NDA PHYSICS

1. PHYSICAL PROPERTIES AND STATES OF MATTER

Physical Nature of Matter
• matter is made up of particles
• particles of matter are continuously moving
Characteristics of Particles of Matter
• particles of matter have space between them
• particles of matter are continuously moving
• Particles of matter are continuously moving, that is, they possess what we call the kinetic energy. As the
temperature rises, particles move faster. So, we can say that with increase in temperature the kinetic energy of the
particles also increases.
• This intermixing of particles of two different types of matter on their own is called diffusion. We also observe that on
heating, diffusion becomes faster.
• Matter around us exists in three different states– solid, liquid and gas.
• Solids have a tendency to maintain their shape when subjected to outside force. Solids may break under force but it
is difficult to change their shape, so they are rigid. Liquids have no fixed shape but have a fixed volume. They take up
the shape of the container in which they are kept. Liquids flow and change shape, so they are not rigid but can be
called fluid.
• The rate of diffusion of liquids is higher than that of solids. This is due to the fact that in the liquid state, particles
move freely and have greater space between each other as compared to particles in the solid state.
• Gases are highly compressible as compared to solids and liquids. The liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) cylinder that we
get in our home for cooking or the oxygen supplied to hospitals in cylinders is compressed gas. Compressed natural
gas (CNG) is used as fuel these days in vehicles. Due to its high compressibility, large volumes of a gas can be
compressed into a small cylinder and transported easily. Due to high speed of particles and large space between
them, gases show the property of diffusing very fast into other gases.
• In the gaseous state, the particles move about randomly at high speed. Due to this random movement, the particles
hit each other and also the walls of the container. The pressure exerted by the gas is because of this force exerted by
gas particles per unit area on the walls of the container.
Effect of change of temperature
• The minimum temperature at which a solid melts to become a liquid at the atmospheric pressure is called its
melting point.
• The process of melting, that is, change of solid state into liquid state is also known as fusion.
• The amount of heat energy that is required to change 1 kg of a solid into liquid at atmospheric pressure at its
melting point is known as the latent heat of fusion.
• When we supply heat energy to water, particles start moving even faster. At a certain temperature, a point is
reached when the particles have enough energy to break free from the forces of attraction of each other. At this
temperature the liquid starts changing into gas.
• The temperature at which a liquid starts boiling at the atmospheric pressure is known as its boiling point.
• For water this temperature is 373 K (100 0C = 273 + 100 = 373 K).
• So, we infer that the state of matter can be changed into another state by changing the temperature.
*Note: Kelvin is the SI unit of temperature, 0O C =273.15 K. For convenience, we take 00 C = 273 K after rounding off the
decimal. To change a temperature on the Kelvin scale to the Celsius scale you have to subtract 273 from the given
temperature, and to convert a temperature on the Celsius scale to the Kelvin scale you have to add 273 to the given
temperature.
• A change of state directly from solid to gas without changing into liquid state is called sublimation and the direct
change of gas to solid without changing into liquid is called deposition.
Effect of change of pressure
• Applying pressure and reducing temperature can liquefy gases.
• Solid CO2 gets converted directly to gaseous state O2 on decrease of pressure to 1 atmosphere* without coming
into liquid state. This is the reason that solid carbon dioxide is also known as dry ice.
• Atmosphere (atm) is a unit of measuring pressure exerted by a gas. The unit of pressure is Pascal (Pa): 1 atmosphere
= 1.01 × 105 Pa. The pressure of air in atmosphere is called atmospheric pressure. The atmospheric pressure at sea
level is 1 atmosphere, and is taken as the normal atmospheric pressure.
Evaporation
• This phenomenon of change of a liquid into vapours at any temperature below its boiling point is called evaporation.
Factors affecting evaporation
The rate of evaporation increases with–
• an increase of surface area:
• an increase of temperature:
• a decrease in humidity:
• an increase in wind speed:

New state of matter

Now scientists are talking of five states of matter: Solid, Liquid, Gas, Plasma and Bose- Einstein Condensate.
• Plasma: The state consists of super energetic and super excited particles. These particles are in the form of ionised
gases. The fluorescent tube and neon sign bulbs consist of plasma. Inside a neon sign bulb there is neon gas and
inside a fluorescent tube there is helium gas or some other gas. The gas gets ionised, that is, gets charged when
electrical energy flows through it. This charging up creates a plasma glowing inside the tube or bulb. The plasma
glows with a special colour depending on the nature of gas. The Sun and the stars glow because of the presence of
plasma in them. The plasma is created in stars because of very high temperature.
• Bose-Einstein Condensate: In 1920, Indian physicist Satyendra Nath Bose had done some calculations for a fifth
state of matter. Building on his calculations, Albert Einstein predicted a new state of matter – the Bose-Einstein
Condensate (BEC). In 2001, Eric A. Cornell, Wolfgang Ketterle and Carl E. Wieman of USA received the Nobel prize in
physics for achieving “Bose-Einstein condensation”. The BEC is formed by cooling a gas of extremely low density,
about one-hundred-thousandth the density of normal air, to super low temperatures.

What you have learnt

• Matter is made up of small particles.
• The matter around us exists in three states— solid, liquid and gas.
• The forces of attraction between the particles are maximum in solids, intermediate in liquids and minimum in gases.
• The spaces in between the constituent particles and kinetic energy of the particles are minimum in the case of
solids, intermediate in liquids and maximum in gases.
• The arrangement of particles is most ordered in the case of solids, in the case of liquids layers of particles can slip
and slide over each other while for gases, there is no order, particles just move about randomly.
• The states of matter are inter-convertible. The state of matter can be changed by changing temperature or pressure.
• Sublimation is the change of solid state directly to gaseous state without going through liquid state.
• Deposition is the change of gaseous state directly to solid state without going through liquid state.
• Boiling is a bulk phenomenon. Particles from the bulk (whole) of the liquid change into vapour state.
• Evaporation is a surface phenomenon. Particles from the surface gain enough energy to overcome the forces of
attraction present in the liquid and change into the vapour state.
• The rate of evaporation depends upon the surface area exposed to the atmosphere, the temperature, the humidity
and the wind speed.
• Evaporation causes cooling.
• Latent heat of vaporisation is the heat energy required to change
• 1 kg of a liquid to gas at atmospheric pressure at its boiling point.
• Latent heat of fusion is the amount of heat energy required to change 1 kg of solid into liquid at its melting point.
• Some measurable quantities and their units to remember:
Quantity Unit Symbol
Temperature kelvin K
Length metre m
Mass kilogram kg
Weight newton N
Volume cubic metre m3
Density kilogram per cubic metre kg m–3
Pressure pascal Pa
 2. SOUND & SIMPLE MUSICAL INSTRUMENT
Sound is a form of energy which produces a sensation of hearing in our ears. We set the objects vibrating and produce
sound. Vibration means a kind of rapid to and fro motion of an object. The sound of the human voice is produced due to
vibrations in the vocal cords.
Propagation of Sound
• Sound is produced by vibrating objects. The matter or substance through which sound is transmitted is called a
medium.
• A wave is a disturbance that moves through a medium when the particles of the medium set neighbouring particles
into motion. They in turn produce similar motion in others. The particles of the medium do not move forward
themselves, but the disturbance is carried forward. This is what happens during propagation of sound in a medium,
hence sound can be visualised as a wave. Sound waves are characterised by the motion of particles in the medium
and are called mechanical waves.
Sound needs a medium to travel
• Sound is a mechanical wave and needs a material medium like air, water, steel etc. for its propagation. It cannot
travel through vacuum
Sound waves are longitudinal waves
• In these waves the individual particles of the medium move in a direction parallel to the direction of propagation of
the disturbance. The particles do not move from one place to another but they simply oscillate back and forth about
their position of rest. This is exactly how a sound wave propagates, hence sound waves are longitudinal waves.
• A transverse wave is the one in which the individual particles of the medium move about their mean positions in a
direction perpendicular to the direction of wave propagation. When we drop a pebble in a pond, the waves you see
on the water surface is an example of transverse wave.
• Light is a transverse wave but for light, the oscillations are not of the medium particles or their pressure or density –
it is not a mechanical wave.
Characteristics of a sound wave
We can describe a sound wave by its
- Frequency
- amplitude and
- speed.
• A sound wave which represents how density and pressure change when the sound wave moves in the medium. The
density as well as the pressure of the medium at a given time varies with distance, above and below the average
value of density and pressure.
• The peak represents the region of maximum compression. Thus, compressions are regions where density as well as
pressure is high. Rarefactions are the regions of low pressure where particles are spread apart and are represented
by the valley, that is, the lower portion of the curve
• A peak is called the crest and a valley is called the trough of a wave.
• The distance between two consecutive compressions (C) or two consecutive rarefactions (R) is called the
wavelength. Its SI unit is metre (m).
• Heinrich Rudolph Hertz was born on 22 February 1857 in Hamburg, Germany and educated at the University of
Berlin. He confirmed J.C. Maxwell’s electromagnetic theory by his experiments. He laid the foundation for future
development of radio, telephone, telegraph and even television. He also discovered the photoelectric effect which
was later explained by Albert Einstein. The SI unit of frequency was named as hertz in his honour.
• We know that when sound is propagated through a medium, the density of the medium oscillates between a
maximum value and a minimum value. The change in density from the maximum value to the minimum value, then
again to the maximum value, makes one complete oscillation. The number of such oscillations per unit time is the
frequency of the sound wave.
• The time taken by two consecutive compressions or rarefactions to cross a fixed point is called the time period of
the wave. In other words, we can say that the time taken for one complete oscillation is called the time period of the
sound wave. It is represented by the symbol T. Its SI unit is second (s).
• Objects of different sizes and conditions vibrate at different frequencies to produce sounds of different pitch.
• The magnitude of the maximum disturbance in the medium on either side of the mean value is called the amplitude
of the wave. It is usually represented by the letter A,
• The loudness or softness of a sound is determined basically by its amplitude.
• A sound of single frequency is called a tone. The sound which is produced due to a mixture of several frequencies is
called a note and is pleasant to listen to.
 • The speed of sound is defined as the distance which a point on a wave, such as a compression or a rarefaction,
travels per unit time.
• The speed of sound remains almost the same for all frequencies in a given medium under the same physical
conditions.
• The amount of sound energy passing each second through unit area is called the intensity of sound. We sometimes
use the terms “loudness” and “intensity” interchangeably, but they are not the same.
• Loudness is a measure of the response of the ear to the sound. Even when two sounds are of equal intensity, we
may hear one as louder than the other simply because our ear detects it better.
Speed of sound in different media
• Sound propagates through a medium at a finite speed. The sound of a thunder is heard a little later than the flash of
light is seen. So, we can make out that sound travels with a speed which is much less than the speed of light. The
speed of sound depends on the properties of the medium through which it travels.
• The speed of sound in a medium depends on temperature of the medium. The speed of sound decreases when we
go from solid to gaseous state. In any medium as we increase the temperature, the speed of sound increases.
• Sonic boom: When the speed of any object exceeds the speed of sound it is said to be travelling at supersonic speed.
Bullets, jet aircrafts etc. often travel at supersonic speeds. When a sound, producing source moves with a speed
higher than that of sound, it produces shock waves in air. These shock waves carry a large amount of energy. The air
pressure variation associated with this type of shock waves produces a very sharp and loud sound called the “sonic
boom”. The shock waves produced by a supersonic aircraft have enough energy to shatter window glass and even
damage buildings.
Reflection of Sound
• Sound bounces off a solid or a liquid like a rubber ball bounces off a wall. Like light, sound gets reflected at the
surface of a solid or liquid and follows the same laws of reflection.
• An obstacle of large size which may be polished or rough is needed for the reflection of sound waves.
Echo
• If we shout or clap near a suitable reflecting object such as a tall building or a mountain, we will hear the same
sound again a little later. This sound which we hear is called an echo.
• To hear a distinct echo the time interval between the original sound and the reflected one must be at least 0.1s.
Thus, for hearing distinct echoes, the minimum distance of the obstacle from the source of sound must be half of
this distance,
• The rolling of thunder is due to the successive reflections of the sound from a number of reflecting surfaces, such as
the clouds and the land.
Reverberation
• A sound created in a big hall will persist by repeated reflection from the walls until it is reduced to a value where it is
no longer audible. The repeated reflection that results in this persistence of sound is called reverberation.
• To reduce reverberation, the roof and walls of the auditorium are generally covered with sound-absorbent materials
like compressed fibreboard, rough plaster or draperies. The seat materials are also selected on the basis of their
sound absorbing properties.
Range of Hearing
• The audible range of sound for human beings extends from about 20 Hz to 20000 Hz (one Hz = one cycle/s).
• Sounds of frequencies below 20 Hz are called infrasonic sound or infrasound.
• Rhinoceroses communicate using infrasound of frequency as low as 5 Hz. Whales and elephants produce sound in
the infrasound range. It is observed that some animals get disturbed before earthquakes.
• Earthquakes produce low-frequency infrasound before the main shock waves begin which possibly alert the animals.
• Frequencies higher than 20 kHz are called ultrasonic sound or ultrasound. Ultrasound is produced by animals such as
dolphins, bats and porpoises.
• Hearing Aid: People with hearing loss may need a hearing aid. A hearing aid is an electronic, battery operated
device. The hearing aid receives sound through a microphone. The microphone converts the sound waves to
electrical signals. These electrical signals are amplified by an amplifier. The amplified electrical signals are given to a
speaker of the hearing aid. The speaker converts the amplified electrical signal to sound and sends to the ear for
clear hearing.
Applications of Ultrasound
• Ultrasounds are high frequency waves. Ultrasounds are able to travel along well defined paths even in the presence
of obstacles. Ultrasounds are used extensively in industries and for medical purposes.
 • Ultrasonic waves are made to reflect from various parts of the heart and form the image of the heart. This technique
is called ‘echocardiography’.
• Ultrasound scanner is an instrument which uses ultrasonic waves for getting images of internal organs of the human
body. A doctor may image the patient’s organs such as the liver, gall bladder, uterus, kidney, etc. It helps the doctor
to detect abnormalities, such as stones in the gall bladder and kidney or tumours in different organs.
• Ultrasound may be employed to break small ‘stones’ formed in the kidneys into fine grains. These grains later get
flushed out with urine.
SONAR
• The acronym SONAR stands for Sound Navigation And Ranging. Sonar is a device that uses ultrasonic waves to
measure the distance, direction and speed of underwater objects.
• The transmitter produces and transmits ultrasonic waves. These waves travel through water and after striking the
object on the seabed, get reflected back and are sensed by the detector. The detector converts the ultrasonic waves
into electrical signals which are appropriately interpreted. The distance of the object that reflected the sound wave
can be calculated by knowing the speed of sound in water and the time interval between transmission and reception
of the ultrasound.
• The sonar technique is used to determine the depth of the sea and to locate underwater hills, valleys, submarine,
icebergs, sunken ship etc. bats search out prey and fly in dark night by emitting and detecting reflections of
ultrasonic waves. The high-pitched ultrasonic squeaks of the bat are reflected from the obstacles or prey and
returned to bat’s ear,
Structure of Human Ear
• The outer ear is called ‘pinna’. It collects the sound from the surroundings. The collected sound passes through the
auditory canal. At the end of the auditory canal there is a thin membrane called the ear drum or tympanic
membrane. When a compression of the medium reaches the eardrum the pressure on the outside of the membrane
increases and forces the eardrum inward. Similarly, the eardrum moves outward when a rarefaction reaches it. In
this way the eardrum vibrates. The vibrations are amplified several times by three bones (the hammer, anvil and
stirrup) in the middle ear. The middle ear transmits the amplified pressure variations received from the sound wave
to the inner ear. In the inner ear, the pressure variations are turned into electrical signals by the cochlea. These
electrical signals are sent to the brain via the auditory nerve, and the brain interprets them as sound.
What you have learnt
• Sound is produced due to vibration of different objects.
• Sound travels as a longitudinal wave through a material medium.
• Sound travels as successive compressions and rarefactions in the medium.
• In sound propagation, it is the energy of the sound that travels and not the particles of the medium.
• Sound cannot travel in vacuum.
• The change in density from one maximum value to the minimum value and again to the maximum value makes one
complete oscillation.
• The distance between two consecutive compressions or two consecutive rarefactions is called the wavelength.
• The time taken by the wave for one complete oscillation of the density or pressure of the medium is called the time
period, T.
• The number of complete oscillations per unit time is called the frequency (n),
• The speed of sound depends primarily on the nature and the temperature of the transmitting medium.
• The law of reflection of sound states that the directions in which the sound is incident and reflected make equal
angles with the normal to the reflecting surface at the point of incidence and the three lie in the same plane.
• For hearing a distinct sound, the time interval between the original sound and the reflected one must be at least 0.1
s.
• The persistence of sound in an auditorium is the result of repeated reflections of sound and is called reverberation.
• Sound properties such as pitch, loudness and quality are determined by the corresponding wave properties.
• Loudness is a physiological response of the ear to the intensity of sound.
• The amount of sound energy passing each second through unit area is called the intensity of sound.
• The audible range of hearing for average human beings is in the frequency range of 20 Hz – 20 kHz.
• Sound waves with frequencies below the audible range are termed “infrasonic” and those above the audible range
are termed “ultrasonic”.
• The SONAR technique is used to determine the depth of the sea and to locate under water hills, valleys, submarines,
icebergs, sunken ships etc.
3. RECTILINEAR PROPAGATION OF LIGHT, REFLECTION AND REFRACTION. SPHERICAL MIRRORS AND LENSES, HUMAN EYE.

During the day, thesunlight helps us to see objects. An object reflects light that falls on it. This reflected light, when received
by our eyes, enables us to see things. We are able to see through a transparent medium as light is transmitted through it.
By observing the common optical phenomena around us, we may conclude that light seems to travel in straight lines.
REFLECTION OF LIGHT
Let us recall these laws –
• The angle of incidence is equal to the angle of reflection, and
• The incident ray, the normal to the mirror at the point of incidence and the reflected ray, all lie in the same plane.
These laws of reflection are applicable to all types of reflecting surfaces including spherical surfaces
The most commonly used type of curved mirror is the spherical mirror. The reflecting surface of such mirrors can be
considered to form a part of the surface of a sphere. Such mirrors, whose reflecting surfaces are spherical, are called
spherical mirrors.
SHPERICAL MIRROR
• A spherical mirror, whose reflecting surface is curved inwards, that is, faces towards the centre of the sphere, is
called a concave mirror.
• A spherical mirror whose reflecting surface is curved outwards, is called a convex mirror.
• The centre of the reflecting surface of a spherical mirror is a point called the pole. It lies on the surface of the mirror.
The pole is usually represented by the letter P.
• The reflecting surface of a spherical mirror forms a part of a sphere. This sphere has a centre. This point is called the
centre of curvature of the spherical mirror. It is represented by the letter C.
• The centre of curvature of a concave mirror lies in front of it. However, it lies behind the mirror in case of a convex
mirror.
• The radius of the sphere of which the reflecting surface of a spherical mirror forms a part, is called the radius of
curvature of the mirror. It is represented by the letter R.
• Imagine a straight line passing through the pole and the centre of curvature of a spherical mirror. This line is called
the principal axis.
• A number of rays parallel to the principal axis are falling on a concave mirror. Observe the reflected rays. They are all
meeting/intersecting at a point on the principal axis of the mirror. This point is called the principal focus of the
concave mirror.
• The reflected rays appear to come from a point on the principal axis. This point is called the principal focus of the
convex mirror. The principal focus is represented by the letter F. The distance between the pole and the principal
focus of a spherical mirror is called the focal length. It is represented by the letter f.
• The diameter of the reflecting surface of spherical mirror is called its aperture.
• For spherical mirrors of small apertures, the radius of curvature is found to be equal to twice the focal length. We
put this as R = 2f .
USES OF CONCAVE MIRRORS
• Concave mirrors are commonly used in torches, search-lights and vehicles headlights to get powerful parallel beams
of light.
• They are often used as shaving mirrors to see a larger image of the face.
• The dentists use concave mirrors to see large images of the teeth of patients.
• Large concave mirrors are used to concentrate sunlight to produce heat in solar furnaces.
USES OF CONVEX MIRRORS
• Convex mirrors are commonly used as rear-view (wing) mirrors in vehicles. These mirrors are fitted on the sides of
the vehicle, enabling the driver to see traffic behind him/her to facilitate safe driving.
• Convex mirrors are preferred because they always give an erect, though diminished, image. Also, they have a wider
field of view as they are curved outwards. Thus, convex mirrors enable the driver to view much larger area than
would be possible with a plane mirror.
REFRACTION OF LIGHT
These observations indicate that light does not travel in the same direction in all media. It appears that when travelling
obliquely from one medium to another, the direction of propagation of light in the second medium changes. This
phenomenon is known as refraction of light.
The following are the laws of refraction of light.
• The incident ray, the refracted ray and the normal to the interface of two transparent media at the point of
incidence, all lie in the same plane.
 • The ratio of sine of angle of incidence to the sine of angle of refraction is a constant, for the light of a given colour
and for the given pair of media. This law is also known as Snell’s law of refraction. (This is true for angle 0 < i < 90o).
THE REFRACTIVE INDEX
• Light travels fastest in vacuum with speed of 3×108 m s–1. In air, the speed of light is only marginally less, compared
to that in vacuum. It reduces considerably in glass or water.
• The absolute refractive index of a medium is simply called its refractive index.
• Diamond has the highest refractive index and Air has the lowest refractive index.
REFRACTION BY SPHERICAL LENSES
• A transparent material bound by two surfaces, of which one or both surfaces are spherical, forms a lens.
• A lens may have two spherical surfaces, bulging outwards. Such a lens is called a double convex lens. It is simply
called a convex lens. It is thicker at the middle as compared to the edges. Hence convex lenses are also called
converging lenses. Similarly, a double concave lens is bounded by two spherical surfaces, curved inwards. It is thicker
at the edges than at the middle. Such lenses diverges light rays. Such lenses are also called diverging lenses. A
double concave lens is simply called a concave lens.
• A lens has two principal foci.
POWER OF A LENS
• The degree of convergence or divergence of light rays achieved by a lens is expressed in terms of its power. The
power of a lens is defined as the reciprocal of its focal length. It is represented by the letter P. The power P of a lens
of focal length f is given by
1
P=𝑓
• The SI unit of power of a lens is ‘dioptre’. It is denoted by the letter D. If f is expressed in metres, then, power is
expressed in dioptres. Thus,
• 1 dioptre is the power of a lens whose focal length is 1 metre. 1D = 1m-1
• You may note that the power of a convex lens is positive and that of a concave lens is negative.
THE HUMAN EYE
• The human eye is like a camera. Its lens system forms an image on a light-sensitive screen called the retina.
• Light enters the eye through a thin membrane called the cornea.
• Iris is a dark muscular diaphragm that controls the size of the pupil. The pupil regulates and controls the amount of
light entering the eye.
• The eye lens forms an inverted real image of the object on the retina.
POWER OF ACCOMMODATION
• The eye lens is composed of a fibrous, jelly-like material. Its curvature can be modified to some extent by the ciliary
muscles. The change in the curvature of the eye lens can thus change its focal length. When the muscles are relaxed,
the lens becomes thin. Thus, its focal length increases. This enables us to see distant objects clearly. When you are
looking at objects closer to the eye, the ciliary muscles contract. This increases the curvature of the eye lens. The eye
lens then becomes thicker.
• Consequently, the focal length of the eye lens decreases. This enables us to see nearby objects clearly.
• However, the focal length of the eye lens cannot be decreased below a certain minimum limit.
• The minimum distance, at which objects can be seen most distinctly without strain, is called the least distance of
distinct vision. It is also called the near point of the eye.
• For a young adult with normal vision, the near point is about 25 cm. The farthest point upto which the eye can see
objects clearly is called the far point of the eye. It is infinity for a normal eye.
• Sometimes, the crystalline lens of people at old age becomes milky and cloudy. This condition is called cataract. This
causes partial or complete loss of vision. It is possible to restore vision through a cataract surgery.
Why do we have two eyes for vision and not just one?
• There are several advantages of our having two eyes instead of one. It gives a wider field of view. A human being has
a horizontal field of view of about 150° with one eye and of about 180° with two eyes. The ability to detect faint
objects is, of course, enhanced with two detectors instead of one.
• Some animals, usually prey animals, have their two eyes positioned on opposite sides of their heads to give the
widest possible field of view. But our two eyes are positioned on the front of our heads, and it thus reduces our field
of view in favour of what is called stereopsis. Shut one eye and the world looks flat – two-dimensional. Keep both
eyes open and the world takes on the third dimension of depth.
• Because our eyes are separated by a few centimetres, each eye sees a slightly different image. Our brain combines
the two images into one, using the extra information to tell us how close or far away things are.
DEFECTS OF VISION AND CORRECTION
• There are mainly three common refractive defects of vision. These are (i) myopia or near-sightedness, (ii)
Hypermetropia or far sightedness, and (iii) Presbyopia. These defects can be corrected by the use of suitable
spherical lenses
• Myopia is also known as near-sightedness. A person with myopia can see nearby objects clearly but cannot see
distant objects distinctly. A concave lens of suitable power will bring the image back on to the retina and thus the
defect is corrected.
• Hypermetropia is also known as far-sightedness. A person with hypermetropia can see distant objects clearly but
cannot see nearby objects distinctly. Eye-glasses with converging lenses provide the additional focusing power
required for forming the image on the retina.
• The power of accommodation of the eye usually decreases with ageing. For most people, the near point gradually
recedes away. They find it difficult to see nearby objects comfortably and distinctly without corrective eye-glasses.
This defect is called Presbyopia. Sometimes, a person may suffer from both myopia and hypermetropia. Such people
often require bi-focal lenses. A common type of bi-focal lenses consists of both concave and convex lenses.
DISPERSION OF WHITE LIGHT BY A PRISM
• The acronym VIBGYOR will help you to remember the sequence of colours. The band of the coloured components of
a light beam is called its spectrum. The splitting of light into its component colours is called dispersion.
• Different colours of light bend through different angles with respect to the incident ray, as they pass through a
prism. The red light bends the least while the violet the most.
• A rainbow is a natural spectrum appearing in the sky after a rain shower. It is caused by dispersion of sunlight by tiny
water droplets, present in the atmosphere. A rainbow is always formed in a direction opposite to that of the Sun.
ATMOSPHERIC REFRACTION
TWINKLING OF STARS
• The twinkling of a star is due to atmospheric refraction of starlight. The starlight, on entering the earth’s
atmosphere, undergoes refraction continuously before it reaches the earth. Since the stars are very distant, they
approximate point-sized sources of light. As the path of rays of light coming from the star goes on varying slightly,
the apparent position of the star fluctuates and the amount of starlight entering the eye flickers – the star
sometimes appears brighter, and at some other time, fainter, which is the twinkling effect.
• The planets are much closer to the earth, and are thus seen as extended sources. If we consider a planet as a
collection of a large number of point-sized sources of light, the total variation in the amount of light entering our eye
from all the individual point-sized sources will average out to zero, thereby nullifying the twinkling effect.
ADVANCE SUNRISE AND DELAYED SUNSET
• The Sun is visible to us about 2 minutes before the actual sunrise, and about 2 minutes after the actual sunset
because of atmospheric refraction. By actual sunrise, we mean the actual crossing of the horizon by the Sun.
• The time difference between actual sunset and the apparent sunset is about 2 minutes. The apparent flattening of
the Sun’s disc at sunrise and sunset is also due to the same phenomenon.
SCATTERING OF LIGHT
TYNDALL EFFECT
• The earth’s atmosphere is a heterogeneous mixture of minute particles. These particles include smoke, tiny water
droplets, suspended particles of dust and molecules of air. When a beam of light strikes such fine particles, the path
of the beam becomes visible. The light reaches us, after being reflected diffusely by these particles. The
phenomenon of scattering of light by the colloidal particles gives rise to Tyndall effect
• The colour of the scattered light depends on the size of the scattering particles. Very fine particles scatter mainly
blue light while particles of larger size scatter light of longer wavelengths. If the size of the scattering particles is
large enough, then, the scattered light may even appear white.
COLOUR OF THE CLEAR BLUE SKY
• The molecules of air and other fine particles in the atmosphere have size smaller than the wavelength of visible light.
These are more effective in scattering light of shorter wavelengths at the blue end than light of longer wavelengths
at the red end.
• Thus, when sunlight passes through the atmosphere, the fine particles in air scatter the blue colour (shorter
wavelengths) more strongly than red. The scattered blue light enters our eyes. If the earth had no atmosphere,
there would not have been any scattering. Then, the sky would have looked dark. The sky appears dark to
passengers flying at very high altitudes, as scattering is not prominent at such heights.
COLOUR OF THE SUN AT SUNRISE AND SUNSET
 • Light from the Sun near the horizon passes through thicker layers of air and larger distance in the earth’s
atmosphere before reaching our eyes
• However, light from the Sun overhead would travel relatively shorter distance.
• At noon, the Sun appears white as only a little of the blue and violet colours are scattered. Near the horizon, most of
the blue light and shorter wavelengths are scattered away by the particles. Therefore, the light that reaches our
eyes is of longer wavelengths. This gives rise to the reddish appearance of the Sun.
What you have leant
• Light seems to travel in straight lines.
• Mirrors and lenses form images of objects. Images can be either real or virtual, depending on the position of the
object.
• The reflecting surfaces, of all types, obey the laws of reflection. The refracting surfaces obey the laws of refraction.
• New Cartesian Sign Conventions are followed for spherical mirrors and lenses.
1 1 1
• Mirror formula, 𝑣+𝑢=𝑓 , gives the relationship between the object-distance (u), image-distance (v), and focal length
(f) of a spherical mirror.
• The focal length of a spherical mirror is equal to half its radius of curvature.
• The magnification produced by a spherical mirror is the ratio of the height of the image to the height of the object.
• A light ray travelling obliquely from a denser medium to a rarer medium bends away from the normal. A light ray
bends towards the normal when it travels obliquely from a rarer to a denser medium.
• Light travels in vacuum with an enormous speed of 3×108 m s-1. The speed of light is different in different media.
• The refractive index of a transparent medium is the ratio of the speed of light in vacuum to that in the medium.
• In case of a rectangular glass slab, the refraction takes place at both air-glass interface and glass-air interface. The
emergent ray is parallel to the direction of incident ray.
1 1 1
• Lens formula, - = , gives the relationship between the object-distance (u), image-distance (v), and the focal length
𝑣 𝑢 𝑓
(f) of a spherical lens.
• Power of a lens is the reciprocal of its focal length. The SI unit of power of a lens is dioptre.
• The ability of the eye to focus on both near and distant objects, by adjusting its focal length, is called the
accommodation of the eye.
• The smallest distance, at which the eye can see objects clearly without strain, is called the near point of the eye or
the least distance of distinct vision. For a young adult with normal vision, it is about 25 cm.
• The common refractive defects of vision include myopia, hypermetropia and presbyopia. Myopia (short-sightedness
– the image of distant objects is focused before the retina) is corrected by using a concave lens of suitable power.
Hypermetropia (far-sightedness – the image of nearby objects is focussed beyond the retina) is corrected by using a
convex lens of suitable power. The eye loses its power of accommodation at old age.
• The splitting of white light into its component colours is called dispersion.
• Scattering of light causes the blue colour of sky and the reddening of the Sun at sunrise and sunset.
 STATIC AND CURRENT ELECTRICITY, CONDUCTORS AND NON-CONDUCTORS, OHM’S LAW, SIMPLE ELECTRICAL CIRCUITS
• Static electricity can be defined as the electricity which is created on the surface of an object due to the
displacement of negative charges.
• Electric current is a phenomenon created by the flow of electrons. It is a common phenomenon which we can see in
the working of almost all electrical appliances.
We will write down the differences between the two on a number of factors in the form of a table.
S. Basis of
Static electricity Electric current
no. difference
It can be developed on any type of material, either The current is produced only in conductors as it is
1 Material
it be conductor or an insulator. due to movement of electrons.
Time period is short, as it exists for a very short
2 Time period A comparative long time period.
period of time.
Measuring It can be measured with an Analog or a Digital
3 It can be measured with a Gold leaf electroscope.
device meter.
A magnetic field is induced every time an electric
4 Magnetic Field Static electricity doesn’t induce any magnetic field.
current is produced.
It can be seen in electrical equipment like TV, bulb
5 Example Lightning in the sky etc.
etc.
Note:
The most significant difference between the static electricity and the current electricity is that in that static electricity the
charges are at rest and they are accumulated on the surface of the insulator, whereas, in current electricity the electrons are
in state of motion inside the conductor.

ELECTRIC CURRENT AND CIRCUIT

• If the electric charge flows through a conductor (for example, through a metallic wire), we say that there is an
electric current in the conductor.
• A continuous and closed path of an electric current is called an electric circuit.
• Electric current is expressed by the amount of charge flowing through a particular area in unit time. In other words,
it is the rate of flow of electric charges. In circuits using metallic wires, electrons constitute the flow of charges.
However, electrons were not known at the time when the phenomenon of electricity was first observed. So, electric
current was considered to be the flow of positive charges and the direction of flow of positive charges was taken to
be the direction of electric current. Conventionally, in an electric circuit the direction of electric current is taken as
opposite to the direction of the flow of electrons, which are negative charges.
• If a net charge Q, flows across any cross-section of a conductor in time t, then the current I, through the cross-
𝐼
section is, Q=𝑡
• The SI unit of electric charge is coulomb (C), which is equivalent to the charge contained in nearly 6 × 1018 electrons.
(We know that an electron possesses a negative charge of 1.6 × 10-19C.)
• The electric current is expressed by a unit called ampere (A), named after the French scientist, Andre-Marie Ampere.
• An instrument called ammeter measures electric current in a circuit. It is always connected in series in a circuit
through which the current is to be measured.
• For flow of charges in a conducting metallic wire, the gravity, of course, has no role to play; the electrons move only
if there is a difference of electric pressure – called the potential difference – along the conductor. This difference of
potential may be produced by a battery, consisting of one or more electric cells. We define the electric potential
difference between two points in an electric circuit carrying some current as the work done to move a unit charge
from one point to the other –
• Potential difference (V) between two points = Work done (W)/Charge (Q)
V=W/Q
• The SI unit of electric potential difference is volt (V), named after Alessandro Volta.
• The potential difference is measured by means of an instrument called the voltmeter. The voltmeter is always
connected in parallel across the points between which the potential difference is to be measured.
OHM’S LAW
• The potential difference, V, across the ends of a given metallic wire in an electric circuit is directly proportional to
the current flowing through it, provided its temperature remains the same. This is called Ohm’s law. In other words
– V=IR, R is a constant for the given metallic wire at a given temperature and is called its resistance. It is the property
of a conductor to resist the flow of charges through it. Its SI unit is ohm, represented by the Greek letter Ω.
• According to Ohm’s law, R = V/I. A component used to regulate current without changing the voltage source is called
variable resistance.
• In an electric circuit, a device called rheostat is often used to change the resistance in the circuit.
• A component of a given size that offers a low resistance is a good conductor. A conductor having some appreciable
resistance is called a resistor. A component of identical size that offers a higher resistance is a poor conductor. An
insulator of the same size offers even higher resistance.
FACTORS ON WHICH THE RESISTANCE OF A CONDUCTOR DEPENDS
• On applying Ohm’s law, we observe that the resistance of the conductor depends (i) on its length, (ii) on its area of
cross-section, and (iii) on the nature of its material. Precise measurements have shown that resistance of a uniform
metallic conductor is directly proportional to its length (l ) and inversely proportional to the area of cross-section (A).
𝑙
That is, R=ρ , where (rho) is a constant of proportionality and is called the electrical resistivity of the material of the
𝐴
conductor. The SI unit of resistivity is Ωm.
• Alloys do not oxidise (burn) readily at high temperatures. For this reason, they are commonly used in electrical
heating devices, like electric iron, toasters etc. Tungsten is used almost exclusively for filaments of electric bulbs,
whereas copper and aluminium are generally used for electrical transmission lines.
RESISTORS IN SERIES
• Resistors connected in series, RS=R1+R2+R3, We can conclude that when several resistors are joined in series, the
resistance of the combination equals the sum of their individual
RESISTORS IN PARALLEL
1 1 1
• Resistors connected in parallel, RP=𝑅1+𝑅2+𝑅3, we may conclude that the reciprocal of the equivalent resistance of a
group of resistances joined in parallel is equal to the sum of the reciprocals of the individual resistances.
ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANGES OF CONNECTION TYPE
• We have seen that in a series circuit the current is constant throughout the electric circuit. Thus it is obviously
impracticable to connect an electric bulb and an electric heater in series, because they need currents of widely
different values to operate properly.
• Another major disadvantage of a series circuit is that when one component fails the circuit is broken and none of the
components works. If you have used ‘fairy lights’ to decorate buildings on festivals, on marriage celebrations etc.,
you might have seen the electrician spending lot of time in trouble-locating and replacing the ‘dead’ bulb – each has
to be tested to find which has fused or gone.
• On the other hand, a parallel circuit divides the current through the electrical gadgets.
• The total resistance in a parallel circuit is decreased. This is helpful particularly when each gadget has different
resistance and requires different current to operate properly.
HEATING EFFECT OF ELECTRIC CURRENT
• We often observe this in our everyday life. For example, an electric fan becomes warm if used continuously for
longer time etc. On the other hand, if the electric circuit is purely resistive, that is, a configuration of resistors only
connected to a battery; the source energy continually gets dissipated entirely in the form of heat. This is known as
the heating effect of electric current. This effect is utilised in devices such as electric heater, electric iron etc.
• Thus for a steady current I, the amount of heat H produced in time t is H = VIt. Applying Ohm’s law, we get H = I2Rt.
This is known as Joule’s law of heating.
• The law implies that heat produced in a resistor is (i) directly proportional to the square of current for a given
resistance, (ii) directly proportional to resistance for a given current, and (iii) directly proportional to the time for
which the current flows through the resistor.
PRACTICAL APPLICATION OF ELECTRIC EFFECT
• A strong metal with high melting point such as tungsten (melting point 3380°C) is used for making bulb filaments.
• Another common application of Joule’s heating is the fuse used in electric circuits. It protects circuits and appliances
by stopping the flow of any unduly high electric current. The fuse is placed in series with the device. It consists of a
piece of wire made of a metal or an alloy of appropriate melting point, for example aluminium, copper, iron, lead
etc. If a current larger than the specified value flows through the circuit, the temperature of the fuse wire increases.
This melts the fuse wire and breaks the circuit.
ELECTRIC POWER
• The rate at which electric energy is dissipated or consumed in an electric circuit. This is also termed as electric
power.
• The power P is given by P = VI
Or
P = I2R = V2/R
• The SI unit of electric power is watt (W).
• The commercial unit of electric energy is kilowatt hour (kW h), commonly known as ‘unit’.

What you have learnt

• A stream of electrons moving through a conductor constitutes an electric current. Conventionally, the direction of
current is taken opposite to the direction of flow of electrons.
• The SI unit of electric current is ampere.
• To set the electrons in motion in an electric circuit, we use a cell or a battery. A cell generates a potential difference
across its terminals. It is measured in volts (V).
• Resistance is a property that resists the flow of electrons in a conductor. It controls the magnitude of the current.
The SI unit of resistance is ohm Ω.
• Ohm’s law: The potential difference across the ends of a resistor is directly proportional to the current through it,
provided its temperature remains the same.
• The resistance of a conductor depends directly on its length, inversely on its area of cross-section, and also on the
material of the conductor.
• The equivalent resistance of several resistors in series is equal to the sum of their individual resistances.
• The commercial unit of electrical energy is kilowatt hour (kWh). 1 kW h = 3,600,000 J = 3.6 × 106 J.