Physics Revision - Motion

P1.1 Length and Time

1 Measuring Cylinders
● Measuring cylinders can be used to measure the volume of liquids or, by measuring the change in
volume, the volume of an irregular shape

2 Micrometer screw gauge

● When measuring very small distance (less than a centimeter) a micrometer is the most appropriate
● Micrometers can measure distances to the nearest 1/100th of an mm

3 Time

● Stop-clocks and stopwatches can be used to measure time intervals

 ● An important factor when measuring time intervals is human reaction time. This can have a
significant impact upon measurements when the measurements involved are very short (less than a
second)

4 Average Values

● Suppose you have to measure the thickness of a sheet of paper. The thing that you are trying to
measure is so small that it would be very difficult to get an accurate answer
● If, however, you measure the thickness of 100 sheets of paper you can do so much more
accurately. Dividing your answer by 100 will then give an accurate figure for the thickness of one
sheet
● This process of taking a reading of a large number of values and then dividing by the number is a
good way of getting accurate values for small figures, including (for example) the time period of a
pendulum – measure the time taken for 10 swings and then divide that time by 10

P1.2 Motion
1, 2 & 3 Speed, Velocity and Acceleration

● Speed (measured in meters per second) is the distance moved by an object each second
● The average speed of an object is given by the equation:
● Velocity is a similar quantity to speed, but it includes a direction as well as a magnitude
● Objects can have equal speeds but might have opposite velocities (if traveling in different directions)
● Acceleration is the rate of change of velocity: how much velocity changes each second
● The following equation states acceleration:

4, 5, 6, 7, 8 & 10 Graphs
● A distance-time graph shows how the distance of an object (from a point) varies over time:

● A horizontal line means stationary

● A straight line means constant speed
● If the gradient increases the object is speeding up (accelerating)
● If the gradient decreases the object is slowing down (decelerating)
● If the line is going down, the object is moving backward
● The speed of an object is given by the gradient of the line:

● A Velocity-time graph shows how the velocity (or speed) of an object changes over time
● If the line is horizontal, the velocity is constant (no acceleration)
● If the line slopes upwards then the object is accelerating (speeding up)
● If the line goes down then the object is decelerating (slowing down)
● The distance traveled by an object can be found by determining the area beneath the graph

● If the area beneath the graph forms a triangle (the object is accelerating or decelerating) then the
area can be determined using the formula:
● If the area beneath the graph is a rectangle (constant velocity) then the area can be determined
using the formula:

area = ½ x base x height

● If the area beneath the graph is a rectangle (constant velocity) then the area can be determined
using the formula:

area = base x height

● The acceleration of an object is given by the gradient of the graph:

● Lines that slope downwards have negative gradients and so can be said to have negative
accelerations: This is the same thing as a deceleration
● If the gradient of the line changes then the acceleration of the body must be changing:
○ A line with a constant gradient represents constant acceleration (linear motion)
 ○ A curved line represents changing acceleration – either decreasing (if the gradient gets
smaller) or increasing (if the gradient gets large)

11 Free Fall

● In the absence of air resistance, all objects fall with the same acceleration, regardless of their mass
● This acceleration is equal to the gravitational field strength and is approximately 10 m/s 2 near the
Earth’s surface, the same as gravitational acceleration
● So long as air resistance remains insignificant, the speed of a falling object will increase at a steady
rate, getting larger the longer it falls for.
P1.3 Mass and Weight
1, 4 & 5 Definition

● Mass (measured in kilograms, kg) is the amount of matter in an object

● Weight (measured in newtons, N) is the force of gravity on a mass
● The size of this force depends on the gravitational field strength (often called gravity, g, for short)

weight = mass x gravitational field strength W = m x g

2 & 3 Gravitational Field

● The value of g (the gravitational field strength) varies from planet to planet
● On Earth: 9.8 N/kg (considered 10 N/kg for IGCSE)

6 Balances
● The weight (and hence mass) of two objects can be compared using a balance
P1.4 Density
1 Equation

● Density is the mass per unit volume of a material:

○ Objects made from low-density materials typically have a low mass, whilst similar-sized
objects made from high-density materials have a high mass
(Think of how heavy a bag full of feathers is compared to a similar bag full of metal)
● Density is related to mass and volume by the following equation:

2 & 3 Determination
● To measure the density of an object, we must measure its mass and then divide it by the volume:
● The mass of an object can be measured quite simply by placing it on a top pan balance
● You ought to state that you will ‘zero’ the balance before using it
● In the case of a liquid, the liquid must be placed in a container, the mass of which should be
measured both when it is empty and when it contains the liquid:
● The mass of the liquid will be the difference between the two values

● The volume can be determined in a couple of ways:

● Regular shapes (e.g. cubes, spheres, cylinders):
○ The width (and length) can be measured using a ruler or a pair of digital calipers
○ To make the measurements accurate, several measurements should be taken between
different faces or points on the circumference, and an average taken
● Irregular shapes:
○ The volume can be found using a Eureka can:
○ Fill the Eureka can with water
○ Place an empty measuring cylinder below its spout
○ Now carefully lower the object into the Eureka can (use a piece of string, perhaps)
 ○ Measure the volume of displaced water in the measuring cylinder
○ Alternatively, the object can be placed in a measuring cylinder containing a known volume of
liquid, and the change in volume then measured

P1.5 Forces
● A force is a push or a pull, exerted by one object on another, measured in Newtons (N)
 P1.5.1 Effects of Forces
1, 2, 3 & 4 Change from forces
● When forces are applied to materials, the size and shape of the material can change
● The method below describes a typical procedure for carrying out an investigation into the properties
of a material
● Set up the apparatus as shown in the diagram
● A single mass (0.1 kg, 100g) is attached to the spring, with a pointer attached to the bottom, and the
position of the spring is measured against the ruler
● The mass (in kg) and position (in cm) are recorded in a table
● A further mass is added and the new position measured
● The above process continues until a total of 7 masses have been added
● The masses are then removed and the entire process repeated again, until it has been carried out a
total of three times, and averages can then be taken
● Once measurements have been taken:
○ The force on the spring can be found by multiplying the mass on the spring (in kg) by 10
N/kg (the gravitational field strength)
○ The extension of the spring can be found by subtracting the original position of the spring
from each of the subsequent positions
● Finally, a graph of extension (on the y-axis) against force (on the x-axis) should be plotted

3 Hooke’s Law
● Hooke’s law states that:
○ The extension of a spring is proportional to the applied force
● Many other materials (such as metal wires) also obey Hooke’s law
● Hooke’s law is associated with the initial linear (straight) part of a force-extension graph
● Objects that obey Hooke’s law will return to their original length after being stretched
● If an object continues to be stretched it can be taken past the limit of proportionality (sometimes
called the elastic limit). At this point, the object will no longer obey Hooke’s law and will not return to
its original length

5 Force, Mass, and Acceleration

● Force, mass, and acceleration are related by the following equation:

force = mass × acceleration

f=m×a
6 & 7 Friction
● Friction is a force that opposes the motion of an object caused by the contact (rubbing) of two
surfaces. It always acts in the opposite direction to the direction in which the object is moving

● Air resistance (sometimes called drag) is a form of friction caused by a body moving through the air
● Friction (including air resistance) results in energy loss due to the transfer of energy from kinetic to
internal (heat)
● When an unbalanced (resultant) force acts on an object, it can affect its motion in a number of
ways:
○ The object could speed up
○ The object could slow down
○ The object could change direction
 8 & 9 Two Forces Acting
● When several forces act on a body, the resultant (overall) force on the body can be found by adding
together forces which act in the same direction and subtracting forces which act in opposite
directions
● When the forces acting on a body are balanced (i.e. there is no resultant force), the body will either
remain at rest or continue to move in a straight line at a constant speed
 P1.5.2 Turning Effect
1 & 2 Moment of a Force

● A moment is the turning effect of a force

● Moments occur when forces cause objects to rotate about some pivot
● The size of the moment depends upon:
○ The size of the force
○ The distance between the force and the pivot
● The moment of a force is given by the equation:

Moment = Force × perpendicular distance from the pivot

● Moments have the units on newton meters (Nm), depending on whether the distance is measured in
meters or centimeters
● Some other examples involving moments include:
● Using a crowbar to prize open something
● Turning a tap on or off
● Opening or closing a door
 3 & 4 Equilibrium

● The term “equilibrium” means that an object keeps doing what it’s doing, without any change
● Therefore:
○ If the object is moving it will continue to move (in a straight line)
○ If it is stationary it will remain stationary
○ The object will also not start or stop turning
● The above conditions require two things:
○ The forces on the object must be balanced (there must be no resultant force)
○ The sum of clockwise moments on the object must equal the sum of anticlockwise moments
(the principle of moments)

● A simple experiment to demonstrate that there is no net moment on an object in equilibrium involves
taking an object, such as a beam, and replacing the supports with newton (force) meters
● The beam in the above diagram is in equilibrium
● The various forces acting on the beam can be found either by taking the reading from the newton
meters or by measuring the masses (and hence calculating the weights) of the beam and the mass
suspended from the beam
● The distance of each force from the end of the ruler can then be measured, allowing the moment of
each force about the end of the ruler to be calculated
● It can then be shown that the sum of clockwise moments (due to forces F2 and F3) equal the sum
of anticlockwise moments (due to forces F1 and F4)

5 Application of Principle
● The principle of moments states that:
● For a system to be balanced, the sum of clockwise moments must be equal to the sum of
anticlockwise moments

● The principle of moments doesn’t just apply to seesaws - it is important in many other situations as
well such as, for example, a shelf:
 P1.5.3 Center of Mass
1 Determination

● The center of mass of an object (sometimes called the center of gravity) is the point through which
the weight of that object acts
● For a symmetrical object of uniform density (such as a symmetrical cardboard shape) the center of
mass is located at the point of symmetry:
● When an object is suspended from a point, the object will always settle so that it’s center of mass
comes to rest below the pivoting point
● This can be used to find the center of mass of irregular shape:
● The irregular shape (a plane laminar) is suspended from a pivot and allowed to settle
● A plumb line (a lead weight) is then held next to the pivot and a pencil is used to draw a vertical line
from the pivot (the center of mass must be somewhere on this line)
● The process is then repeated, suspending the shape from two different points
● The center of mass is located at the point where all three lines cross
 2 Stability
● An object is stable when its center of mass lies above its base
● If the centre of mass does not lie above its base, then an object will topple over
● The most stable objects have a low centre of mass and a wide base

P1.5.4 Pressure
1 & 2 Equation
● Pressure is the concentration of a force:
○ If a force is spread over a large area it will result in a small pressure
○ If it is spread over a small area it will result in a large pressure
● Pressure can also be measured in pascals, Pa; 1 Pa is the same as 1 N/m2
● The pressure is related to force and area by the equation:
Physics Revision - Work, Energy, and Power

P2.1 Work
1 Equations

● Energy is the capacity of something to do work

● Work is done whenever a force acts on an object that moves in the direction of the force
○ The greater the force, the greater the work
○ The larger the distance moved, the larger the work
● Whenever any work is done, energy gets transferred (mechanically) from one form to another
● The amount of energy transferred (in joules) is equal to the work done (also in joules)

energy transferred (J) = work done (J)

● Usually, if a force acts in the direction that an object is moving then the object will gain energy
● If the force acts in the opposite direction to the movement then the object will lose energy

● The amount of work that is done if related to the size of the force and the distance moved by the
object in the direction of the force:

work done = force × distance moved

P2.2 Energy
1 Definition

● Energy is the capacity of something to do work:

● The law of conservation of energy states that energy cannot be created or destroyed, it can only
change from one form to another
● The total amount of energy in a system remains constant, although the form may vary:
○ A falling object (in a vacuum): Gravitational potential energy → Kinetic energy
○ A gas cooker: Chemical → Internal (Heat)
○ An LED (Light Emitting Diode): Electrical → Light
● Many processes involve several steps before energy end up in its final form
● For example, a fossil fuel power station takes chemical energy and uses it to produce electrical
energy, the steps are:

Chemical → Internal (heat) → Kinetic (steam) → Kinetic (turbine and generator)

→ Electrical
2 & 3 Energy in Objects
● Energy can exist in a number of forms
● For your IGCSE examination you are expected to know about the following:

4 Gravitational Potential Energy

● The gravitational potential of an object is the energy it has due to its height in a gravitational field:
○ If an object is lifted up it will gain GPE
○ If it falls, it will lose it
● The GEP is related to its mass (m), height (h), and gravitational field strength (g):
● The gravitational field strength (g) on the Earth is approximately 10 N/kg

● The Kinetic energy (KG) of an object is the energy it has as a result of its speed (v) and mass (m)
 5 Energy Transfer
● There are four ways in which energy can be transferred from one form to another:
 6 Conservation of Energy
● When energy is transferred, not all of the energy will end up in the desired form or place
● The lost energy ends up being dissipated, usually in the form of heat, light or sound

7 Efficiency
Whenever energy is transferred from one form to another, some of that energy is usually wasted and is
transferred away from the system, usually in the form of heat or waves (light and sound)
An efficient system is one where most of the energy going into that system ends up in the form that is
wanted
Eg. An LED light bulb is efficient because most of the electrical energy (90%) ends up as light

● An inefficient system is one where most of the energy ends up in forms that weren’t wanted
Eg. An old incandescent light bulb is inefficient because only a small amount of the electrical energy
(5%) ends up as light
 ● The efficiency of a system is the percentage of energy transferred from the original store that ends
up in the intended form

P2.3 Power
1 Equations

● Machines, such as car engines, transfer energy from one form to another every second
● The power of a machine is the rate at which the machine transfers energy
○ The greater the rate at which energy is transferred, the greater the power
● Because work done is equal to the energy transferred, the power is equal to the rate of doing work
● Power is the amount of energy transferred (or work done) every second
● Power, work, and time are related in the equation:

P2.4 Energy Resources

1 Renewable and non-renewable
● A renewable energy resource is one that is replenished at a faster rate than the rate at which it is
being used
As a result of this, renewable energy resources cannot run out
● A reliable energy resource is one that can produce energy at any time
Non-reliable resources can only produce energy some of the time (e.g. when it’s windy)
 2 & 3 Energy Sources

● Energy resources are large banks of energy that can be transferred into a form that can be used by
society, such as electrical energy
● The table below gives a brief description of the main energy resources, along with the form of
energy contained in that resource

● Fossil Fuels
○ Bruning fuels produce heat, which can be used to turn water into steam to turn turbines
○ It is chemical energy and it isn’t renewable
○ Advantages; It’s reliable, can produce energy on a large scale and it’s cost-effective
○ Disadvantages; produces significant greenhouse gases and pollution
● Water
○ Hydroelectric and tidal power use the GPE of water to turn turbines which generates
electricity
○ It is GPE energy and it is renewable
○ Advantages; Hydro is reliable and can produce large amount of energy at short notice also it
produces no pollution of greenhouse gases
○ Disadvantages; tidal is not reliable, can involve flooding a large area destroying wildlife, very
few suitable sites, dams can be expensive to build yet running costs are less than fuels
● Geothermal
○ Heat from the underground can be used to create steam, which spins turbines producing
electricity
○ It is internal energy and it’s renewable
○ Advantages; it is reliable and cost-effective
○ Disadvantage; can result in the release of harmful gases, not many places and doesn’t work
large scale energy
● Nuclear Fission
○ Nuclear fuel is reacted, producing heat which creates spin
○ It’s nuclear energy and it isn’t renewable
○ Advantages; reliable and can produce energy on large scales, produces no greenhouse
gases nor pollution, a large amount of energy is produced
○ Disadvantages; produces dangerous radioactive waste that takes years to decay, power
stations are expensive to build
● Solar
○ Light from the sun can be used to warm water passing through black pipes
○ It is light energy and it is renewable
○ Advantages; produces no greenhouse gases nor pollution. Works in very remote places
○ Disadvantages; not reliable, doesn’t produce too much energy and expensive to buy and not
cost-effective
● Wind
○ Wind turbines can be used to produce electricity
○ It is kinetic energy and it is renewable
○ Advantages; produces no greenhouse gases or pollution, land can still be used for farming
○ Disadvantages; not reliable, can be noisy and ugly, not many suitable places, turbines can
be expensive to build, however, running costs are low

4, 5 & 6 The Sun

● Most of our energy resources on the Earth come from the Sun:
 ○ The Sun heats up the atmosphere, creating wind and producing waves
○ Water evaporated by the Sun falls as rain, filling up reservoirs
○ Plants are grown using sunlight form the basis for fuels – both biofuels and fossil fuels
● The Sun’s energy is produced through the process of nuclear fusion in its core
○ Nuclear fusion involves the collision (and bonding) of hydrogen nuclei to form helium nuclei,
releasing nuclear energy in the process
● Some forms of energy, however, do not come from the Sun which includes:
○ Geothermal – this comes from heat produced in the Earth’s core
○ Nuclear – this comes from elements which make up a small proportion of the Earth’s crust
○ Tidal – this comes (mainly) from the gravitational attraction of the moon
 Physics Revision - Thermal Physics

P4.1 Simple Kinetic Molecular Model of

Matter
1 & 2 Properties
● Matter can exist in one of three different states:
● Solids:
○ Solids have a definite shape (they are rigid)
 ○ Solids have a definite volume
● Liquids:
○ Liquids have no definite shape – they are able to flow, and will take the shape of a container
○ Liquids have a definite volume
● Gases:
○ Gases have no definite shape – they will take the shape of their container
○ Gases have no fixed volume – if placed in an evacuated container they will expand to fill the
container. They are also highly compressible

3 Molecular structure

● In a solid:
○ The molecules are very close together and arranged in a regular pattern
○ The molecules vibrate about fixed positions
○ The molecules are held in place by strong intermolecular bonds
○ These bonds prevent the molecules from moving, giving the solid its rigid shape and fixed
volume
● In a liquid:
○ The molecules are still close together but are no longer arranged in a regular pattern
○ The molecules are able to slide past each other
○ The molecules have enough energy that they are able to break the bonds between them
○ The bonds are still there, but they no longer hold the molecules in place
○ As a result, the molecules can move around allowing the liquid to flow
● In a gas:
○ The molecules are widely separated – about 10 times further apart in each direction
○ The molecules move about randomly at high speeds
○ The molecules are now moving around randomly at high speeds
○ The molecules have broken the bonds between them: They are widely separated with no
long-range forces binding them together
○ As a result, the molecules are able to move freely so that the gas can flow
○ Because of large spaces between them, it can easily be compressed and expanded
 4 & 5 Temperature and Pressure

● The molecules in a gas move around randomly at high speeds

● The temperature of a gas is related to the average speed of the molecules:
The hotter the gas, the faster the molecules move
● As the molecules move around, they collide with the surface of nearby walls
● Each collision applies a force across the surface area of the walls
● The pressure is the force per unit area:

● The molecules collide against a wall, they bounce off, changing their momentum
● There are many such collisions every second, resulting in a large change in momentum, each sec
● This change in moment each second results in a force being exerted against the wall
● The pressure exerted by the gas is equal to this force divided by the area of the wall

● At a constant volume, if the temperature increases, the pressure increases because the molecules
move faster so they collide harder and more frequently with the walls.
● At a constant temperature, if the volume increases, the pressure decreases because the molecules
collide less frequently with the walls.

6 & 7 Brownian Motion

● When small particles (such as pollen or smoke particles) are suspended in a liquid or gas, the
particles can be observed through a microscope moving around in a random, erratic fashion this
movement is called Brownian Motion
● This motion is caused by molecules in the gas (or liquid) colliding at high speeds with the small
particles
● These collisions give the particles a little nudge, causing them to change their speed and directions
randomly, each time they are struck by a molecule
● This effect provides important evidence concerning the behavior of molecules in gases
● The small particles observed in Brownian motion are significantly bigger than the molecules that
cause the motion
● The molecules are able to affect the particles in this way because they are traveling at very high
speeds (much higher than the particles) and so have a lot of momentum which they transfer to the
particles when they collide

8, 9 & 10, 12 Melting and Boiling

● Usually, when a substance is heated its temperature increases

● However, whilst a substance changes its state (from solid to liquid or from liquid to gas) the
temperature of that material remains constant, even though energy is still being added
● This happens because the energy is being used to break the bonds between the molecules instead
of increasing the kinetic energy of the molecules (and hence the temperature)
● When a substance turns from gas to liquid (condensation) or from liquid to solid (solidification) the
opposite happens
● The temperature remains constant whilst the bonds reform (giving out energy in the process)
● The melting point and boiling point of a substance is the temperature at which that substance
changes state

● Latent heat is the energy required to change the state of a substance

● This energy is required to break the bonds holding molecules together
● (It is also given out again once the bonds reform)
○ Latent Heat of Fusion is the energy required to turn a solid into a liquid
○ Latent Heat of Vaporisation is the energy required to turn a liquid into a gas
● The Specific Latent Heat, L, of a substance is the energy required to change the state of 1 kg of that
substance
● For an object of mass m, the total energy required to cahnge its state is given by the equation

Energy = m × L

11, 13, 14 & 15 Evaporation

● Evaporation is a change in state of a liquid to a gas that can happen at any temperature from the
surface of a liquid
● The molecules in a liquid have a range of different energies:
Some have lots of energy, others have very little
● Evaporation occurs when more energetic molecules near the surface of the liquid have enough
energy to escape
● When this happens energy is lost from the liquid:
 ○ The average energy of the remaining molecules decreases
○ This means that the temperature of the remaining liquid will also decrease

● A number of factors affect the rate of evaporation:

○ The temperature of the liquid – At higher temperatures, more molecules have enough
energy to escape
○ The surface area of the liquid – If the liquid has a greater surface area there will be more
area from which the molecules can escape
○ The movement of air across the surface of the liquid – The presence of a draft can help to
remove less energetic molecules (which might not have quite enough energy to escape)
from the liquid
● The process of evaporation can be used to cool things down:
○ If an object is in contact with an evaporating liquid, as the liquid cools the solid will cool as
well
○ This process is used in refrigerators and air conditioning units

P3.2 Pressure Changes

1 Effect of Pressure
● The molecules in a gas move around randomly at high speeds, colliding with surfaces and exerting
pressure upon them
● When the temperature of a gas is increased, the speeds of the molecules increases
● This causes them to collide harder against surfaces, increasing the pressure
● Increasing the temperature of a gas (whilst keeping its volume fixed) will increase the pressure
● When a gas is compressed, the density of the gas increases
● This means there will be more collisions against surfaces, which will also increase the pressure
● Decreasing the volume of a gas (whilst keeping the temperature fixed) will increase the pressure
● It a gas has an original pressure, P, and the volume, V, then its final pressure and volume will be
given the relationship:

P1V1 = P 2V2
P3.3 Matter and Thermal Properties
1 & 2 Thermal Expansion

● When (most) materials are heated, they expand

● This expansion happens because the molecules start to move around (or vibrate) faster, which
causes them to knock into each other and push each other apart
● When solids, liquids and gasaes are heated:

3 Applications and Consequences

 ● The thermal expansion of materials can have some useful applications, but also has some
undesirable consequences
● Applications:
○ The expansion of a liquid in a thermometer can be used to measure temperature
○ A bimetallic strip, consisting of two metals that expand at different rates, can be made to
bend at a given temperature, forming a temperature-activated switch

● Consequences:
● The expansion of solid materials can cause them to buckle if they get too
● This could include:
○ Metal railway tracks
○ Road surfaces
○ Bridges
● Things that are prone to buckling in this way often have gaps built into them providing some room
for them to expand into

P3.4 Measurement of Temperature

1 & 4 Physical Properties

● When a substance is heated, some of its physical properties can change

● These properties include things such as:
○ The volume (and density) of the substance
○ The electrical resistance of the substance
● If these properties change in a well-defined way, by measuring the property you can determine the
temperature
● In order to build a thermometer based on one of these properties, you need to start by measuring
the property at some well-defined fixed points
● A fixed point is a temperature at which some easily identifiable change occurs, such as the melting
of ice (at 0 °c) or the boiling of pure water (at 100 °c)
● These fixed points allow you to know the temperature without having to measure it directly
● Usually two fixed points are used:
○ The lower fixed point: The melting temperature of ice
○ The upper fixed point: The boiling temperature of pure water
● Once a property (such as electrical resistance) has been measured at these two fixed points, the
values of that property at other temperatures can be worked out
 2 Sensitivity, Range and Linearity

● Important properties to take in account when designing a thermometer include:

○ Linearity - it allows to easily work out the relationship between the fixed point and
temperature
○ Sensitivity – if the thing you are measuring changes significantly when the temperature
changes, it makes it easier to detect small changes in temperature: Your thermometer is
more sensitive
○ Range – What are the lowest and highest temperatures the thermometer can measure? If a
liquid-thermometer is too short, there may not be enough room for the liquid to expand into

3 Thermocouple
● A thermocouple consists of two different types of wire attached together
● When the joint between the two wires is heated a P.D. (voltage) is created between the two
● The greater the temperature, the greater potential difference
● Thermocouples are not as sensitive as liquid-in-glass thermometers, but because the metals have
high melting points, they can be used to measure very high temperature
● Thermocouples are also very responsive to rapidly changing temperatures

5 & 6 Liquid-in-glass

● A liquid-in-glass thermometer consists of a thin glass capillary tube containing a liquid that expands
with temperature
 ● At one end of the tube is a glass bulb, containing a larger volume of the liquid which expands when
heated, moving into the narrower tube
● A scale along the side of the tube allows the temperature to be measured based on the length of
liquid within the tube
● The liquids used in liquid-in-glass thermometers are chosen for their thermal expansion properties
○ They expand linearly with temperature
○ They expand significantly, giving them greater sensitivity
○ They have low freezing points and high boiling points, allowing them to be used over a
greater range of temperatures
● The use of a large glass bulb coupled to a very narrow tube also results in greater sensitivity, as a
small change in volume results in the liquid moving a significant distance along the tube

P3.5 Thermal Processes

P3.5.1 Conduction
1 & 2 Conductors

● Conduction is the main method of thermal energy transfer in solids

● Metals are extremely good at conducting heat
● Non-metals are poor at conducting heat whilst liquids and gases are extremely poor
● Poor conductors are called insulators
● Materials containing small pockets of trapped air are especially good at insulating, as air is a gas
and hence a poor conductor
● When a substance is heated the atoms start to move around (vibrate) more
● As they do so they bump into each other transferring energy from atom to atom
● Metals are especially good at conducting heat as the delocalised electrons can collide with the
atoms, helping to transfer the vibrations through the material

3 Conduction in Solids
● A simple experiment to demonstrate the relative conducting properties of different materials can be
carried out using apparatus similar to that shown in the diagram below
● Ball bearings can be stuck to each of the strips and equal distance from the centre, using a small
amount of wax
● The strips should then be turned upside down and the centre heated gently using a candle, so that
each of the strips is heated at the point where they meet
● When the heat is conducted along to the ball bearing, the wax will melt and the ball bearing will drop
● The time for how long this takes for each of the strips, is their relative thermal conductivity

P3.5.2 Convection
1 & 2 Convection in Fluids

● Convection is the main way that heat travels through liquids and gases
(Convection cannot happen in solids)
● When a liquid (or gas) is heated:
○ The molecules push each other apart, making the liquid/gas expand
○ This makes the hot liquid/gas less dense than the surroundings
○ The hot liquid/gas rises, and the cooler (surrounding) liquid/gas moves in to take its place
○ Eventually the hot liquid/gas cools, contracts and sinks back down again
○ The resulting motion is called a convection current

3 Illustration

● A simple demonstration of convection in liquids involves taking a beaker of water and placing a few
crystals of potassium permanganate in it, to one side, as shown in the diagram above
● When the water is heated at that side, the potassium permanganate will dissolve in the heated
water and rise along with the warmed water, revealing the convection current
 P3.5.3 Radiation
1 & 2 Defintion
● All hot objects give off thermal radiation: the hotter they are, the more they emit
● Thermal radiation is part of the electromagnetic spectrum – infrared
● Thermal radiation is the only way in which heat can travel through a vacuum
It is the way in which heat reaches us from the Sun
● The colour of an object affects how good it is at emitting and absorbing thermal radiation

● Black objects are very good at absorbing thermal radiation (think about black leather seats in strong
sunshine) but also very good at emitting it (when it goes dark those seats cool down quickly)
● Shiny objects reflect thermal radiation and so absorb very little. They also emit very little, though,
and so take longer to cool down
 3 & 4 Emitters and Absorbers
● The amount of thermal radiation by an object depends on a number fo factors:
○ The temperature of the object (hotter = more radiation)
○ The colour of the object (black = more radiation)
○ The surface area of the object (greater surface area = more area radiation)

● To demonstrate the absorption of thermal radiation:

○ Take two conical flasks - one painted with silver paint, the other with black paint - and place
thermometers and bungs in them
○ Measure and record their initial temperatures
○ Place two flasks an equal distance from an incandescent light bulb (good radiation source)
○ After 2-5 minutes record the new temperatures (black should increase the most)

● To demonstrate the emission of thermal radiationL

○ Fill the shiny beakers with boiling water
○ Once each beaker reaches a set temperature start a stopwatch and allow it to cool
○ After 10 minutes, record the cahnge in temperature
○ The black beaker should’ve cooled the most
 P3.5.4 Consequences of Energy Transfer
1 Applications and Consequences

● Conduction:
● The main means of thermal energy transfer in solids
● When heated, atoms vibrate more, knocking into each other and transferring energy from atom to
atom as a result
● Metals are excellent conductors; Non-metals are poor; Liquids and gases are very poor
● If a question mentions metals, the answer will probably have something to do with conduction
● Trapped air is a very good insulator of heat. Air is a gas and so is a poor conductor. Trapping it
prevents it from circulating and forming a convection current

● Convection:
● The means of thermal energy transfer in liquids and gases
● When heated, a gas will expand and become less dense. This causes it to rise (a convection
current). Cooler (denser) gas falls, replacing the hot gas
● If a question refers to a liquid or gas (that isn’t trapped) then convection currents will probably form
● Heat sources placed at the bottom of things will generally create convection currents. Likewise,
cooling units placed high up will cool any rising air, causing it to sink again

● Thermal Radiation:
● The only way in which heat can travel through a vacuum
● Thermal radiation is heat transfer by infrared (part of the electromagnetic spectrum)
● Black objects are good at emitting and absorbing thermal radiation; shiny objects are poor at
emitting and absorbing it
● If a question refers to the colour of something (black, white or shiny) then the answer will probably
have something to do with thermal radiation
● If a piece of apparatus contains a vacuum then radiation will be the only way heat can travel through
that part of the apparatus

Physics Revision - Properties of Waves

Mathieu Rojas
P4.1 General Wave Properties
1 Energy Transfer
● Waves transfer energy between points, without transferring matter:
○ When a wave travels between two points, no matter actually travels with it: The points on the
wave simply vibrate back and forth about fixed positions

3 WaveFront
● Wavefronts are a useful way of picturing waves from above. Each wavefront (line) is used to
represent a single wave.

4 & 7 Terminology

● The wavelength of a wave is the distance from a point on one wave to the same point on the next
wave. Usually, this is measured from the top of one wave to the top of the next wave
● Wavelength is usually measured in meters (a distance)
● The amplitude of a wave is its height, measured from the middle of the wave to its top (or from the
middle to its bottom)
● The frequency is the number of wavelengths realized in a pre-determined period of time
● The speed of a wave (v) is related to the frequency (f) and wavelength by the equation:

2 & 5 Types of Waves

● For a transverse wave, the points along the wave vibrate at 90 degrees to the direction in which the
wave is moving (the direction of energy transfer)
● Some examples of the uses of transverse waves are:
○ Light from objects
○ Heat from objects
○ Radiation (Infrared Radiation)

● For a longitudinal wave, the points along the wave vibrate in the same direction that the wave is
moving in (left to right)
● Some examples of longitudinal waves:
○ Sound (eg. guitars, instruments, voice)
 6 & 7 Reflection and Refraction
● Reflection:
● When waves hit an object, such as a barrier, they can be reflected
● The angle of incidence is always equal to that of reflection
● It is the angle formed on the outer part of the barrier

● Refraction:
● When waves enter a different medium, their speed can change
● This effect is called refraction, and it can have two other effects:
○ The wavelength of the waves can increase or decrease
○ The waves can change direction

9 & 10 Diffraction
Diffraction:
● When waves pass through a narrow gap, the waves spread out
● The previously parallel wavefront turns into a circular one
 ● This effect is called diffraction

● Diffraction, as shown above, only generally happens when the gap is smaller than the wavelength of
the wave
● As the gap gets bigger, the effect gradually gets less pronounced until, in the case that the gap is
very much larger than the wavelength, the wave no longer spread out at all

A narrow gap makes the wave A medium gap, makes the wave When one barrier is removed, it
be circular be in an oval shape turns around the corner
P4.2 Light
P4.2.1 Reflection of Light
1 & 2 Formation

● Light is part of the electromagnetic spectrum – a family of transverse waves

● As with all wave, when light reflects it bounces from a barrier
● It reflects at the same angle of incidence with which it touches the barrier
 3 Calculations
● When an object is placed in front of a mirror, an image of that object can be seen in the mirror
● The image:
○ Is the same size as the object
○ Is the same distance behind the mirror as the object is in front of it
○ Is directly in line with the object
● The formation of this image can be understood by drawing a ray diagram

● The light from the object hits the mirror, reflecting from it (i=r)
● To an observer, the reflected ray appears to have come from the right-hand side of the mirror
● The reflected ray can be traced back in this directions, forming a virtual ray
● This can be repeated for another ray traveling in a slightly different direction
● An image of the object will appear where these two virtual rays cross
● The type of image formed in the mirror is called a virtual image
● A virtual image is formed by the divergence of rays from the image, and cannot be projected onto a
piece of paper (because the rays don’t actually go through the image)

P4.2.2 Refraction of Light

1 & 3 Formation
● When light enters a glass block, it slows down, causing it to change direction
● When it leaves the block it speeds up again, changing direction once more
● As the light enters the block it bends towards the normal line (which is at 90 degrees with the
barrier)
● When it leaves the block it bends away from the normal line

2 & 4 Refractive Index

● When light enters a denser medium (such as glass) it slows down and bends towards the normal
● Snell’s law gives the relationship between the angle of incidence i, and the angle of refraction r
● Where n is the refractive index of the material
● The refractive index is a number that is always bigger than 1 and is different for different materials
(1.5 for glass approximately)

5 & 6 Internal Reflection

● When light is moving from a denser medium towards a less dense one, most of the light is refracted,
but a small amount of it can be internally reflected
● However, if the angle of the light is great enough then instead of being refracted, ALL of the light is
reflected
● This is called Total Internal reflection and happens when the angle of the incident ray is greater than
the critical angle for that material
 Refraction Critical Angle Total Internal Reflection

● Two conditions are necessary for total internal reflection to occur:

○ The light must be going from a more dense medium towards a less dense one
● The angle of incidence must be greater than the critical angle

6 Critical Angle
● The critical angle, c, of a material is related to its refractive index, n
● It is when the angle r is equal to 90 degrees
● The relationship between the two quantities is given by the equation:

7 Optical Fiber
● The total internal reflection is also used to reflect light along optical fibres, allowing the high-speed
transmission of data on the internet
● This is as the angle of incidence is always greater than the critical angle
● Additionally, optical fibres can be used in medicine in order to see within the human body

P4.2.3 Thin Converging Lens

1 & 2 Utilization
● When parallel rays of light (travelling parallel to the principal axis) pass through a lens, they are
brought to a focus at a point known as the principal focus
● The distance of the principal focus from the lens is called the focal length, and depends on how
curved the lens is
 3, 4 & 5 Creation of an Image

● A real image is one formed by the convergence of rays of light.

● A real image can be projected onto a screen
● Lenses can be used to form images of objects placed in front of them
● The location (and nature) of the image can be found by drawing a ray diagram:

1. Start by drawing a ray going from the top of the object through the centre of the lens. This ray will
continue to travel in a straight line.
2. Next draw a ray going from the top of the object, travelling parallel to the axis to the lens. When this
ray emerges from the lens it will travel directly towards the principal focus.
3. The image is found at the point where the above two rays meet.
● The above diagram shows the image that is formed when the object is placed at a distance between
one focal length (f) and two focal lengths (2f) from the lens
● In this case, the image is:
○ Real, Enlarged, Inverted

● The following diagram shows what happens when the object is more distanced – further than twice
the focal length (2f) from the lens:
● In this case the image is:
○ Real, Diminished (smaller), Inverted

● If the object is placed at exactly twice the focal length (2f) from the lens:
● In this case the image is:
 ○ Real; Same size as the object; Inverted

6 Single Lens
● If the object is placed closer to the lens than the focal length, the emerging rays diverge and a real
image is no longer formed
● When viewed from the right-hand side of the lens, the emerging rays appear to come from a point
on the left. This point can be found by extending the rays backwards (creating virtual rays)
● A virtual image will be seen at the point where these virtual rays cross

● In this case the image is:

○ Virtual; enlarged and upright
● Using a lens in this way allows it to be used as a magnifying glass
● When using a magnifying glass, the lens should always be held close to the object
P4.3 Electromagnetic Spectrum
1, 2 & 3 Main Features
● Visible light, however, is just one small part of a much bigger spectrum: the electromagnetic
spectrum
● The different parts of the spectrum have different names (and some different properties)
● These parts are shown in order below, going from the longest wavelength (and lowest frequency) to
the shortest wavelength (and highest frequency)
● All electromagnetic waves share several properties:
○ They are all transverse
○ They can all travel through a vacuum
○ They all travel at the same speed in a vacuum
● The speed of light, in a vacuum, is approximately 3 x 10^8 m/s
● The speed of light in air is approximately the same
 4 Properties and Uses

● Radio waves and microwaves

○ These two parts of the spectrum share a lot of similarities and uses. Their main uses
concern wireless communication – in fact many things that people often assume use radio
waves actually use microwaves (e.g. WiFi, radar, mobile phones, satellites)
○ At high intensity, microwaves can be used to heat things: This happens in a microwave oven
● Infrared
○ Infrared is emitted by warm objects and can be detected using special cameras (thermal
imaging cameras). These can be used in industry, in research and also in medicine
○ Many security cameras are capable of seeing slightly into the infrared part of the spectrum
and this can be used to allow them to see in the dark: Infrared lights are used to illuminate
an area without being seen, which is then detected using the camera
○ Remote controls also have small infrared LEDs that can send invisible signals to an infrared
receiver on a device such as a TV
○ Infrared travels down fibre optic cables more efficiently than visible light, and so most fibre
optic communication systems use infrared
● Ultraviolet
○ Ultraviolet is responsible for giving you a suntan.
○ Some substances when exposed to ultraviolet, absorb it and re-emit it as visible light making
them glow. This process is known as fluorescence
○ It can be used to secretly mark things using special ink.
○ Fluorescent light bulbs also use this principle to emit visible light
● X-rays
○ The most obvious use of x-rays is in medicine. X-rays are able to pass through most body
tissues, but are absorbed by the denser parts of the body, such as bones. When exposed to
x-rays, bones create a shadow which can be seen using a special x-ray detector or using
photographic film
● Gamma rays
○ Gamma rays are very dangerous and can be used to kill cells and living tissue
If the gamma rays are carefully aimed at cancerous tissue they can be very effective at
killing it
Gamma rays can also be used to sterilise things by killing off the bacteria

5 & 6 Hazards & Safety Precautions

● Electromagnetic Waves can have some harmful side effects. In particular:
● Microwaves:
○ High levels of microwaves can cause heating of internal organs. (Although there is no
evidence that the levels emitted by mobile phones or WiFi devices cause any harm)
● X-Rays:
○ X-rays, Gamma rays and (to a lesser extent) ultra-violet are all ionising. This means that
they can cause harm to living tissues: killing cells or possibly mutating them or causing
cancer
○ Whilst the levels used in most medical x-rays pose a minimum risk, hospitals are careful to
minimise the amount of x-ray exposure that individuals (including hospital staff) receive
P4.4 Sound
1, 2 & 4 Vibration and Frequencies
● Sound waves consist of vibrating molecules. They are a type of longitudinal wave
● Sound waves require a medium to travel through. In a vacuum sound can’t travel
● The Loudness of a sound is related to the wave’s amplitude. Greater amplitude = louder sound
● The Pitch of a sound is related to the frequency. Greater frequency = higher pitch
● As with all waves, sound waves can be reflected which is called an echo

● Humans can hear sounds between about 20 Hz and 20 000 Hz in frequency

● Ultrasound is the name given to sound waves with a frequency greater than 20 000 Hz

3, 5 & 7 Sound Transmission

● Longitudinal waves consist of compression and rarefaction:
○ A compression is a place where the molecules are bunched together
○ A rarefaction is a place where the molecules are spread out

● Sound travels at different speeds in different mediums:

○ It travels fastest in solids
○ Slowest in gases

6, 8 & 9 Speed of Sound

● There are three possible experiments to determine the speed of sound

● Method 1
○ Two people stand a distance of around 100m apart
○ The distance between them is measured using a trundle wheel
○ One of the people has two wooden blocks, which he bangs together above his head
○ The second person has a stopwatch which he starts when he sees the first person banging
the blocks together and stops when he hears the sound
○ This is then repeated several times and an average value is taken for the time
○ The speed of sound can then be calculated by dividing the distance travelled by the time
taken

● Method 2
○ A person stands about 50m away from a wall (or cliff). This distance is measured using a
trundle wheel
○ The person claps two wooden blocks together and listens for the echo
○ The person then starts to clap the blocks together repeatedly, in rhythm with the echoes
○ A second person has a stopwatch and starts timing when he hears one of the claps and
stops timing 20 claps later
○ The process is then repeated and an average time calculated
○ The distance travelled by the sound between each clap and echo will be (2 x 50) m
○ The total distance travelled by sound during the 20 claps will be (20 x 2 x 50) m
○ The speed of sound can then be calculated by dividing the distance travelled by the time
taken
● Method 3
○ Two microphones are connected to an oscilloscope and placed about 5 m apart
(This distance can be measured using a tape measure)
○ The oscilloscope is set up so that it triggers when the first microphone detects a sound, and
the time base is adjusted so that the sound arriving at both microphones can be seen on the
screen
○ Two wooden blocks are used to make a large clap next to the first microphone
○ The oscilloscope is then used to determine the time at which the clap reaches each
microphone, and the time difference between them
○ This is repeated several times and an average time difference calculated
○ The speed of sound can then be calculated by dividing the distance travelled by the time
taken
Physics Revision - Electricity on Magnetism

P5.1 Simple Phenomena of Magnetism

1 & 3 Magnetic Field

● In the space around a magnet, there is a magnetic field

● Magnetic field lines are a useful way of helping us to picture that field: Its strength and its direction

● There are two principal ways of plotting a magnetic field around a bar magnet:
● Using Iron Filings
○ Place a piece of paper on top of the magnet
○ Gently sprinkle iron filings on top of the paper
○ Now carefully tap the paper to allow the iron filings to settle on the field lines
● Using a Compass
○ Place the magnet on top of a piece of paper
○ Draw a dot at one end of the magnet (near its corner)
○ Place a plotting compass next to the dot, so that one end of the needle of the compass
points towards the dot
○ Use a pencil to draw a new dot at the other side of the compass needle
○ Now move the compass so that it points towards the new dot, and repeat the above process
○ Keep repeating until you have a chain of dots going from one end of the magnet to the other.
Then remove the compass, and link the dots using a smooth curve – the magnetic field line
○ The direction of the field line is the same as the direction of the plotting compass
○ You can now repeat the whole process several times to create several other magnetic field
lines

● Magnetic field lines obey a couple of rules:

○ They always go from north to south ((indicated by an arrow midway along the line)
○ They never touch or cross other field lines
● When two magnets are held close together, there will be a force between the magnets:

● Magnetic materials (which are not magnets) will always be attracted to the magnet, regardless of
which pole is held close to it
● A magnet can only repel another magnet
(This can be a useful test for a magnet)
● Magnetic forces are caused by the interaction of magnetic fields

2 Induced Magnetism
● When a magnetic material is placed in a magnetic field, it can temporarily become magnetized:
● One end of the material will become a north pole
● The other end will become a south pole
● This process is known as magnetic induction and results in a force being exerted on the material
● When the material is removed from the magnetic field, it will start to lose its magnetism (depending
on whether it is magnetically hard or soft)
 4 Iron and Steel

● A magnetic material experiences a force when placed in a magnetic field

● Although all magnetic materials are metallic, not all metals are magnetic
● Common magnetic materials include:
○ Iron; Steel (an alloy of iron); Nickel; Cobalt
● Magnetically soft materials (e.g. Iron):
○ Are easy to magnetize
○ Easily lose their magnetism
● Magnetically hard materials (e.g. Steel):
○ Are hard to magnetize
○ Do not easily lose their magnetism

5 Permanent and Electromagnets

● Permanent magnets are made out of magnetically hard materials, as we don’t want them to lose
their magnetism
● Electromagnets are made out of magnetically soft materials, as we want them to be able to easily
gain and lose their magnetism

● Making an Electromagnet
○ When a current (d.c.) is passed through a long coil, the current creates a magnetic field
around the coil similar to that of a bar magnet
○ Placing a soft magnetic material inside the coil will make the field much stronger:
○ The coil becomes an electromagnet
 ● Electromagnets have an advantage over ordering magnets as they can be turned on and off and the
magnetic field strength can be changed
● The strength of an electromagnet’s magnetic field may be increased by:
○ Increasing the current in the coil
○ Adding more turns to the coil

6 Methods of Magnetisation

● Magnets are usually made from hard magnet materials

● There are several ways in which a magnet can be created:
○ Stroking with a magnet:

● Using a direct current (d.c.) in a coil:

Hitting with a hammer:

● If the material is placed in a magnetic field and then hit with a hammer, the material will also
become magnetized
P5.2 Electrical Quantities
P5.2.1 Electric Charge
1 & 2 Charges

● Objects can be given one of two types of electric charge:

○ Positive
○ Negative
● When two charged objects are brought close together, there will be a force between those objects
● Electric charge is measured in units called coulombs (C)
○ Opposite charges attract
○ Like charges repel

3 Electrostatic Charges
● Explanation of how to give insulating materials a charge by the process of friction and to describe
how to demonstrate the charging of materials in this way
● Method of the experiment:
○ Suspend one of the insulating materials using a cradle and a length of a string so that the
material can rotate freely
○ Rub one end of the material using a cloth (in order to give it a charge)
○ Now take a second piece of insulating material and charge that by rubbing with a cloth
○ Hold the charged end of the second piece close to the charged end of the first piece:
○ If the first piece rotates away (is repelled) from the second piece then the materials have the
same charge
○ If the first piece moved towards (is attracted to) the second piece then they have opposite
charges

4 Charging a Body
● Electrons are negatively charged particles
● Usually, the number of electrons around an atom is equal to the number of (positive) protons in the
nucleus of the atom, and hence the atom is neutral
● If, however, and object gains extra electrons, it will gain an overall negative charge
● If it loses some of its electrons it will be left with a positive charge
○ Negative charges are the result of gaining electrons
○ Positive charges are the result of losing electrons

5 Electric Field
● Electric charges create electric fields in the regions surrounding them
● The electric field is the region in which another charge will experience a force
● Field lines always go away from positive charges and towards negative charges - they have the
same direction as the direction of the force on a positively charged particle at a point in that field

6 Conductors and Insulators

● A conductor is a material that allows charge to flow through it
● An insulator is a material that does not allow the flow of charge through it
 P5.2.2 Current, Potential Difference and EMF
1, 2, 3 & 4 Current
● When two oppositely charged conductors are connected together (by a length of wire), the charge
will flow between the two conductors
● This flow of charge is called an electric current
● In a metal, the current is caused by a flow of electrons
○ The greater the flow of charge, the greater the electric current
○ The current is the charge passing a point in a circuit every second (charges per sec)
● Charge, current and time are related by the following equation

● Current is measured using an ammeter

● Ammeters should always be connected in series with the part of the circuit you wish to measure the
current through

● Electrons are negatively charged

● This means that the electrons flow from negative to positive
● Conventional current, however, is still defined as going from positive to negative

1 & 5 Potential Difference

● As charge flows around a circuit, energy is transferred to or from the charge
● The potential difference (voltage) between two points in a circuit is related to the amount of energy
transferred between those points in the circuit
● Potential difference is measure in volts (V)
● The potential difference between two points in a circuit is the amount of energy transferred by each
unit of charge passing between those two points
● The unit voltage, the volt (V), is the same as a joule per coulomb (J/C)

1 V = 1 J/C
● For example
○ If a bulb has a voltage of 3 V, every coulomb of charge passing through the bulb will lose 3 J
of energy
● Potential difference can be measured using a voltmeter
● The voltmeter should be connected in parallel with the part of the circuits you want to measure the
potential difference of

1, 7 & 8 EMF
● The Electromotive Force (EMF) is the name given to the Potential Difference (Voltage) of the power
source in a circuit
● The Electromotive Force (EMF) is measured in Volts (V)
● The EMF of a power supply (Volts) is the amount of energy (joules) supplied to each coulomb of
charge passing through the power supply
 P5.2.2 Resistance
1 & 3 Definition

● Resistance is the opposition to current

● The unit of resistance is the ohm (Ω)
● For a given potential difference:

The higher the resistance, the lower the current

● The potential difference, current, and resistance are related by the following equation:

POTENTIAL DIFFERENCE = CURRENT X RESISTANCE

2 Ohmic and Filament Lamp

● As the potential difference (voltage) across a component is increased, the current in the component
also increases
● The precise relationship between voltage and current can be different for different types of
components and is shown by an IV (current and voltage) graph

● The IV graph for an ohmic resistor is simple:

○ The current is proportional to the potential difference
○ Constant resistance
● For a lamp varies:
○ The current increases at a slower rate than the potential difference
○ This because; it heats up making its resistance increase, causing current to increase at a
slower rate
4 Relationship
● As electrons pass through a wire, they collide with the metal ions in the wire
○ The ions get in the way of the electrons, resisting their flow
○ If the wire is longer, each electron will collide with more ions and so there will be more
resistance
● If the wire is thicker (greater diameter) there is more space for the electrons and so more electrons
can flow

● The resistance of a wire is proportional to its length

● This means that if the length of a wire is doubled, its resistance will double
● The resistance of a wire is inversely proportional to its cross-sectional area
● This means that if the cross-sectional area of a wire is doubled, the resistance will half
 Physics Revision - Electric Circuits

P6.1 Circuit Diagrams

1 Diagrams
● The diagram below shows the various circuit symbols that could be used in circuit diagrams. You
will be expected to know what each one is:
P6.2 Series and Parallel Circuits
1, 2 & 3 Series Circuits
● A series circuit consists of a string of two or more components, connected end to end:
● In a series circuit, the current is the same at all points

● When several cells are connected together in series, their combined EMF is equal to the sum of
their individual EMFs
● In a series circuit, the sum of potential differences across the components is equal to the total EMF
of the power supply

● When two or more components are connected in series:

○ The combined resistance of the components is equal to the sum of individual resistances

4, 5, 6, 7 & 8 Parallel Circuits

● A parallel circuit consists of two or more components attached along separate branches of the
circuit
● The advantages of this kind of circuit are:
○ The components can be individually controlled, using their own switches
○ If one component stops working the others will continue to function
● In a parallel circuit, the current split up – some of it going one way and the rest going the other
● This means that the current in each branch will be smaller than the current from the power supply

● Because the current splits up, the sum of currents in each branch will equal the current from the
power supply
● Note that the current does not always split equally, often there will be more current in some
branches than in others
● The current in each branch will only be identical if the components along each branch are identical

● When resistors are connected in parallel, the combined resistance decreases and is less than the
resistance of any of the individual components
● If two resistors of equal resistance are connected in parallel, then the combined resistance will halve
● To calculate the combined resistance in a parallel circuit:
○ First, find the value of 1/R (by adding 1/R1 + 1/R2)
○ Next, find the value of R by using the reciprocal on your calculator
● The combined resistance is less than either resistor itself

9 & 10 NTC and LDR

● An NTC thermistor is a type of resistor (a thermal resistor) which changes its resistance when it is
heated up:
○ As a thermistor gets hotter, its resistance decreases
○ As it gets colder, its resistance increases

● An LDR (Light Dependent Resistor) is a type of resistor which changes its resistance when light is
shone on it:
○ When more light is shone on an LDR its resistance decreases
○ If an LDR is covered up (reducing the light hitting it) its resistance increases.
● Note: The symbol for an LDR is often drawn with a circle going around it
● Thermistors (or LDRs) may be used to create heat (or light) sensitive circuits, which perform certain
actions when the temperature (or light) reaches a certain level.
○ When it gets darker, the resistance of the LDR increases
○ This causes the potential difference across the LDR to increase
○ When this potential difference increases the current in the coil (part of the relay) will increase
○ When the current gets large enough the coil will attract the switch, closing it and allowing a
current to pass through the right-hand side of the circuit
● Temperature controlled circuits may be created by replacing the LDR with a thermistor and
replacing the LDR with a suitable component such as a buzzer of the heater.
P6.3 Electrical Energy
1 Equation

● The amount of electrical energy used by a component or appliance depends upon three things:
○ The current
○ The voltage
○ The amount of time the device is used for.
● The energy transferred can be calculated from the equation:

energy transferred = current x voltage x time

E=IxVxt

● Where the unit of energy is the joule (J).

● Note that this equation is related to the equation for power:

power = current x voltage

● Power is the energy transferred per second and so:

energy transferred = power x time = current x voltage x time

P6.4 Dangers of Electricity

1 Hazards
● Mains electricity is potentially lethal – potential differences as small as 50 volts can pose a serious
hazard to individuals

● Common hazards include:

 ○ Damaged Insulation – if someone touches an exposed piece of wire, they could be
subjected to a lethal shock
○ Overheating of cables – Passing too much current through too small a wire (or leaving a long
length of wire tightly coiled) can lead to the wire overheating. This could cause a fire or melt
the insulations, exposing live wires
○ Damp conditions – If moisture comes into contact with live wires, the moisture could conduct
electricity either causing a short circuit within a device (which could cause a fire) or posing
an electrocution risk

2 & 3 Fuses

● A fuse is a safety device designed to cut off the flow of electricity to an appliance if the current
becomes too large (due to a fault or a surge)
● Fuses come in a variety of sizes (typically 3A, 5A and 13A) – in order to select the right fuse for the
job, you need to know how much current an appliance needs
● If you know the power of the appliance (along with mains voltage), the current can be calculated
using the equation:

● The fuse should always have a current rating that is higher than the current needed by the
appliance, without being too high – always choose the next size up

● Suppose an appliance uses 3.1 amps

○ A 3 amp use would be too small – the fuse would blow as soon as the appliance was
switched on
○ A 13 amp fuse would be too large – it would allow an extra 10 amps to pass through the
appliance before it finally blew
○ A 5 amp fuse would be an appropriate choice, as it is the next size up
 Physics Revision - Electromagnetic Effects

P7.1 Magnetic Effect of an Electric Current

1 Pattern
● When there is a current in a wire, a magnetic field is created around the wire
● The magnetic field lines form concentric circles around the wire
● The direction of the field is given by the right-hand grip rule

Wire Right-hand grip rule Solenoid

● A solenoid is a long coil

● The magnetic field around a solenoid look the same as the magnetic field around a bar magnet:
 ● One end of the solenoid behaves like the north pole of a magnet; the other side behaves like the
south pole
● Insider, the field lines straighten up and are close together forming a uniform magnetic field

2 Change in the magnetic field

● The direction of a magnetic field is defined as being:
○ The direction of the force on the north pole of a magnet placed at that point
● The strength and direction of the field depend on the size and direction of the current:
○ If the current is increased, the field will get stronger
○ If the direction of the current is changed, the direction of the field will change
● As the field lines spread out, the field gets weaker
● The field lines around a wire get further apart further they are from the wire.

P7.2 Force on a current-carrying conductor

1,2 Experiment and Effect

● When a current passes through a wire in a magnetic field, a force is exerted on the wire.
● The direction of this force depends on:
○ The direction of the field
○ The direction of the current
● Reversing either of the above will reverse the direction of the force

Experiment Diagram Magnetic Field Diagram

2 Relative Directions
● The force is directed 90 degrees to both the field and current
● The direction can be worked out by using the left-hand rule:
P7.3 D.C. Motor
1 Turning Effect
● The simple d.c. motor consists of a coil in a uniform magnetic field:
● When there is a current in the coil, the magnets exert a turning effect on the coil, causing it to rotate
● The force supplied by a motor can be increased by:
○ Increasing the current in the coil
○ Increasing the strength of the magnetic field
○ Adding more turns to the coil

D.C. Motor Diagram Magnetic Field Diagram

 2 How It Works
● When a current passes through the coil:
○ The current creates a magnetic field around the coil
○ It interacts with the field of the magnets exerting a force on the Coil
○ This pushes one side up and the other side down, causing it to spin
● The commutator:
○ Reverses the direction of the current in the coil every half turn
○ This reverses the direction of the forces which keeps the coil spinning

P7.4 Electromagnetic Induction

1 Inducing an E.M.F.
● When a conductor (such as a metal wire) is moved through a magnetic field, it cuts through the field
lines, inducing an EMF in the wire
● A similar effect occurs if a magnet is pushed into, or taken out of a coil:
○ As the magnet moved through the coil, the field lines cut through the turns on the coil
○ This induces an emf in the coil
● More generally, whenever the magnetic field passing through a loop of wire changes, an EMF is
induced

Conductor Being Moved Magnetic Field Changing

2 Factors Affecting the Magnitude
 ● The size of the induced EMF is proportional to the rate at which the field lines are cut:
○ If the field lines are cut at a faster rate, the EMF will increase
● This can be achieved by:
○ Moving the wire (or magnet) faster
○ Using a stronger magnet (increasing the number of field lines)
○ Adding more turns to a coil (assuming a coil is being used, and not just a wire)

P7.5 A.C. Generator

1 Direct and Alternating Currents

● An alternating current (a.c.) is one that continuously changes its direction, going back and forth
around a circuit
● A direct current (d.c.) is one that is steady, constantly going the same way around a circuit, from
positive to negative
● Electric cells (batteries) produce direct current (d.c.)
● Mains electricity is an alternating current

2 Operation of a Rotating-Coil Generator

● A generator looks very similar to a motor, but instead of connecting it to a power supply, the coil is
spun by some mechanical process which then produces electricity. As the coil rotates, it cuts
through the field lines.
● This induces an EMF between the end of the coil, which would create a current
● The size of the EMF could be increased by:
○ Turning the coil faster
○ Increasing the strength of the magnetic field
○ Adding more turns to the coil
● Slip rings, attached to the ends of the coil, transfer the current to metal brushes whilst allowing the
coil to rotate freely
 3 Voltage Output against Time

● The A.C. generator creates an alternating current, varying in size and direction as the coil
rotates
○ The induced EMF is greatest when the coil is horizontal, as in this position it cuts
through the field at the fastest rate
○ The EMF is smallest when the coil is vertical, as in this position it will not be cutting
through field lines
P7.6 Transformer
1,2 Construction of a Basic Transformer
● A transformer is an electrical device that can be used to increase or decrease the voltage of an
alternating current
● When an alternating current is supplied to the primary coil, a changing magnetic field is produced by
the primary coil
● This filed passes through the soft iron core and through the secondary coil
● The changing field in the secondary coil induces an EMF
● This EMF is also alternating and has the same frequency as the original current

3 Step-Up and Step-Down

● A step-up transformer increases the voltage of a power source

● A step-up transformer has more turns on the secondary coil than on the primary coil
● A step-down transformer decreases the voltage of a power source
● A step-down transformer has fewer turns on the secondary coil than on the primary coil

4,6 Equation
 ● The output voltage of a transformer depends on the number of turns on each of the coils as well as
the input voltage:

5,7 Transmission of Electricity

● When electricity is transmitted along with overhead cables, it is done at high voltages
○ A step-up transformer is used to raise the potential difference (voltage) before transmissions
○ A step-down transformer is then used to step the potential difference back down to normal
levels when it reaches its destination

● When electricity is transmitted over large distances, the current in the wires heats them, resulting in
energy loss
● By raising the voltage at which the electricity is transmitted at, the same amount of power (energy
per second) can be transmitted using a much smaller current
● This results in less heat being produced in the worse hence, less energy loss.
 Physics Revision - Atomic Physics
Mathieu Rojas

P8.1 The Nuclear Atom

1,2 & 4 Composition of a nucleus

● The term nucleon is used to mean a particle in the nucleus – ie. either a proton or a neutron
● The term nuclide is used to refer to a nucleus with a specific combination of protons and neutrons
● The top number is called the nucleon number, A, and is equal to the total number of particles
(protons and neutrons) in the nucleus
● The lower number is called the proton number, Z, and is equal to the total number of protons in
the nucleus
● When given an atomic symbol, you can figure out the total number of protons, neutrons, and
electrons in the atom:
○ Protons: The number of protons is equal to the proton number
○ Electrons: Atoms are neutral, and so in a neutral atom the number of negative electrons
must be equal to the number of positive protons
○ Neutrons: The number of neutrons can be found by subtracting the proton number from
the nucleon number

3 Isotopes
● Although all atoms of the same element always have the same number of protons (and hence
electrons), the number of neutrons can vary
● The number of neutrons in an atom does not affect the chemical properties of an atom, only its
mass. Such atoms are called isotopes:
○ Isotopes are atoms (of the same element) that have equal numbers of protons but different
numbers of neutrons
P8.2.1 Characteristics of Emissions
1 Random Nature
● Radiation consists of high energy particles (or waves) emitted from the nucleus of an unstable
atom
● Radiation is emitted randomly
● This means that, although we understand why some nuclei emit radiation, it is impossible to
predict exactly when a nucleus will emit radiation

2 Emissions

● Alpha (α) particles are high energy particles made up of 2 protons and 2 neutrons (the same
as a helium nucleus). They are usually emitted from nuclei that are too large. They are the least
penetrating of the three, but the most ionizing.

● Beta (β−) particles are high energy electrons emitted from the nucleus (even though the
nucleus does not normally contain any electrons) They are usually emitted by nuclei that have
too many neutrons. They aren’t the most nor the least ionizing and penetrating.

● Gamma (γ) rays are high energy electromagnetic waves. They are emitted by nuclei that
need to lose some energy. They are the most penetrating but the least ionizing of the three.
 Penetrating abilities of the emissions

3 Deflections
● Because they have opposite charges, alpha and beta particles are deflected in opposite directions
● Beta is deflected by more than alpha because beta particles have a much smaller mass
● Gamma is not deflected because gamma rays have no charge

4 Ionising Radiation
● If these particles hit other atoms, they can knock out electrons, ionizing the atom
● Ionization can cause chemical changes in materials and can damage or kill living cells
● Alpha is by far the most ionizing form of radiation
○ Alpha particles leave a dense trail of ions behind them, affecting virtually every atom they
meet
○ Because of this they quickly lose their energy and so have a short-range
○ Their short range makes them relatively harmless if handled carefully, but they have the
potential to be extremely dangerous if the alpha emitter enters the body
● Beta particles are moderately ionizing
○ The particles create a less dense trail of ions than alpha and consequently have a longer
range
○ They tend to be more dangerous than alpha because they are able to travel further and
penetrate the skin, and yet are still ionizing enough to cause significant damage
● Gamma is the least ionizing form of radiation
○ Because Gamma rays don’t produce as many ions as alpha or beta, they are more
penetrating and have a greater range
○ This can make them hazardous in large amounts

5 Applications
● Measuring the thickness of materials:
○ A beta source emits particles that are able to penetrate a material, which is monitored
○ As the material gets thicker more particles are absorbed and less get through
○ This allows the machine to make adjustments to keep the thickness of the material constant

● Tracers
○ These are radioactive isotopes that can be added to fluid so that the flow can be monitored
○ In medicine, they are used to check blood flow and search for blockages
○ In industry, they may check leaks in a pipeline
○ Usually, gamma radiation is used as it is highly penetrating and low ionizing

● Radiotherapy
○ Treatment of cancer using radiation, it is highly effective at treating it
○ Cells such as bacteria and cancer cells are more susceptible to radiation
○ Beams are directed to a cancerous tumor

● Sterilization
○ Medical instruments are sterilized by exposing them to gamma rays
○ These kill bacteria and destroy viruses
○ Gamma rays are more effective at killing bacteria than boiling water or chemical treatment
P8.2.2 Detection of Radioactivity
1 Background Radiation

● Background radiation is the radiation that is always present around us in the environment
● Although most background radiation is natural, a small amount of it comes from artificial sources,
such as medical procedures (including X-rays; radiation from Nuclear Power come to less than
0.1% of the total)
● Levels of background radiation can vary significantly from place to place
 2 Detection of Particles
● When radiation passes close to an atom, it knocks out electrons, ionizing the atom
● Radiation detectors work by detecting the presence of these ions or the chemical changes that they
produce
● Examples of radiation detectors include:
○ Photographic film (often used in badges)
○ Geiger-Muller (GM) tubes
○ Ionization chambers
○ Scintillation counters
○ Spark counters

Geiger-Muller (GM) tubes

● The tube contains argon gas at low pressure.

● The tube is sealed by a mica ‘window’ which is thin enough to allow radiation rays to go through
● When radiation enters the tube the argon gas becomes quickly ionized
● For a brief moment, the argon gas conducts and a pulse of current flows
● This is then measured by a scalar which counts the pulses and shows the final display

P8.2.3 Radioactive Decay

1 Meaning

● Some isotopes are unstable – usually because of their large size or because the number of protons
and neutrons within them is out of balance
● As a result, these isotopes will decay – emitting little chunks (radiation) in order to reduce their size
or bring them back into balance
● When an isotope emits radiation, the constitution of its nucleus (the number of protons and neutron)
changes
● As a result, the isotope will change into a different element
 2,3 Word & Symbol Equations

Alpha Decay

● An alpha particle consists of 2 protons and 2 neutrons

● When an alpha particle is emitted from a nucleus:
○ The nucleus loses 2 protons:
The proton (atomic) number decreases by 2
○ The nucleus loses 4 particles (nucleons) in total:
The nucleon (mass) number decreases by 4

Beta Decay

● A beta particle is a high energy electron emitted from the nucleus

● It is emitted when a neutron in the nucleus suddenly changes into a proton and an electron
is created in order to balance the positive charge of the proton
● When a beta particle is emitted from the nucleus:
○ The number of protons in the nucleus increases by 1:
The proton (atomic) number increases by 1
○ The total number of particles in the nucleus remains the same
The nucleon (mass) number doesn’t change

Gamma Emission
 ● A gamma emission doesn’t consist of particles, only a ray
● There is no change in the nucleus of the parent

P8.2.4 Half-Life
● As an isotope decays, the number of nuclei of that isotope that remain will decrease
● As a consequence of this, the activity of that isotope will also decrease over time
● The half-life of an isotope is the time taken for the activity or the number of original nuclei of that
isotope to drop to half of its initial value
● Different isotopes have different half-lives which can vary from a second to billions of years in length
● However, the activity and number of nuclei will never quite drop to zero

P8.2.5 Safety Precautions

1 Effects on Living Organisms
 ● When radiation passes close to atoms the radiation can knock out electrons, ionizing the atom
● Ionization can cause chemical changes in materials
● If these chemical changes occur in living cells it can damage the cell and:
○ Cause mutations
○ Cause a cell to become cancerous
○ Kill the cell

2 Handling of Materials

The risks associated with handling radioactive sources can be minimized by following a few simple
procedures:

● Store the sources in lead-lined boxes and keep at a distance from people
● Minimize the amount of time you handle sources for and return them to their boxes as soon as
you have finished using them
● During use, keep yourself (and other people) as far from the sources as feasible. When
handling the sources do so at arm’s length, using a pair of tongs
● Protect yourself with equipment such as gloves, goggles, and tongs