Enhanced oil recovery

Enhanced oil recovery (abbreviated EOR), also called tertiary recovery, is

the extraction of crude oil from an oil field that cannot be extracted otherwise.
Although the primary and secondary recovery techniques rely on the pressure
differential between the surface and the underground well, enhanced oil
recovery functions by altering the chemical composition of the oil itself in order
to make it easier to extract. EOR can extract 30% to 60% or more of a
reservoir's oil,[1] compared to 20% to 40% using primary and secondary
recovery.[2][3] According to the US Department of Energy, carbon dioxide and
water are injected along with one of three EOR techniques: thermal injection,
gas injection, and chemical injection.[1] More advanced, speculative EOR
techniques are sometimes called quaternary recovery.[4][5][6][7]

Methods
There are three primary techniques of EOR: gas injection, thermal injection,
and chemical injection. Gas injection, which uses gases such as natural gas,
nitrogen, or carbon dioxide (CO2 ), accounts for nearly 60 percent of EOR
production in the United States.[1] Thermal injection, which involves the
introduction of heat, accounts for 40 percent of EOR production in the United
States, with most of it occurring in California.[1] Chemical injection, which can
involve the use of long-chained molecules called polymers to increase the
effectiveness of waterfloods, accounts for about one percent of EOR
production in the United States.[1] In 2013, a technique called plasma-pulse
technology was introduced into the United States from Russia. This technique
can result in another 50 percent of improvement in existing well production.[8]

Gas injection
Gas injection or miscible flooding is presently the most-commonly used
approach in enhanced oil recovery. Miscible flooding is a general term for
injection processes that introduce miscible gases into the reservoir. A miscible Injection well used for
displacement process maintains reservoir pressure and improves oil enhanced oil recovery
displacement because the interfacial tension between oil and gas is reduced.
This refers to removing the interface between the two interacting fluids. This
allows for total displacement efficiency.[9] Gases used include CO2 , natural gas or nitrogen. The fluid most
commonly used for miscible displacement is carbon dioxide because it reduces the oil viscosity and is less
expensive than liquefied petroleum gas.[9] Oil displacement by carbon dioxide injection relies on the phase
behavior of the mixtures of that gas and the crude, which are strongly dependent on reservoir temperature,
pressure and crude oil composition.

Thermal injection
In this approach, various methods are used to heat the crude oil in
the formation to reduce its viscosity and/or vaporize part of the oil
and thus decrease the mobility ratio. The increased heat reduces the
surface tension and increases the permeability of the oil. The heated
oil may also vaporize and then condense forming improved oil.
Methods include cyclic steam injection, steam flooding and
combustion. These methods improve the sweep efficiency and the
displacement efficiency. Steam injection has been used
commercially since the 1960s in California fields.[10] In 2011 solar
thermal enhanced oil recovery projects were started in California
and Oman, this method is similar to thermal EOR but uses a solar
array to produce the steam.

In July 2015, Petroleum Development Oman and GlassPoint Solar

announced that they signed a $600 million agreement to build a 1
GWth solar field on the Amal oilfield. The project, named Miraah, The steam flooding technique
will be the world's largest solar field measured by peak thermal
capacity.

In November 2017, GlassPoint and Petroleum Development Oman (PDO) completed construction on the
first block of the Miraah solar plant safely on schedule and on budget, and successfully delivered steam to
the Amal West oilfield.[11]

Also in November 2017, GlassPoint and Aera Energy announced a joint project to create California's
largest solar EOR field at the South Belridge Oil Field, near Bakersfield, California. The facility is projected
to produce approximately 12 million barrels of steam per year through a 850MW thermal solar steam
generator. It will also cut carbon emissions from the facility by 376,000 metric tons per year.[12]

Steam flooding
Steam flooding (see sketch) is one means of introducing heat to the reservoir by pumping steam into the
well with a pattern similar to that of water injection.[13] Eventually the steam condenses to hot water; in the
steam zone the oil evaporates, and in the hot water zone the oil expands. As a result, the oil expands, the
viscosity drops, and the permeability increases. To ensure success the process has to be cyclical. This is the
principal enhanced oil recovery program in use today.

Fire flooding
Fire flooding works best when the oil saturation and porosity are high. Combustion generates the heat
within the reservoir itself. Continuous injection of air or other gas mixture with high oxygen content will
maintain the flame front. As the fire burns, it moves through the reservoir toward production wells. Heat
from the fire reduces oil viscosity and helps vaporize reservoir water to steam. The steam, hot water,
combustion gas and a bank of distilled solvent all act to drive oil in front of the fire toward production
wells.[14]

There are three methods of combustion: Dry forward, reverse and wet combustion. Dry forward uses an
igniter to set fire to the oil. As the fire progresses the oil is pushed away from the fire toward the producing
well. In reverse the air injection and the ignition occur from opposite directions. In wet combustion water is
injected just behind the front and turned into steam by the hot rock. This quenches the fire and spreads the
heat more evenly.

Chemical injection
The injection of various chemicals, usually as dilute solutions, have been used to aid mobility and the
reduction in surface tension.[15] Injection of alkaline or caustic solutions into reservoirs with oil that have
organic acids naturally occurring in the oil will result in the production of soap that may lower the interfacial
tension enough to increase production.[16][17] Injection of a dilute solution of a water-soluble polymer to
increase the viscosity of the injected water can increase the amount of oil recovered in some formations.
Dilute solutions of surfactants such as petroleum sulfonates or biosurfactants such as rhamnolipids may be
injected to lower the interfacial tension or capillary pressure that impedes oil droplets from moving through
a reservoir, this is analyzed in terms of the bond number, relating capillary forces to gravitational ones.
Special formulations of oil, water and surfactant, microemulsions, can be particularly effective in reducing
interfacial tension. Application of these methods is usually limited by the cost of the chemicals and their
adsorption and loss onto the rock of the oil containing formation. In all of these methods the chemicals are
injected into several wells and the production occurs in other nearby wells.

Polymer flooding
Polymer flooding consists in mixing long chain polymer molecules with the injected water in order to
increase the water viscosity. This method improves the vertical and areal sweep efficiency as a consequence
of improving the water/oil mobility ratio.

Surfactants may be used in conjunction with polymers and hyperbranched polyglycerols; they decrease the
interfacial tension between the oil and water.[15][18] This reduces the residual oil saturation and improves
the macroscopic efficiency of the process.

Primary surfactants usually have co-surfactants, activity boosters, and co-solvents added to them to improve
stability of the formulation.

Caustic flooding is the addition of sodium hydroxide to injection water. It does this by lowering the surface
tension, reversing the rock wettability, emulsification of the oil, mobilization of the oil and helps in drawing
the oil out of the rock.

Low salinity nanofluids

EOR processes can be enhanced with nanoparticles in three ways: nanocatalysts, nanofluids, and
nanoemulsions. Nanofluids are base fluids that contain nanoparticles in colloidal suspensions. Nanofluids
perform many functions in EOR of oil fields, including pore disjoining pressure, channel plugging,
interfacial tension reduction, mobility ratio, wettability alteration, and asphaltene precipitation prevention.
Nanofluids facilitates disjoining pressure to remove sediment entrapped oil via aggregation at the interface.
Alternatively, wettability alteration and interfacial surface tension reduction are other alternative mechanism
of EOR.[19][20]

Microbial injection
Microbial injection is part of microbial enhanced oil recovery and is rarely used because of its higher cost
and because the development is not widely accepted. These microbes function either by partially digesting
long hydrocarbon molecules, by generating biosurfactants, or by emitting carbon dioxide (which then
functions as described in Gas injection above).[21]

Three approaches have been used to achieve microbial injection. In the first approach, bacterial cultures
mixed with a food source (a carbohydrate such as molasses is commonly used) are injected into the oil field.
In the second approach, used since 1985,[22] nutrients are injected into the ground to nurture existing
microbial bodies; these nutrients cause the bacteria to increase production of the natural surfactants they
normally use to metabolize crude oil underground.[23] After the injected nutrients are consumed, the
microbes go into near-shutdown mode, their exteriors become hydrophilic, and they migrate to the oil-water
interface area, where they cause oil droplets to form from the larger oil mass, making the droplets more
likely to migrate to the wellhead. This approach has been used in oilfields near the Four Corners and in the
Beverly Hills Oil Field in Beverly Hills, California.

The third approach is used to address the problem of paraffin wax components of the crude oil, which tend
to precipitate as the crude flows to the surface, since the Earth's surface is considerably cooler than the
petroleum deposits (a temperature drop of 9–10–14 °C per thousand feet of depth is usual).

Liquid carbon dioxide superfluids

Carbon dioxide (CO2 ) is particularly effective in reservoirs deeper than 2,000 ft., where CO2 will be in a
supercritical state.[24] In high pressure applications with lighter oils, CO2 is miscible with the oil, with
resultant swelling of the oil, and reduction in viscosity, and possibly also with a reduction in the surface
tension with the reservoir rock. In the case of low pressure reservoirs or heavy oils, CO2 will form an
immiscible fluid, or will only partially mix with the oil. Some oil swelling may occur, and oil viscosity can
still be significantly reduced.[25][26]

In these applications, between one-half and two-thirds of the injected CO2 returns with the produced oil and
is usually re-injected into the reservoir to minimize operating costs. The remainder is trapped in the oil
reservoir by various means. Carbon dioxide as a solvent has the benefit of being more economical than
other similarly miscible fluids such as propane and butane.[27]

Water-alternating-gas (WAG)
Water-alternating-gas (WAG) injection is another technique employed in EOR. Water is used in addition to
carbon dioxide. A saline solution is used here so that carbonate formations in oil wells are not
disturbed.[28][29] Water and carbon dioxide are injected into the oil well for larger recovery, as they
typically have low miscibility with oil. Use of both water and carbon dioxide also lowers the mobility of
carbon dioxide, making the gas more effective at displacing the oil in the well.[30] According to a study
done by Kovscek, using small slugs of both carbon dioxide and water allows for quick recovery of the
oil.[30] Additionally, in a study done by Dang in 2014, using water with a lower salinity allows for greater
oil removal, and greater geochemical interactions.[31]

Plasma-pulse
Plasma-pulse technology is a technique used in the US as of 2013. The technology originated in the
Russian Federation at the St. Petersburg State Mining University with funding and assistance from the
Skolkovo Innovation Center.[32] The development team in Russia and deployment teams across Russia,
Europe and now the USA have tested this technology in vertical wells with nearly 90% of wells showing
positive effects.

The Plasma-Pulse Oil Well EOR uses low energy emissions to create the same effect that many other
technologies can produce except without negative ecological impact. In nearly every case the volume of
water pulled with the oil is actually reduced from pre-EOR treatment instead of increased. Current clients
and users of the new technology include ConocoPhillips, ONGC, Gazprom, Rosneft and Lukoil.

It is based in the same technology as the Russian pulsed plasma thruster which was used on two space ships
and is currently being advanced for use in horizontal wells.

Economic costs and benefits

Adding oil recovery methods adds to the cost of oil—in the case of CO2 typically between 0.5–8.0 US$ per
tonne of CO2 . The increased extraction of oil on the other hand, is an economic benefit with the revenue
depending on prevailing oil prices.[33] Onshore EOR has paid in the range of a net 10–16 US$ per tonne of
CO2 injected for oil prices of 15–20 US$/barrel. Prevailing prices depend on many factors but can
determine the economic suitability of any procedure, with more procedures and more expensive procedures
being economically viable at higher prices.[34] Example: With oil prices at around 90 US$/barrel, the
economic benefit is about 70 US$ per tonne CO2 . The U.S. Department of Energy estimates that 20 billion
tons of captured CO2 could produce 67 billion barrels of economically recoverable oil.[35]

From 1986 to 2008, the quote oil production deriving from EOR has increased from 0.3% to 5%, thanks to
an increasing oil demand and a reduction of oil supply.[36]

EOR projects with CO2 from carbon capture

Boundary Dam Power Station, Canada

SaskPower's Boundary Dam Power Station project retrofitted its coal-fired power station in 2014 with
carbon capture and sequestration (CCS) technology. The plant will capture 1 million tonnes of CO2
annually, which it sold to Cenovus Energy for enhanced oil recovery at its Weyburn Oil Field,[37] prior to
the sale of Cenovus's Saskatchewan assets in 2017 to Whitecap Resources.[38] The project is expected to
inject a net 18 million ton CO2 and recover an additional 130 million barrels (21,000,000 m3 ) of oil,
extending the life of the oil field by 25 years.[39] There is a projected 26+ million tonnes (net of production)
of CO2 to be stored in Weyburn, plus another 8.5 million tonnes (net of production) stored at the Weyburn-
Midale Carbon Dioxide Project, resulting in a net reduction in atmospheric CO2 by CO2 storage in the
oilfield. That's the equivalent of taking nearly 7 million cars off the road for a year.[40] Since CO2 injection
began in late 2000, the EOR project has performed largely as predicted. Currently, some 1600 m3 (10,063
barrels) per day of incremental oil is being produced from the field.

Petra Nova, United States

The Petra Nova project uses post-combustion amine absorption to capture some of the carbon dioxide
emissions from one of the boilers at the W.A Parish power plant in Texas, and transports it by pipeline to the
West Ranch oil field for use in enhanced oil recovery.

Kemper Project, United States (canceled)

Mississippi Power's Kemper County energy facility, or Kemper Project, was to have been a first-of-its-kind
plant in the U.S. that was expected to be online in 2015.[41] Its coal gasification component has since been
canceled, and the plant has been converted to a conventional natural gas combined cycle power plant
without carbon capture. The Southern Company subsidiary worked with the U.S. Department of Energy
and other partners with the intention to develop cleaner, less expensive, more reliable methods for
producing electricity with coal that also support EOR production. The gasification technology was
designated to fuel the integrated gasification combined cycle power plant.[35] Additionally, the unique
location of the Kemper Project, and its proximity to oil reserves, made it an ideal candidate for enhanced oil
recovery.[42]

Weyburn-Midale, Canada
In 2000, Saskatchewan's Weyburn-Midale oil field began to employ
EOR as a method of oil extraction.[43] In 2008, the oilfield became
the world's largest storage site of carbon dioxide.[44] The Carbon
Dioxide comes through 320 km of pipeline from Dakota
Gasification facility. It is estimated that the EOR project will store
around 20 million tons of Carbon Dioxide, generate about 130
million barrels of oil, and extend the life of the field by over two
decades.[45] The site is also notable as it hosted a study on the Weyburn-Midale Oil production over
effects of EOR on nearby seismic activity.[43] time, both before and after EOR was
introduced to the field.
CO2 EOR in the United States
The United States has been using CO2 EOR for several decades. For over 30 years, oil fields in the
Permian Basin have implemented CO2 EOR using naturally sourced CO2 from New Mexico and
Colorado.[46] The Department of Energy (DOE) has estimated that full use of 'next generation' CO2 -EOR
in United States could generate an additional 240 billion barrels (38 km3 ) of recoverable oil resources.
Developing this potential would depend on the availability of commercial CO2 in large volumes, which
could be made possible by widespread use of carbon capture and storage. For comparison, the total
undeveloped US domestic oil resources still in the ground total more than 1 trillion barrels (160 km3 ), most
of it remaining unrecoverable. The DOE estimates that if the EOR potential were to be fully realized, state
and local treasuries would gain $280 billion in revenues from future royalties, severance taxes, and state
income taxes on oil production, aside from other economic benefits.
In the US, regulations can both assist and slow down the development of EOR for use in carbon capture &
utilization, as well as general oil production. One of the primary regulations governing EOR is the Safe
Drinking Water Act of 1974 (SDWA), which gives most of the regulatory power over EOR and similar oil
recovery operations to the EPA.[47] The agency in turn delegated some of this power to its own
Underground Injection Control Program,[47] and much of the rest of this regulatory authority to state and
tribal governments, making much of EOR regulation a localized affair under the minimum requirements of
the SDWA.[47][48] The EPA then collects information from these local governments and individual wells to
ensure they follow overall federal regulation, such as the Clean Air Act, which dictates reporting guidelines
for any Carbon Dioxide sequestration operations.[47][49] Beyond the atmospheric concerns, most of these
federal guidelines are to ensure that the Carbon Dioxide injection causes no major damage to America's
waterways.[50] Overall, the locality of EOR regulation can make EOR projects more difficult, as different
standards in different regions can slow down construction and force separate approaches to utilize the same
technology.[51]

In February 2018, Congress passed and the President signed an expansion of the carbon capture tax credits
defined in section 45Q of the IRS' Internal Revenue code. Previously, these credits were limited to $10/ton
and capped at a total of 75 million tons. Under the expansion, carbon capture and utilization projects like
EOR will be eligible for a tax credit of $35/ton, and sequestration projects will receive a $50/ton credit.[52]
The expanded tax credit would be available for 12 years to any plant constructed by 2024, with no volume
cap. If successful, these credits "could help sequester between 200 million and 2.2 billion metric tons of
carbon dioxide"[53] and bring down carbon capture and sequestration costs from a currently estimated
$60/ton at Petra Nova to as low as $10/ton.

Environmental impacts
Enhanced oil recovery wells typically pump large quantities of produced water to the surface. This water
contains brine and may also contain toxic heavy metals and radioactive substances.[54] This can be very
damaging to drinking water sources and the environment generally if not properly controlled. Disposal
wells are used to prevent surface contamination of soil and water by injecting the produced water deep
underground.[55][56]

In the United States, injection well activity is regulated by the United States Environmental Protection
Agency (EPA) and state governments under the Safe Drinking Water Act.[57] EPA has issued Underground
Injection Control (UIC) regulations in order to protect drinking water sources.[58] Enhanced oil recovery
wells are regulated as "Class II" wells by the EPA. The regulations require well operators to reinject the
brine used for recovery deep underground in Class II disposal wells.[55]

See also
Gas reinjection
Steam assisted gravity drainage
Water injection (oil production)
Wikiversity:Enhanced oil recovery

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External links
Enhanced Oil Recovery Institute (http://www.uwyo.edu/eori/) – University of Wyoming
Licensable Technology: Particle Stabilized Emulsions of Carbon Dioxide & Water for
Enhanced Oil Recovery & Extraction Processes (https://web.archive.org/web/200709300701
38/http://www.masstechportal.com/IP1493.aspx) – Massachusetts Technology Portal
Oilfield Glossary: Enhanced Oil Recovery (http://www.glossary.oilfield.slb.com/Display.cfm?
Term=enhanced%20oil%20recovery) Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/2012053119120
5/http://www.glossary.oilfield.slb.com/Display.cfm?Term=enhanced%20oil%20recovery)
2012-05-31 at the Wayback Machine – Schlumberger, Ltd.
Center for Petroleum and Geosystems Engineering (http://www.cpge.utexas.edu/) –
University of Texas at Austin
[2] (http://www.prrc.nmt.edu/groups/res-sweep/) Polymer Flooding, Reservoir Sweep
Improvement, New Mexico Tech

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