IS-95, marketed as cdmaOne.
 The Qualcomm standard IS-2000, known as CDMA2000, is used by several mobile phone
companies, including the Globalstar satellite phone network.
 The UMTS 3G mobile phone standard, which uses W-CDMA.
 CDMA has been used in the Omni TRACS satellite system for transportation logistics.

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4.2 Direct Broadcast Satellite Services
Direct-broadcast satellite (DBS) is a type of artificial satellite which usually
sends satellite television signals for home reception through geostationary satellites. The type of
satellite television which uses direct-broadcast satellites is known as direct-broadcast satellite
television (DBSTV) or direct-to-home television (DTHTV). This has initially distinguished the
transmissions directly intended for home viewers from cable television distribution services that
are sometimes carried on the same satellite.
A DBS subscriber installation consists of a dish antenna two to three feet (60 to 90
centimeters) in diameter, a conventional TV set, a signal converter placed next to the TV set, and
a length of coaxial cable between the dish and the converter. The dish intercepts microwave
signals directly from the satellite. The converter produces output that can be viewed on the TV
receiver. Broadcast services include audio, television, and Internet services. Direct broadcast
television, which is digital TV, is the subject of this chapter. A Typical DBS system block
diagram is shown in fig. 4.1. The home receiver consists of two units—an outdoor unit and an
indoor unit.

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 Fig. 4.1 Block schematic for the outdoor unit (ODU) and IDU unit of DBS.

The Home Receiver Outdoor Unit (ODU):- The downlink signal, covering the frequency range
12.2 to 12.7 GHz, is focused by the antenna into the receive horn. The horn feeds into a polarizer
that can be switched to pass either left-hand circular or right-hand circular polarized signals. The
low-noise block that follows the polarizer contains a low-noise amplifier (LNA) and a down
converter. The down converter converts the 12.2- to 12.7-GHz band to 950 to 1450 MHz, a
frequency range better suited to transmission through the connecting cable to the indoor unit.

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Fig. 4.2 Block schematic for the outdoor unit (ODU)

The Home Receiver Indoor Unit (IDU):- The transponder frequency bands shown in Fig. 16.2
are down converted to be in the range 950 to 1450 MHz, but of course, each transponder retains
its 24-MHz bandwidth. The IDU must be able to receive any of the 32 transponders, although
only 16 of these will be available for a single polarization. The tuner selects the desired
transponder. It should be recalled that the carrier at the center frequency of the transponder is
QPSK modulated by the bit stream, which itself may consist of four to eight TV programs TDM.
Following the tuner, the carrier is demodulated, the QPSK modulation being converted to a bit
stream. Error correction is carried out in the decoder block labeled FEC.

4.3 Application of LEO

The evolution from geo-stationary to low-Earthorbit (LEO) satellites has resulted in a number of
proposed global satellite systems, which can be grouped into three distinct types - Little LEOs,
Big LEOs, and Broadband LEOs. These systems can best be distinguished by reference to their
terrestrial counterparts: paging, cellular, and fiber, as shown in Table 4.1. On the ground, paging,
cellular, and fiber services are complementary, not competitive, because they offer
fundamentally different kinds of services. Similarly, the Little LEOs, Big LEOs, and Broadband

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LEOs are complementary rather than competitive because they are providing distinctly different
services targeted at different markets, and have different pricing structures.
Table 4.1 Terrestrial Counterparts

Typical applications of the various types of LEO systems are shown in Table 2. Of
course the Big LEOs can support the Little LEO applications, and the Broadband LEOs
can support both the Big and Little LEO applications.

Table 4.2 Application of LEO Satellites

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4.4 MEO and GEO Satellites
Medium Earth orbit (MEO), sometimes called intermediate circular orbit (ICO), is the
region of space around the Earth above low Earth orbit (altitude of 2,000 kilometres (1,243 mi))
and below geostationary orbit (altitude of 35,786 kilometres (22,236 mi)).The most common use
for satellites in this region is for navigation, communication, and geodetic/space
environment science.[1] The most common altitude is approximately 20,200 kilometres
(12,552 mi)), which yields an orbital period of 12 hours, as used, for example, by the Global
Positioning System (GPS). Other satellites in Medium Earth Orbit include Glonass (with an
altitude of 19,100 kilometres (11,868 mi)) and Galileo (with an altitude of 23,222 kilometres
(14,429 mi)) constellations.[citation needed] Communications satellites that cover the North and South
Pole are also put in MEO.

Geostationary satellites appear to be fixed over one spot above the equator. Receiving and
transmitting antennas on the earth do not need to track such a satellite. These antennas can be
fixed in place and are much less expensive than tracking antennas. These satellites have
revolutionized global communications, television broadcasting and weather forecasting, and
have a number of important defenseand intelligence applications.

One disadvantage of geostationary satellites is a result of their high altitude: radio signals take
approximately 0.25 of a second to reach and return from the satellite, resulting in a small but
significant signal delay. This delay increases the difficulty of telephone conversation and reduces
the performance of common network protocols such as TCP/IP, but does not present a problem
with non-interactive systems such as television broadcasts. There are a number of proprietary
satellite data protocols that are designed to proxy TCP/IP connections over long-delay satellite
links—these are marketed as being a partial solution to the poor performance of native TCP over
satellite links. TCP presumes that all loss is due to congestion, not errors, and probes link
capacity with its "slow-start" algorithm, which only sendspackets once it is known that earlier
packets have been received. Slow start is very slow over a path using a geostationary satellite.
There are approximately 600 geosynchronous satellites, some of which are not operational

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 Table 4.3 Application of MEO and GEO Satellites
Satellites Application
Medium Earth Orbit High-speed telephone signals
Geosynchronous Orbit Satellite Television
Geostationary Orbit Direct broadcast television

References
1- http://www.williamcraigcook.com/satellite/index.html
2- http://transition.fcc.gov/cgb/kidszone/satellite/kidz/into_space.html
3- Satellite Communications Dennis Roddy 3rd edition, McGraw Hill publication.
4- http://www.radio-electronics.com/info/satellite/satellite-orbits/satellites-orbit-
definitions.php.
5- www.wikipedia.com
6- LEOs - THE COMMUNICATIONS SATELLITES of 21Century by Mark A. Sturza

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