19 Chemistry Eng

Unit 1 : Structure of Atom
CHEMISTRY
PART - I
Standard
IX
ST-381-1-CHEMISTRY (E)-9-VOL-1
Government of Kerala
Department of General Education
Prepared by
State Council of EducaƟonal Research and Training (SCERT) Kerala
2024
1
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Chemistry
9
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Dear students,
You are familiar with the fact that the study of science is possible only
through various activities like experiment, observation, data collection,
data analysis and consolidation of inferences. You might have been
inspired by the research done by eminent scientists to prove universal
facts. With the developments in scientific concepts, diverse branches of
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evolving tremendously. Almost every object that we use not only in the
fields of agriculture, industry and health but also in our daily life is a gift of
chemistry. Emphasis should be given to the comprehension of basic ideas
and acquisition of problem solving skills, which are essentially needed for
the study of chemistry.
The elementary concepts of chemistry, like atomic structure, classification
of elements, chemical bonding, different types of chemical reactions and
chemical compounds are included in this text. Due importance is given to
the planning of various activities like experiments, seminars, quiz, projects
and analysis. The text lays emphasis on the potential of continuous
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the development of creativity.
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CONTENTS
1. Structure of Atom ............................... 07
2. Periodic Table ...................................... 23
3. Chemical Bonding ............................... 43
4. Redox Reactions .................................. 69
Certain icons are used in this textbook for convenience
For further reading (Not considered for evaluation)
Continuous assessment questions
ICT possibilities
Let's assess
Extended activities
Chemistry Standard - IX
6
1 Structure of Atom
Hey! this is the
atom model,
right?
Yes, there are

other models
too.....
Look at the picture. Here the students are discussing the structure of atoms.
Can you identify the atoms in the substances that are familiar to you?
Analyse Table 1.1
Chemical formula Ratio of number of
Substance Constituent elements
of the molecule atoms
Carbon, Hydrogen,
Sugar C12H22O11 12:22:11
Oxygen
Carbon, Hydrogen,
Glucose C6H12O6 1:2:1
Oxygen
Water Hydrogen, Oxygen H2O 2:1
Table 1.1
7
You have seen that the molecules of each substance contain atoms
combined in a particular ratio. Molecules are particles which show
all the properties of the substance and have a free existence.
How do molecules of different substances differ?
• The constituent elements of the molecules.
• The ratio of the number of constituent atoms in them.
You have understood that the molecules are formed by atoms.
You have learnt that atoms contain particles smaller than them.
What are the important particles in an atom?
• Electron
• ........................
• ........................
These are known as subatomic particles. Let us learn more about

these particles in this unit.
Discharge Tube Experiments and Discovery of

Electrons
In 1875 William Crookes, the physicist conducted experiments by
passing electricity at high voltage through a glass tube in which
William Crookes both sides are fixed with metal plates as electrodes (Figure 1.1).
1832 - 1919 Discharge tube Air at low pressure
Green glow
Cathode rays
Cathode Anode
To vaccum pump
High voltage
Fig. 1.1
As air is an insulator, electricity does not pass through the air in
the tube at normal pressure. But, when the tube was evacuated
8
gradually, it was seen that electricity passed through it (electric

discharge). When a perforated positive electrode (anode) was
used, a light green glow was observed on the zinc sulphide coated
glass wall behind it. The glow is due to the rays emitted from the
cathode. These rays came to be known as cathode rays. Scientists
conducted more experiments on cathode rays and identified their
various characteristics.
Discovery of Cathode Rays

In the first half of the 19th century itself, it was found that gases conduct electricity
at low pressure. Michael Faraday studied the changes that occur when electricity passes
through gases at low pressure. But the studies became very complicated due to the lack
of efficient suction pumps and the difficulty in arranging the evacuated glass tubes. In
1854, Henrich Giesler developed discharge tubes and suction pumps. When modified
Giesler tubes became available, Julius Plucker conducted various experiments using
them. He found out that when electricity passes through the tube, a glow is formed on
the opposite side of the cathode and the position of this glow can be changed in the
presence of a magnet.
Later, the scientists Johan Williams Hittorff (1869) and Eugen Goldstein (1876)
continued these experiments. They discovered that some rays originating from the
cathode were responsible for this glow.
Main characteristics of cathode rays

• Cathode rays cast shadows of opaque
objects placed in its path indicating
that cathode rays travel in straight lines
(Figure 1.2).
Fig. 1.2
• If a small paddle wheel is placed in the
path of the cathode rays, it rotates. Thus
we can understand that particles in the
cathode rays have mass (Figure 1.3).
Fig. 1.3
• When an electric field is applied on both sides of the rays,
they are found to be attracted towards the positive side.
9
From this we can infer that cathode rays

have negative charge (Figure 1.4).
• The path of the cathode rays gets
deflected in the magnetic field also.
Fig. 1.4
The properties of the cathode rays do not
change on changing the gas inside the tube or the metals with
which the electrodes are made. This indicates that the particles in
the cathode rays are present in all substances. These particles are
electrons.
J. J. Thomson
The ratio of electrical charge to mass of an electron (e/m
1856 - 1940 ratio) was determined by J. J. Thomson. When scientists accepted
the studies done by Thomson on cathode rays, it was proved
that there were particles smaller than atoms. In 1906, he
The mass of received the Nobel prize in physics for the discharge tube
electron experiments and the discoveries that followed.
The e/m ratio of an electron
is 1.76 × 1011C/kg. But • How was it proved that electrons have mass?
J. J. Thomson was unable
to find out the charge and • Cathode rays, cast shadows of opaque objects
mass separately. Later, placed in their path. What can be inferred
Robert Millikan, through his from this?
famous oil drop experiment,
found out that electron has
1.6 × 10−19C negative charge
and from this, he calculated
Proton
the mass of electron as In 1886 Eugen Goldstein, the German scientist conducted
9.1 × 10−31kg.
(C = coulomb) discharge tube experiments with perforated cathode and he
discovered rays known as canal rays. As they originated
from the metal placed at the positive side (anode), they were
known as Anode rays. He studied the characteristics of these
rays and identified the presence of positive charge in them.
The behaviour of these canal rays varied with the nature of
gases taken in the discharge tubes. The smallest and lightest positive
particles in the canal rays were obtained when the discharge tube was
Eugen Goldstein filled with hydrogen. It was Earnest Rutherford who discovered that
1850 - 1930
this was a subatomic particle and named it proton.
10
Plum Pudding Model of the Atom

J. J. Thomson proposed his plum pudding model when
the presence of negative particles were identified in atoms
(Figure 1.5). According to this model, negatively charged
electrons are embedded in a positively charged sphere. The
total number of positive charges and negative charges in
the sphere will be equal. So, an atom is electrically neutral.
But Thomson model failed to explain the results of several
experiments. Hence this model was rejected. Fig. 1.5
Plum pudding model
Radioactivity
Radioactivity is a phenomenon in which certain elements like uranium and thorium
emit radiations on their own. It was discovered by Henry Bequerel in 1896. Mainly three
types of radiations are emitted as a result of radioactivity. They are alpha () rays with
positive charge and mass, beta () rays with negative charge and gamma () rays with no
charge and no mass.
Rutherford's Gold Foil Experiment

In 1911, under the leadership of Earnest Rutherford, Hans Geiger
and Earnest Marsden conducted experiments by bombarding
alpha rays on a very thin gold foil. These experiments helped
in bringing more clarity about the structure of atom. Rutherford
bombarded a very thin gold foil with the alpha rays which
originated from radioactive substances and tried to find out Earnest Rutherford
1871 - 1937
the deflections that occurred in their path. The alpha particles
which passed through the gold foil were made to strike on the
photographic film arranged around it. He made the following
observations (Figure 1.6).
• Most of the alpha particles passed through
the gold foil undeflected.
• Some of the alpha particles deflected by a
small angle from the straight line when they
hit the gold foil.
• A very few alpha particles (approximately
1 in 20000) bounced back. i.e., deflected by
180º.
Fig. 1.6
He arrived at the following assumptions from Gold foil experiment diagram
these observations.
11
• Majority of the alpha particles passed through the foil

undeflected since most part of the atom was empty.
• Some of the alpha particles got deflected by a small angle due
to the repulsion caused when they passed by the positively
charged region inside the atom.
• The entire positive charge of an atom is concentrated in a
very small volume at the centre of the atom. This centre is
extremely small when compared to the size of the atom. The
alpha particles which bounced back were those that were
directed to this centre. He called this centre nucleus.
Rutherford atom model can be briefed as follows:
• Atom has a centre called nucleus.
• The size of the nucleus is extremely small when compared
to the size of the atom.
• The entire positive charge and most of the mass of the
atom are concentrated in the nucleus.
• Electrons revolve very fast around the nucleus in circular
paths or orbits.
This model is known as the planetary model of an atom.
Limitations of Rutherford's atom model
According to the electromagnetic theory, a charged body in motion
should continuously emit energy. Hence, negatively charged
electrons revolving around the nucleus should continuously lose
energy and collapse into the nucleus. But this does not happen.
Therefore Rutherford atom model failed to explain the stability of
an atom.
Neutron
N
T real mass of the nucleus was found to be very much greater
The
th
than that calculated by Rutherford on the basis of the number
oof protons. But he failed to prove this discrepancy through
eexperiments. Later, in 1932, James Chadwick found out that there
James Chadwick aare some neutral particles in the nucleus and that they have mass
1891 - 1974
aapproximately equal to that of a hydrogen atom. He named them
nneutrons since they were chargeless.
12
Niels Bohr Atom Model

To overcome the limitations of Rutherford atom model, the Danish
scientist Niels Bohr proposed his atom model in 1913.
The main concepts of Bohr Atom model:
• Electrons revolve around the nucleus of an atom in fixed
orbits. Niels Bohr
1885 - 1962
• Electrons in each orbit have a definite energy. So orbits are
also known as energy levels.
• As long as the electrons revolve in a particular orbit their
energy does not change. So, the orbits are known as stationary
energy levels.
• The energy of the orbit increases as the distance from the
nucleus increases.
• Energy is emitted when the electrons shift from orbits of
higher energy to orbits of lower energy. Energy is absorbed
when the electrons shift from orbits of lower energy to orbits
of higher energy.
• Orbits can be represented by giving numbers 1, 2, 3, 4, 5....
etc.
In the studies that followed, orbits were also called
shells.
The energy levels 1, 2, 3, 4...... etc., can be considered as
shells K, L, M, N... etc., respectively (Figure 1.7).
Some properties of the subatomic particles like electron,
proton and neutron are given in Table 1.2. Complete the
Fig. 1.7
following table and record it in your science diary. Energy level
Name of Position in
Charge Mass Mass in practical use
particle atom
Proton ....................... ........................ 1.00727 u 1u
Electron ....................... ........................ 0.000548 u 0
....................... Nucleus ........................ 1.00866 u 1u
Mass of the atoms is stated in unified atomic mass unit (u).
Table 1.2
13
1
• The mass of an electron is 1837 part of the mass of a proton.
You are now familiar with different models of the atom. These
models have helped to simplify many concepts in chemistry.
Later, scientists proposed many more atom models. We can learn
more about these models in higher classes.
• Some statements are given. Which of them are related to

J. J. Thomson?
a) Proposed the idea of the orbit.
b) Conducted discharge tube experiments.
c) Discovered neutron.
d) Discovered electron.
e) Proposed the plum pudding model.
• Prepare a questionnaire about the scientists who conducted
research on atomic structure and their contributions. Conduct
a quiz programme in your classroom based on this.
Atomic Number and Mass Number
The number of protons is very important in the case of an atom. It
is the number of protons in an atom that determines the element to
which the atom belongs. The total number of protons in an atom is
known as its atomic number. This is represented using the letter Z.
Elementary Atomic number = number of protons
Particles = number of electrons
You know that an atom • What are the particles in the nucleus of an atom?
can be divided and that .............................................................................................................................
it contains the particles The total number of protons and neutrons in an atom is known
electron, proton and
as its mass number. This is represented using the letter A.
neutron. Can these
be divided again? As • What is the mass number of an atom having 2 protons
an electron cannot be and 2 neutrons?
divided further, it is an
elementary particle. But,
.............................................................................................................................
protons and neutrons Mass number = number of protons + number of neutrons
are formed by the = atomic number + number of neutrons
combination of three
quarks each. Hence,
they are not considered Number of neutrons = mass number - number of protons
elementary particles. = mass number - atomic number = (A-Z)
14
When we represent an atom using its symbol, we write mass number

and atomic number on the top left and the bottom left respectively.
e.g. 35
17
Cl , 40
20
Ca
• Find the number of protons, electrons and neutrons in
chlorine and calcium atoms.
{
35 Proton : ................................................................
Cl
17
Electron : ................................................................
Neutron : ................................................................
{
Proton : ................................................................
40
20
Ca Electron : ................................................................
Neutron : ................................................................
• Complete the table given below and record it in your science
diary.
Atomic Mass Number of Number of Number of
Symbol
number number protons electrons neutrons
1
1
H
7
3
Li
16
8
O
23
11
Na
20
10
Ne
48
22
Ti
235
92
U
232
90
Th
65
30
Zn
Electron Configuration in an Atom

• According to the Bohr atom model, where is the electron
situated in an atom?
.........................................................................................................................................
• What are the symbols given to the energy levels 1, 2, 3 and 4?
.........................................................................................................................................
The arrangement of electrons in an atom is done in accordance
with certain laws.
15
1. The maximum number of electrons that can be accommodated

in any orbit is 2n2 (n=orbit number).
Maximum number of electrons
Orbit number
Name that can be accommodated
(n)
(2n2)
1 K 2× 12 = 2
2 L 2× 22 = 8
3 M ..............................
4 N ..............................
Table 1.3
2. Normally, filling up of electrons in higher energy orbits will
take place only after the lower energy orbits are filled.
3. The maximum number of electrons that can be accommodated
in the outermost orbit of an atom is 8.
Electron configuration is the representation of the filling of
electrons in the orbits.
Let us write the electron configuration of some elements. Complete
Table 1.4 and record it in your science diary.
Electron
Element Atomic number Number of electrons configuration
K L M
H 1 1
He 2 2
Li 3 2 1
Be 4
B 5
C 6
N 7
O 8
F 9
Ne 10
Na 11
Mg 12
Al 13 2 8 3
Si 14
P 15
S 16
Cl 17
Ar 18 2 8 8
Table 1.4
16
Only the electron configuration of elements from atomic number

1 to 18 can be written accurately in this way. Writing electron
configuration of elements with atomic number greater than 18 can
be learned in higher classes.
Orbit Electron Configuration-Diagrammatic
Representation
See the orbit electron configuration of hydrogen given below
(Figure 1.8).
Fig. 1.8
The number of electrons in hydrogen atom = 1
See the orbit electron configuration of boron, having atomic
number 5 and mass number 11 given below (Figure 1.9).
Fig. 1.9
• Diagrammatically represent the orbit electron configuration

of 2713 Al .
• The orbit electron configuration of an atom is given.
17
Analyse the figure and find the following.

Atomic number..........................Mass number..........
Number of protons....................Number of neutrons....................
Electron configuration.................
• Write the electron configuration of elements from atomic
number 1 to 18 and represent their shell electron configuration
in the science diary.
Isotopes
The number of which subatomic particle determines an element?
(proton/neutron)
See Figure 1.10 given below.
Fig. 1.10
Complete Table 1.5 regarding these atoms.
Name of Atomic Mass
Proton Neutron Electron
atom number number
Protium 1 ....... ....... ....... .......
Deuterium ....... 1 ....... ....... .......
Tritium ....... ....... 1 ....... .......
Table 1.5
• What is the atomic number of these atoms?
.....................................................................................................
• Which is the element having atomic number 1?
.....................................................................................................
Then, all these three are hydrogen atoms.
• In the number of which particle do these atoms differ?
.....................................................................................................
• Are the mass numbers of these atoms same?
.....................................................................................................
• Which of them has no neutron in the nucleus?
.....................................................................................................
18
• These are the isotopes of hydrogen. Can you define an

isotope?
Isotopes are different atoms of the same element having the
same atomic number but different mass numbers.
Isotopes exhibit the same chemical properties. But they show
slight variations in physical properties.
Heavy water is the oxide of deuterium, an isotope of hydrogen.
Heavy water is used in nuclear reactors.
Let us see whether hydrogen alone has isotopes. See the Figure
1.11 given below.
Fig. 1.11
..... Proton ..... Proton ..... Proton
..... Electron ..... Electron ..... Electron
..... Neutron ..... Neutron ..... Neutron
12
C, 13C and 14C are the natural isotopes of carbon. The most stable
and the most abundant isotope of carbon is 12C. Now, you have
understood that carbon also has isotopes.
The amount of 13C among the isotopes of carbon is approximately
1.1 %. This isotope is used to study the metabolic processes in
plants and animals. 14C is a radioactive isotope. This is used
to determine the age of fossils. You have noticed that only the
isotopes of hydrogen have specific names.
Some other isotopes and their uses are given in Table 1.6.
Isotope Uses
Iodine-131 To study the functioning of Thyroid gland and in its treatment
Uranium-235 Fuel in nuclear reactors
Cobalt-60 Cancer treatment
Sodium -24 To detect the leakage in industrial pipelines
Iron-59 To diagnose Anaemia
Table 1.6
19
Isobars
Orbit electron configuration of argon (Ar), potassium (K) and
calcium (Ca) is given below (Figure 1.12).
Analyse the figure and complete Table 1.7. Record it in your
science diary.
Fig. 1.12
Atomic Mass
Element Proton Electron Neutron
number number
Ar 18
K 19
Ca 20
Table 1.7
• What is the peculiarity of the mass numbers of
these elements?
Isotones ................................
Atoms in which the • Are the atomic numbers the same?
number of neutrons is ................................
equal are known as isotones These atoms are known as isobars.
15 14
e.g. 7
N, 6
C Isobars are atoms having the same mass
number and different atomic numbers.
They are atoms of different elements in which the
number of nucleons (proton + neutron) are equal.
20
Let’s Assess
1. Some observations related to experiments on cathode rays are given. Write the
inference based on each observation.
a. A paddle wheel placed in the path of cathode rays rotates.
b. A shadow is formed if an object is placed in the path of cathode rays.
c. When an electric field is applied perpendicular to the path of cathode rays, the
rays deflect towards the positive plate.
2. The atomic number of an atom is 16 and mass number is 32.
a. How many electrons, protons and neutrons are present in this atom?
b. Write the electron configuration of this atom.
c. Draw the orbit electron configuration of this atom.
3. Electrons are present in the K, L and M shells of an atom.
a. Which of these shells has the highest energy?
b. If M shell contains only 3 electrons, write the atomic number of this atom.
c. What is the number of electrons in this atom?
d. If the nucleus of this atom contains 16 neutrons, what is its mass number?
4. The orbit electron configuration of an atom is given below.
a. What is the mass number of this atom?

b. Write its electron configuration.
5. The symbols of some elements are given.
24 12 15 14 24
12
Mg , 6
C, 7
N, 6
C, 11
Na
21
a. Select a pair of isotopes from the given elements. Write the reason for selecting
it.
b. Select a pair of isobars from the given elements.
6. Match the items in column A & B suitably.

A B
Plum pudding model James Chadwick
Planetary model of atom Goldstein
Canal rays J. J. Thomson
Neutron Rutherford
7. The atomic number and mass number of an element are 15 and 31 respectively.
a. What is the number of valence electrons in this atom?
b. How many neutrons are present in this atom?
c. Draw the orbit electron configuration of this atom.
8. Isotope of an element is used to determine the age of fossils.
a. Which is this isotope?
b. Which are the other two main isotopes of this element?
c. Write the number of neutrons in each isotope.
Extended Activities
1. Prepare a presentation on scientists connected to the history of atom and their
contributions and present it in the classroom.
2. Prepare a timeline chart on the main events that led to the discovery of different
subatomic particles.
3. You have learned about isotopes. Find more examples for radio isotopes. Prepare an
article on the uses of each radio isotope and publish it in the science magazine. Use
word processor for this work.
4. If you get a chance to conduct an interview with Rutherford, what questions would
you ask him? Prepare a questionnaire.
22
Unit 2 : Periodic Table
2 Periodic Table
The students in the picture are trying to make a model of the periodic table as part
of group activity. You have learned that the periodic table, in which elements are
scientifically classified, is helpful in the study of chemistry.
Moreover, you are familiar with the early attempts at the classification of elements,
and the periodic law proposed by Dmitri Ivanovich Mendeleev.
In 1869, when Mendeleev prepared the periodic table, there was no clarity
regarding the structure of atom or subatomic particles. However, Mendeleev’s
periodic table had many merits.
23
List the merits of Mendeleev’s periodic table.

•
•
•
•
You are also aware of certain demerits of Mendeleev’s periodic

table. What are they?
•
•
You have also learned about isotopes.
• How do isotopes of the same element differ from one

another?
..........................................................................................................................................
You know that elements are arranged on the basis of atomic mass
in Mendeleev’s periodic table.
Since isotopes have different atomic masses, it is necessary to

assign different positions for them in the periodic table.
For e.g. 11 H , 12 H and 13 H are the isotopes of hydrogen. As per

Mendeleev’s periodic table, it is not possible to assign a specific
position to each of them on the basis of atomic mass.
Through his X-ray diffraction experiments, Henry Moseley

proved that properties of elements depend mainly on atomic
number rather than atomic mass. He then revised Mendeleev’s
periodic law. This is known as modern periodic law.
Modern Periodic Law

Henry Moseley
(1887 - 1915) The chemical and physical properties of elements are
periodic functions of their atomic numbers.
24
On the basis of modern periodic law, Moseley arranged elements

in the increasing order of atomic number and designed the modern
periodic table.
Let us have a look at the merits of the modern periodic table.
• As you know, one of the demerits of Mendeleev’s periodic

table is that elements having different properties are included
in the same group. For e.g. hard metals like copper (Cu)
and silver (Ag) were included along with soft metals like
sodium (Na) and potassium (K). But, in the modern periodic
table, Moseley was particular about including elements with
similar properties in the same group. Hence, if we know the
properties of an element, we get an idea of the properties of
other elements belonging to the same group.
• In Mendeleev’s periodic table, there is no specific position for
isotopes of the same element. But, in the modern periodic table,
the elements are arranged in the ascending order (increasing
order) of their atomic numbers. Thus, this limitation of
Mendeleev’s periodic table was overcome.
• Another limitation of Mendeleev’s periodic table is that
the ascending order of atomic mass is not strictly followed.
For e.g. the element potassium (K, atomic mass-39) is
placed after argon (Ar, atomic mass-40). Since elements
are arranged on the basis of atomic number, this kind of
irregularity in atomic mass is irrelevant in modern periodic
table.
Periodic tables of various forms have been developed from time
to time.
The periodic table which includes 118 elements is widely used
now.
In the periodic table, the horizontal rows are called periods
and the vertical columns are called groups. The elements
belonging to the same group exhibit similarity in chemical
and physical properties.
25
26
1 18
I
2 13 14 15 16 17
II
III
3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
IV
Fig. 2.1
VI
VII
Newly Discovered Elements

In 2016, four new elements were added in the periodic table. They were placed in the 7th
period.
Atomic number Symbol IUPAC name
113 Nh Nihonium
115 Mc Moscovium
117 Ts Tennessine
118 Og Oganesson
The element nihonium got its name from the Japanese word ‘Nihon’. This word is used
to represent ‘Japan’ in Japanese Language. It also means ‘the land of the rising sun’.
Experiments related to the discovery of the element moscovium were carried out mainly
in the laboratories in Moscow. The element tennessine derived its name on the basis of
experiments conducted in Tennessee State. The three elements mentioned above got their
names from places associated with their discoveries. But the element oganesson was
named in honour of Prof. Yuri Oganesson, a nuclear scientist. This is the second instance
where an element was named after a living scientist. Previously, seaborgium, the element
with atomic number 106 was named after a scientist in this way. It was in honour of
Glenn Seaborg, an American chemist.
Let us study more about the properties of elements and the merits
of their scientific classification in detail.
Electron Configuration of Elements and their
Positions in the Periodic Table
Analyse the modern periodic table (Figure 2.1) and answer the
following questions.
• How many periods are there?
...............................................................................................................................................
• Write the total number of groups.
...............................................................................................................................................
• Which period has the least number of elements?

...............................................................................................................................................
27
• Are the number of elements in period 2 and 3 the same?

...............................................................................................................................................
• How many elements are included in the 4th period?
...............................................................................................................................................
• What all information about an element can be obtained from
the periodic table? Note down in the science diary.
 • Name • Symbol •
• •
Elements of group 1 are given in the table. Complete Table 2.1.
Name of the Symbol Atomic number Electron

element configuration
Lithium Li 3 -
Sodium Na 11 -
Complete Potassium - - 2,8,8,1
Table 2.1 and Rubedium Rb - 2,8,18,8,1
verify using
Caesium - 55 2,8,18,18,8,1
Kalzium software.
Francium Fr - 2,8,18,32,18,8,1
Table 2.1
• Have you noticed any peculiarity regarding the number of
outermost electrons in the elements of group 1?
.................................................................................................................................
• With the help of periodic table, write the electron configuration
of the elements in group 2.
.................................................................................................................................
It is clear that the number of outermost electrons of the elements
in a given group are the same.
Chemical properties of elements are based on the number of
outermost electrons in them. Usually, these electrons take part in
chemical reactions.
Based on the common characteristics of elements in each group,
28
they can be considered as families. A table enlisting the various

families of elements is given below.
Group number Name of family
1 Alkali metals
2 Alkaline earth metals
From 3 to 12 Transition elements
13 Boron family
14 Carbon family
15 Nitrogen family
16 Oxygen family
17 Halogens
18 Noble gases
Table 2.2
Main Group Elements
Examine the elements belonging to group 1, group 2 and groups
13 to 18 in the periodic table (Figure 2.1).
• Which of these elements are familiar to you?
.................................................................................................................................
• Write the examples of metals among these elements.
.................................................................................................................................
• Do these elements include non-metals? ....................................
e.g. .........................................................................................................................
Do these groups include elements belonging to the solid state,
liquid state and gaseous state?
Complete this
.................................................................................................................................... activity using
In solid state ................................................................... Kalzium
In liquid state ................................................................... software
In gaseous state ...................................................................

Metalloids are also present in these groups. Elements exhibiting the
properties of both metals and non-metals are known as metalloids.
e.g. silicon (Si), germanium (Ge), arsenic (As), antimony (Sb)
etc.
29
The elements in group 1 and group 2 and groups 13 to 18 are

known as main group elements.
Let us examine another characteristic of the main group elements.
Main group elements in periods 2 and 3 in the periodic table are
given below.
1 2 13 14 15 16 17 18
3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Period 2 Li Be B C N O F Ne
2, 1 2, 2 2, 3 2, 4 2, 5 2, 6 2, 7 2, 8
11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
Period 3 Na Mg Al Si P S Cl Ar
2, 8, 1 2, 8, 2 2, 8, 3 2, 8, 4 2, 8, 5 2, 8, 6 2, 8, 7 2, 8, 8
Table 2.3
• How does electron filling take place in the outermost shell of

these elements?
• What change do you observe in the number of outer electrons

on moving from left to right along a period?
On moving along a period from left to right, there is an increase of

one electron in the outermost shell of main group elements until
eight electrons are gained.
Characteristics of main group elements

• They show similarity in properties in a group.
• They include different types of elements such as metals,
non-metals and metalloids.
• They represent elements belonging to different physical
states.
• Which are the families included in main group

elements?
• In which groups are metalloids present?
30
How to find the group number of main group

elements.
A few elements of group 1 and 2 are given in Table 2.4. Complete
the table and record it in your science diary.
Name of Symbol Atomic Electron Number of electrons Group
element number configuration in the outermost shell number
Lithium Li 3 2, 1
Sodium Na - - 1 1
Potassium - 19 2, 8, 8, 1
Beryllium Be 4 -
Magnesium - 12 - - 2
Calcium Ca - 2, 8, 8, 2
Table 2.4
• What is the relation between the number of outermost electrons

and group number here?
.................................................................................................................................
In the elements of group 1 and 2, the number of outermost
electrons represent the group number.
Let us examine whether groups 13 to 18 follow the same relation.
Complete Table 2.5 on the basis of the periodic table.
Name of Symbol Atomic Electron No. of the Group

element number configuration outermost number
electrons
Boron B 5 2, 3 3 13
Carbon C 6 - - -
Nitrogen N 7 - - -
Oxygen O 8 - - -
Fluorine F 9 - - -
Table 2.5
• Find the number which is added to the number of outermost

electrons to get the group number of elements in group 13
to 18?
31
• Have you ever thought why the number 10 is added to the

number of outermost electrons?
You know that transition elements are present in groups 3 to 12.
• In how many groups are they distributed?
.................................................................................................................................
The position of transition elements is after the second group
elements in the periodic table. The elements from group 13 to 18
are placed after these 10 groups of transition elements.
It is clear why the number 10 is added to the number of outermost
electrons to get the group number of groups 13 to 18.
Name of Atomic Electron Group

Symbol
element number configuration number
Boron B 5 2, 3 3 + 10 = 13
Carbon C 6 2, 4 4 + 10 = 14
Nitrogen N 7 2, 5 5 + 10 = 15
Oxygen O 8 2, 6 6 + 10 = 16
Fluorine F 9 2, 7 7 + 10 = 17
Neon Ne 10 2, 8 8 + 10 = 18
Table 2.6
How to find the period number of elements
Complete Table 2.7 with the help of the periodic table.
Name of Symbol Atomic Electron No. of shells Period

Hydrogen H 1 1 1 1
Helium He 2 - 1 -
Lithium Li - - 2 -
Beryllium Be 4 2, 2 - 2
Sodium Na 11 - - -
Magnesium Mg - - - -
Potassium K - 2, 8, 8, 1 - 4
Calcium Ca 20 2, 8, 8, 2 - -
Table 2.7
32
Can you find any relation between the period number and the
number of shells of the given elements?
.................................................................................................................................
The number of shells in the atoms of elements is their period
number.
Noble Gases
Certain data regarding the main group elements are given in the
following table. Complete Table 2.8 and record it in your science
diary.
Name of Atomic Electron Group
Symbol
Helium He 2 2 18
Neon Ne - - -
Argon Ar 18 - -
Krypton Kr - 2, 8, 18, 8 -
Table 2.8
• You know that the elements given in the table are noble gases.
To which group do they belong?
.................................................................................................................................
• What peculiarity do you notice in the number of the outermost
electrons of elements except helium?
..................................................................................................................................
If elements other than hydrogen and helium have 8 electrons
in their outermost shell, they attain stability. It is to attain this
stability that atoms of all elements undergo chemical reactions.
(You can learn more about this in the next unit.)

Usually, 18th group elements do not take part in chemical
reactions because of the stable arrangement of electrons.
Elements 8P, 10Q, 12R, 18S are given. (symbols are not
real)
a. Write down the electron configuration of these
elements.
b. Which among these are noble gases?
33
Transition Elements
The elements present in the ten groups from group 3 to group 12
in the periodic table are called transition elements.
• Which transition elements are familiar to you? List them with
the help of the periodic table.
.................................................................................................................................
• Are all of them metals?
.................................................................................................................................
• From which period onwards can you locate transition elements
in the periodic table?
.................................................................................................................................
The elements of group 1 and 2 are generally more metallic in nature
and are placed on the left side of the periodic table. Meanwhile,
12th Group
the elements from group 13 to 18 are placed on the right side
Elements of the periodic table and are generally less metallic in nature.
Though elements Based on this, how will you indicate the position of the transition
of group 12 are elements?
considered as
transition elements, The transition elements lie in between the more metallic elements
they are not transition and the comparatively less metallic ones.
elements in the strict The elements from group 3 upto group 12 are known as the
sense. You will learn
transition elements because they indicate a regular change
about this in higher
classes. or transition from more metallic elements of group 2 to
less metallic elements of group 13.
Let us consider another peculiarity of the transition elements.
The electron configuration of a few elements in the 4th period is
given in Table 2.9.
Group number 1 2 3 4 5
19 20 21 22 23
Electron K Ca Sc Ti V
configuration 2, 8, 8, 1 2, 8, 8, 2 2, 8, 9, 2 2, 8, 10, 2 2, 8, 11, 2
Table 2.9
It is evident from the table that in the elements of group 1 and 2,
the electron is being added to the last shell.
• However, in groups 3, 4 and 5, electrons are being added to
the penultimate shell.
34
• With the help of the periodic table, examine whether the same
Complete this
pattern is followed in groups 6 to 12.
activity using
Kalzium
In ten groups from group 3 to 12 (transition elements)
software
electron filling takes place in the penultimate shell.
You have learnt that elements in the same group show similarity
in properties.
Generally, transition metals also show such similarity in
groups.
Let us examine whether they exhibit any peculiarity along a period.
Analyse the transition elements of 4th period given in Table 2.9.
• Do they have any peculiarity in the number of outermost
electrons?
..................................................................................................................................
Usually, transition elements in the same period have the same
number of outermost electrons. Hence, they show similarity
in properties along a period too.
You have seen coloured chemicals in your lab. Examine the

chemicals given in Table 2.10. Find their molecular formulae and
identify their colours with the help of your teacher. Complete the
table and record it in your science diary.
Molecular
Name of chemical Colour
formula
Nickel sulphate .................... -
Copper sulphate .................... -
Calcium carbonate .................... -
Potassium permanganate .................... -
Cobalt nitrate .................... -
Potassium dichromate .................... -
Ferrous sulphate .................... -
Table 2.10
35
It is clear that transition elements are present in the coloured

compounds given in the table.
Usually, transition elements form coloured compounds.
• Elements included in groups 3 to 12 are transition elements.

• Filling of electron takes place in the penultimate shell.
• Generally, they exhibit similarity in chemical properties in
groups as well as periods.
• They are metals.
• They generally form coloured compounds.
You will learn about transition metals in detail in higher

classes.
Lanthanoids and Actinoids

Have you noticed the number of elements included in the 6th
period of the periodic table?
• Identify the position of lanthanum (atomic number -57) and
the 14 elements following it.
..................................................................................................................................
• Similarly, find the position of actinium (atomic number-89)
and the 14 elements following it in the 7th period.
..................................................................................................................................
In the 6th period, lanthanum and the 14 elements following it, have been
arranged separately at the bottom of the periodic table. The elements from
lanthanum, (La, atomic number-57) to lutetium (Lu, atomic number-71) are
known as lanthanoids.
In the 7th period, actinium and the 14 elements following it have been given a
separate position below lanthanoids. The elements from actinium (Ac, atomic
number-89) to lawrencium (Lr, atomic number-103) are called actinoids.
36
Lanthanoids and actinoids are known as

inner transition elements. Lanthanoids are Transuranium
Elements
also called rare earths. Actinoids coming
All the 118 elements discovered
after uranium (U) are man-made elements.
till now are included in the modern
periodic table. Among elements
You are familiar with situations in
from atomic number 1 to 92, the
which transition elements and their
elements except technitium (atomic
compounds are used in our daily life.
number 43) and promethium
Write an assignment based on this
(atomic number 61) are naturally
topic.
occurring. Elements coming
Periodic Trend in the Periodic Table after atomic number 92 are made
artificially. Artificial elements are
Depending on the position in groups and less stable and exhibit radio activity.
periods, the chemical and physical properties of The elements coming after uranium
elements show a regular change. (atomic number-92) are known as
You are aware that electron configuration of transuranium elements.
elements and number of shells vary with atomic
number.
Size of atom - In group and period
Though atoms are extremely minute particles, properties of an
element are closely related to the size of its atom. The size of an
atom can be expressed in terms of atomic radius. It is the distance
from the centre of the nucleus to the outermost shell containing
electrons. The size of an atom depends mainly on two factors.
• Nuclear charge
• Number of shells
A few elements of group 1 are given in Table 2.11.
37
Name of Atomic Electron Number of

Symbol
element number configuration shells
Lithium Li 3 2, 1 2
Sodium Na 11 2, 8, 1 3
Potassium K 19 2, 8, 8, 1 4
Rubidium Rb 37 2, 8, 18, 8, 1 5
Table 2.11
• What change do you observe in the number of shells, on
moving down the group?
..................................................................................................................................
• How does the increase in the number of shells influence the
size of an atom?
..................................................................................................................................
Nuclear charge depends on the number of protons present in the
nucleus.
• What change do you observe in the number of protons with
the increase in the atomic number?
..................................................................................................................................
• If so, what happens to the nuclear charge with the increase
in the atomic number?
..................................................................................................................................
With an increase in nuclear charge, the force of attraction between
the nucleus and the outermost electron increases.
• If so, what happens to the size of the atom?
..................................................................................................................................
Though nuclear charge increases down a group, its effect is
overcome by the increase in the number of shells and hence,
the size of the atom increases.
The electron configuration of the elements belonging to the 2nd
period of the periodic table is given below.
Group 1 2 13 14 15 16 17
Li Be B C N O F
Period 2
2, 1 2, 2 2, 3 2, 4 2, 5 2, 6 2, 7
Table 2.12
38
• Do you observe any change in the number of

Screening Effect
shells on moving along a period from left to right?
(Shielding Effect)
..............................................................................................................
The number of shells increases
• Does the nuclear charge increase?
down a group. As a result,
..............................................................................................................
the outermost electrons move
Nuclear charge increases on moving along a period
away from the nucleus. As the
from left to right, but there is no change in the number
number of electrons in the inner
of shells.
shells increases, the attractive
• What happens to the attractive force of nucleus force of the nucleus on the
towards the outermost electrons (increases/ outermost electrons decreases
decreases)? gradually. This is known as
................................................................................................................. screening effect.
• What change takes place in the size of the atom?

..................................................................................................................................
Moving along a period from left to right, there is no change in

the number of shells. But nuclear charge increases gradually.
The attractive force of nucleus on the outermost electron
increases. Hence, the size of the atom gradually decreases.
You have seen the change in the size of the atom in group and
period.
• If so, where can you locate the comparatively bigger atoms in
the periodic table?
..................................................................................................................................
• Where are the smaller atoms located?
..................................................................................................................................
Moving down the group, the size of an atom increases. The

size of an atom decreases on moving from left to right along
a period.
You will learn about periodic trends such as ionisation energy,

electronegativity etc., in the next unit.
39
Let’s Assess
1. The symbols of a few elements are given. Write the electron configurations of these
elements and find the period and group to which they belong.
a) 23
11
Na b) 27
13
Al c) 35
17
Cl d) 16
8
O e) 20
10
Ne f) 12
6
C
2. The electron configuration of element X is 2, 8, 8, 1. (Symbol is not real.)
a. Find the atomic number of X.
b. To which group does it belong?
c. What is its period number?
d. To which family does it belong?
e. Write the electron configuration of the noble gas which comes just before X.
3. There are 3 shells in an atom of element P. There are 7 electrons in its outermost
shell. (Symbol is not real.)
a. Write the electron configuration of element P.
b. What is its atomic number?
c. To which period does it belong?
d. To which group does it belong?
e. Draw the model of this atom.
4. The element M belongs to the 3rd period and group 1. (Symbol is not real)
a. Write the electron configuration of this element.
b. Write its name and symbol.
c. To which family does this element belong?
d. Write the electron configuration of the element belonging to the same period
and group 13.
5. Electron configurations of elements P, Q, R and S are given. (Symbols are not
real)
P – 2, 7 Q – 2, 8
R – 2, 8, 1 S – 2, 8, 7
a. Which of these elements belong to the same period?
b. Which of these elements belong to the same group?
c. Identify the noble gas among these.
d. Find the group number and period number of element S.
40
6. Electron configurations of a few elements are given.

A – 2, 1 B – 2, 8, 1 C – 2, 8, 7
(Symbols are not real)
a. Which of these elements has bigger atom, A or B?
b. Which atom is bigger, B or C?
7. A portion of the modern periodic table is given. (Symbols are not real)
Answer the following questions.
1 18
1 A 2 13 14 15 16 17
2 B E I K L M O
3 C F 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 J N
4 D G H
a. Which of these elements belong to the halogen family?

b. Which are the transition elements?
c. Write the elements of group 1 in the decreasing order of their atomic size.
d. Which element has smaller atom, B or I?
e. Write the elements of period 3 in the increasing order of their atomic size.
f. Which of these are alkaline earth metals?
g. Which element has 8 electrons in its outermost shell?
h. Find the real symbols of the given elements with the help of the periodic table.
8. An element belonging to the 2nd period has 2 electrons in the outermost shell of its
atom.
a. Write the electron configuration of this element.
b. Write the electron configuration of the noble gas belonging to the same period.
c. What is its group number?
d. Write the electron configuration of an element in the same group and in the third
period.
41
9. Analyse the table and answer the following questions.
Element Mass number Number of

neutrons
A 9 5
B 35 18
C 39 20
D 40 22
(Hint : Symbols are not real)
a. Find the atomic number of these elements.

b. Write their electron configurations.
c. Which among these is a noble gas?
d. To which family does the element B belong?
e. To which period and group does the element C belong?
f. Which of these elements belong to the same period?
Extended Activities
1. Two English alphabets have not been used as symbols of elements so far. Find them
with the help of the periodic table.
2. Prepare the biography of scientists involved in the classification of elements and
publish it in the science magazine.
3. Draw a model of the modern periodic table and exhibit it in your class room.
4. Prepare a table including the symbol, the electron configuration, and the physical
state of elements having atomic number 1 to 36, using Kalzium software.
5. Using cardboard pieces, design a periodic table as shown in the figure given in the
first page of this unit.
42
Unit 3 : Chemical Bonding
3 Chemical Bonding
Children were amazed to see pictures of different types of molecules at

the science exhibition. So many atoms held together like beads strung in a
necklace!
In the same way, atoms and molecules are arranged in an interconnected manner
in our body and the various substances in our surroundings. Do you know
why atoms and molecules are thus connected to one another in elements and
compounds? Have you ever thought about it?
It is the force of attraction between the constituent particles of matter that holds
them together. Let us learn about these forces that hold atoms and molecules
together, and also how to write the chemical formulae of compounds.
Some substances are given below. Differentiate them into elements and
compounds, and list them.
43
Potassium, oxygen, water, common salt, nitrogen, helium,

hydrogen, sugar
Element Compound
Potassium Water
...................... ......................
...................... ......................
...................... ......................
...................... ......................
Table 3.1
You know that there are two atoms in one molecule of hydrogen.
If so, how many atoms are there in each substance given
below?
Molecule Number of atoms
Oxygen (O2) 2
Water (H2O) 3
Nitrogen (N2) ............
Helium (He) ............
Methane (CH4) ............
Sugar (C12H22O11) ............
Table 3.2
It can be understood from Table 3.2 that some molecules have
more than one atom.
• Why do atoms in a molecule stay together?
• Why do atoms combine to form molecules?
• How do atoms combine?
• Do all atoms combine in the same way?
• Do all atoms combine with other atoms?
Have you ever thought about such things? How many atoms are
there in a molecule of noble gases?
....................................................................................................................................................
44
Generally, they do not combine with other atoms. Try to

find out the reason for this by observing the table given
below.
Element (Symbol) Atomic number Electron

configuration
Helium (He) 2 2
Neon (Ne) 10 2,8
Argon (Ar) 18 2,8,8
Krypton (Kr) 36 2,8,18,8
Xenon (Xe) 54 2,8,18,18,8
Radon (Rn) 86 2,8,18,32,18,8
Table 3.3
• How many electrons are there in the outermost shell of noble

gases except helium?
.........................................................................................................................................
The arrangement of eight electrons in the outermost shell, as

in noble gases, is known as octet configuration.
Atoms with octet configuration in the outermost shell are found to

be more stable. Such atoms are generally reluctant to participate
in chemical reactions. Therefore, noble gases are also called inert
gases.
The atomic number of helium is 2. The maximum number of

electrons that can be accommodated in the first shell of helium is
also 2. Therefore, the duplet configuration of helium is stable like
that of the other noble gases.
Observe the electron configuration of magnesium and oxygen in

Table 3.4 given below.
45
Element Atomic number Electron configuration

Magnesium 12 2,8,2
Oxygen 8 2, 6
Table 3.4
• Are these atoms stable?

• How can they attain stability?
• What is the name of the compound formed when these atoms
combine together?
When magnesium and oxygen combine to form magnesium oxide,
by means of chemical bonding, the atoms get stability by attaining
octet configuration.
The force of attraction that holds together the constituent
particles of a compound is called a chemical bond.
Ionic Bond
You have learned that the chemical name of table salt is
sodium chloride. Let us examine the chemical bond in sodium
chloride.
• What are the constituent elements of sodium chloride?
.........................................................................................................................................
• Write the electron configuration of sodium atom (atomic
number -11)
.........................................................................................................................................
• How many electrons are there in the outermost shell of a
sodium atom?
.........................................................................................................................................
• How does the sodium atom attain octet electron configuration?
.........................................................................................................................................
Examine the chemical equation and the illustration (Figure 3.1) of
the formation of sodium ion by the removal of one electron from
sodium atom.
46
Na  Na+ + 1e
The outermost electron can be

removed from the sodium atom only
by overcoming the attractive force
of the nucleus. The energy required
for this is the ionisation energy or Sodium Fig. 3.1 Sodium ion
ionisation enthalpy.
The amount of energy required to remove the most
loosely bound electron from the outermost shell of an
isolated gaseous atom of an element is called its ionisation
energy.
• Write the electron configuration of a chlorine atom (atomic

number -17).
..........................................................................................................................................
• How many electrons are needed for the chlorine atom to attain
octet electron configuration?
..........................................................................................................................................
Note the illustration (Figure 3.2) and the chemical equation given
below. Here, a chlorine atom accepts an electron to become a
chloride ion.
Chlorine chloride ion
Cl + le-  C1-
Fig. 3.2
47
Energy is released when atoms become negative ions by

accepting electrons. This energy difference is called electron gain
enthalpy.
Electron gain enthalpy is the energy released when an

electron is added to a neutral gaseous atom to form a
negative ion.
Analyse the illustration (Figure 3.3) regarding electron transfer

and the arrangement of electrons in shells in each atom during the
formation of sodium chloride.
Sodium (Na) Chlorine (CI)

Sodium chloride (Na+Cl−)
Fig. 3.3
Construct the
molecular Note the formation of sodium ion (Na+) from sodium atom
structure of and chloride ion (Cl) from chlorine atom after the chemical
NaCl using
reaction.
Ghemical software.
Electron Dot Diagram

The method of representing electrons of the outermost shell using
dots around the symbol of an element was first introduced by the
chemist Gilbert N. Lewis. Cross symbols are also used instead of
dots. Only valence electrons are marked around the symbol of an
element.
You know that the electron configuration of sodium is 2, 8, 1 and
that of chlorine is 2, 8, 7.
48
Note the electron dot diagram of sodium atom

given below.
Gilbert Newton Lewis
(1875-1946)
Gilbert Newton Lewis, a
Represent the electron dot diagram of chlorine physical chemist, was the
atom. Dean of the University of
California. The concepts of
.........................................................................................................
electron pair and covalent
Note the electron dot diagram of the formation bond was proposed by
of sodium chloride. him. Electron dot formula of atoms
and molecules was his contribution. He
made numerous contributions to various
Fig. 3.4 fields such as chemical thermodynamics,
photochemical reactions and isolation
Analyse the electron dot diagram (Figure of isotopes. His major research areas
3.4) of the formation of sodium chloride were relativity and quantum physics. He
and the illustration (Figure 3.3) showing the formulated the definitions of acids and
arrangement of electrons in shells during the bases. He coined the term ‘photon’ for
the smallest unit of radiant energy.
formation of sodium chloride. Complete Table
3.5 and record it in your science diary.
Sodium Chlorine
Before chemical After chemical Before chemical After chemical
reaction reaction reaction reaction
Electron
configuration
Number of
electrons
Number of
protons
Charge
Table 3.5
Note the equation of the electron transfer during the formation of
sodium chloride.
Na  Na+ + 1e
Cl + 1e  Cl
49
During the formation of sodium chloride, sodium atom donates

an electron and gets converted to sodium ion (Na+). Chlorine atom
accepts an electron to form chloride ion (Cl). The positive ions
formed by losing electrons during chemical reactions are called
cations and the negative ions formed by accepting electrons are
called anions. In sodium chloride, the sodium ion and chloride
ion are held together by an ionic bond. The electrostatic force
of attraction between the oppositely charged ions in an ionic
compound is responsible for keeping them together.
The electrostatic force of attraction that holds together the
oppositely charged ions in an ionic compound is called ionic
bond. Ionic bond is also known as electrovalent bond.
You might have seen the burning of magnesium ribbon in air.
What is the compound formed here?
Note the given chemical equation for the chemical reaction that
has happened.
2Mg + O2 → 2MgO
The electron dot diagram of the formation of magnesium oxide
is given below (Figure 3.5). Examine the figure and complete the
table (Table 3.6).
Fig. 3.5
Magnesium (Atomic number -12) Oxygen (Atomic number – 8)

Before chemical After chemical Before chemical After chemical
reaction reaction reaction reaction
Electron
configuration
Number of
electrons
Number of
protons
Charge
Table 3.6
50
• Which are the ions present in magnesium oxide?

.........................................................................................................................................
• How many electrons are transferred from magnesium to
oxygen during the formation of magnesium oxide?
.........................................................................................................................................
It can be understood that an ionic bond is formed between
magnesium and oxygen by the transfer of electrons during the
formation of magnesium oxide.
The compounds that are formed by ionic bonding are known
as ionic compounds or electrovalent compounds.
Characteristics of ionic compounds

• Ionic compounds are generally soluble in polar solvents such
as water.
• They are non volatile and hard.
• They exist as crystals in solid state.
• Generally, they have high melting points and boiling points.
• Though ionic compounds are not conductors of electricity in
solid state, they conduct electricity in molten and aqueous
states.
Covalent Bond
You know that the molecules of hydrogen (H2), oxygen (O2)
nitrogen (N2), fluorine (F2) and chlorine (Cl2) are formed of two
atoms. Have you ever thought how atoms are held together in such
diatomic molecules?
Let us examine the formation of fluorine molecule. The distribution
of electrons of fluorine is given in Figure 3.6.
• How many electrons are there in the outermost shell of fluorine?
......................................................................................................................................... Fig. 3.6
51
• How many more electrons are required for one fluorine atom
to attain octet configuration?
.........................................................................................................................................
Is it possible to transfer electrons from one fluorine atom to
another? If so, what type of arrangement might have taken place
between the atoms in order to attain octet configuration?
Analyse the electron dot diagram (Figure 3.7) illustrating the way
in which two fluorine atoms are bonded in fluorine molecule.
Fig. 3.7
It is clear that octet configuration is attained by the sharing of

electrons.
• How many electrons are donated by each fluorine atom for
sharing?
........................................................................................................................................
• How many pairs of electrons are shared in the chemical
bonding of fluorine molecule?
.........................................................................................................................................
You have understood that atoms in fluorine molecule engage in
bond formation by the sharing of electrons.
The chemical bond formed as a result of the sharing of
electrons between the combining atoms is called a covalent
bond. The covalent bond formed by the sharing of one pair
of electrons is a single bond.
A single bond is represented by a small line (–) between the
symbols of the combining elements in molecules. The single bond
in fluorine molecule can be represented using symbols as F–F.
Let us examine the nature of chemical bonding in oxygen, which
is a diatomic molecule.
52
• What is the atomic number of oxygen?
.........................................................................................................................................
• Write the electron configuration of oxygen.
.........................................................................................................................................
• How many more electrons are required for one oxygen atom to
attain the octet configuration?
.........................................................................................................................................
See the illustration (Figure 3.8) of chemical bond in an oxygen
molecule.
Construct the
molecular
structure of F2,
O2, N2 using Ghemical
software.
Fig. 3.8
• How many pairs of electrons are shared in the oxygen molecule?

.........................................................................................................................................
A double bond is the covalent bond formed by the sharing of

two pairs of electrons.
The covalent bond (double bond) in oxygen molecule can be

represented by using symbols as O = O .
Look at the illustration (Figure 3.9) of chemical bond in nitrogen
molecule.
Fig. 3.9
• How many pairs of electrons are shared here to complete octet

configuration?
.........................................................................................................................................
A triple bond is the covalent bond formed by the sharing of

three pairs of electrons.
53
The covalent bond (Triple bond) in nitrogen molecule can be

represented by using symbols as N  N .
Illustrate the chemical bond in hydrogen molecule using electron
dot diagram.
Here, a single bond is formed by the sharing of one pair of
electrons between hydrogen atoms and thereby stability is attained
by gaining the electron configuration of the nearest noble gas,
helium.
You have understood the covalent bonding in elemental molecules
such as H2, N2, O2, F2. Let us examine the nature of the chemical
bond in certain molecules of compounds.
See the representation (Figure 3.10) of the chemical bond in
hydrogen chloride molecule.
Construct the
molecular
structure of
HCl and H2O
using Ghemical
Fig. 3.10
software.
Here, one pair of electrons is shared between hydrogen and

chlorine. Hence, a single bond is present in hydrogen chloride.
• Represent the covalent bond in hydrogen chloride using
symbols.
.........................................................................................................................................
The chemical bond in hydrogen chloride molecule is represented
in Figure 3.10. Similarly, represent the bond in hydrogen
fluoride.
See the representation of chemical bond in water molecule
(Figure 3.11).
Fig. 3.11
54
• How many covalent bonds are formed here?

.........................................................................................................................................
Compounds formed by covalent bonding are called covalent

compounds. When non-metals combine together, usually
covalent compounds are formed.
General characteristics of covalent compounds
• Covalent compounds exist in solid, liquid and gaseous

states.
• They are generally insoluble in water.
• They are soluble in organic solvents like kerosene, carbon
tetrachloride, benzene etc.
• Their melting and boiling points are usually low.
• Generally, they are not conductors of electricity.
Electronegativity
Is the shared pair of electrons in HF molecule attracted equally by

both the atoms?
The relative ability of an atom to attract the shared pair of

electrons between the covalently bonded atoms towards
itself is called electronegativity.
Various electronegativity scales have been put forward to compare

the electronegativity of elements. The electronegativity scale
proposed by the American scientist Linus Pauling is the most widely
used.
In the electronegativity scale proposed by Linus Pauling, elements

are assigned electronegativity values between 0 and 4. In this
scale, the most electronegative element is fluorine.
55
A part of Pauling’s electronegativity scale is given below

(Figure 3.12).
Fig. 3.12
If the difference in electronegativity values between the constituent

elements in a compound is 1.7 or more, it generally shows
ionic character and if it is less than 1.7, it shows covalent
character.
• Analyse Figure 3.12 and find the electronegativity difference
of the constituent elements. Record it in your science diary.
Difference in electronegativity Nature of

Compounds
of constituent elements compound
Sodium chloride (NaCl) 3.16 - 0.93 = Ionic

Hydrogen chloride (HCl) 3.16 - 2.20 = Covalent
Sodium oxide (Na2O)
Calcium chloride (CaCl2)
Methane (CH4)
Magnesium fluoride (MgF2)
• Make a table of different compounds. Explain the nature

of chemical bond in them using electronegativity scale.
Conduct a seminar in your class based on this.
56
Polar Nature
Since the electronegativity values of both the atoms in a diatomic
molecule of an element are equal, the shared pair of electrons
is attracted by them equally. e.g. H2, N2, O2 etc. But it is not so
in molecules of compounds. Consider hydrogen chloride (HCl)
molecule.
Examine Figure 3.12 and answer the questions given below.
• What is the electronegativity value of hydrogen?
.........................................................................................................................................
• What is the electronegativity value of chlorine ?
.........................................................................................................................................
• The nucleus of which of these atoms has a greater tendency
to attract the shared pair of electrons involved in covalent
Construct the
bonding? molecular
......................................................................................................................................... structure of CO,
HF and NH3
The chlorine atom, which has a higher electronegativity, attracts
using Ghemical
the shared pair of electrons more strongly towards its nucleus. software.
As a result, the chlorine atom in hydrogen chloride develops a
partial negative charge (delta negative, ) and the hydrogen atom
develops a partial positive charge (delta positive, +). This can be
represented as shown below.
Hydrogen chloride Polar Nature and

Geometric Shape of
Covalent molecules in which partial opposite charges
Molecules
are formed in atoms are called polar molecules. CO, HF,
HCl, H2O, NH3 etc., are examples of polar compounds. The geometric shape of
molecules is also a factor
Water: A polar compound that determines the polarity
Water is a polar molecule. The reason for the specific of compounds. Though
features of water is its polar nature. Due to its polar there is a large difference in
nature, a peculiar attractive force called hydrogen bond electronegativity between the
also exists between the molecules. Hence, it exists atoms in molecules like CO2,
in liquid state though its molecular mass is low. The CCl4, BeF2, they do not exhibit
ability of water to dissolve many organic and inorganic polar nature due to their
peculiar geometric shape.
compounds makes it a universal solvent. This is also
due to its polar nature.
57
Hydrogen Bonding
A partial positive charge is formed in the hydrogen
atom which is covalently bonded to an atom with higher
electronegativity. Hydrogen bonding is the electrostatic force of
attraction between hydrogen with partial positive charge and an
electronegative atom of the same or a different molecule. One of
the reasons for the peculiar properties of water is the presence
of a hydrogen bond. The low density of ice compared to that
of water is also due to hydrogen bonding. Hydrogen, which is covalently bonded to
elements such as fluorine, oxygen and nitrogen, generally exhibits hydrogen bonding.
Molecules like ammonia and hydrogen fluoride and biomolecules like protein and
nucleic acid are also examples of molecules with hydrogen bonding.
Valency
When atoms combine to form molecules, electron transfer or
sharing of electrons occurs between the atoms.
The number of electrons lost, gained or shared by an atom

during a chemical reaction is its valency.
We have studied the formation of sodium chloride. Here,

sodium donates one electron and chlorine atom accepts one
electron. Hence the valency of both sodium and
chlorine is 1.
Intermolecular In the formation of hydrogen chloride, one
Forces electron of chlorine and one electron of
In addition to covalent bond hydrogen are shared between hydrogen and
and ionic bond in molecules, chlorine. Hence the valency of both hydrogen and
chlorine is 1.
there exist attractive or
repulsive forces between
microscopic particles such • Analyse the change in the electron
as atoms and molecules, arrangement in atoms during the
called intermolecular forces. formation of each compound and
Hydrogen bond is an example complete the table given below.
of intermolecular force.
58
The number of
Constituent Atomic Electron electrons shared
Compound Valency
elements number configuration or transferred by
each atom
Na 11 2, 8, 1 1 1
NaCl
CI 17 2, 8, 7 1 1
Mg
MgO
O
H
HF
F
C
CCl4
CI
Be
BeF2
F
H
H2O
O
Elements ExhibiƟng Variable Valency
Atoms of various elements exhibit variable valencies. Some of the examples are
iron, copper and phosphorus. Iron exhibits valencies 2 and 3 in its compounds. In ferric
chloride (FeCl3), the valency of iron is 3. In ferrous chloride (FeCl2), the valency of
iron is 2. Copper exhibits 1 and 2 as its valencies. In cupric oxide (CuO), the valency
of copper is 2. In cuprous oxide (Cu2O), the valency of copper is 1. The valency of
phosphorus in PCl3 is 3 and that in PCl5 is 5.
Chemical Formula
You are already familiar with representing compounds with the
symbols of elements. e.g. sodium chloride – NaCl, calcium chloride
– CaCl2, aluminium oxide – Al2O3 etc. Chemical formula is a method
of indicating the number of atoms in a molecule using symbols
of elements. Let us see how the chemical formula of a compound
can be framed.
59
Complete the following Table 3.7 regarding the combination of

magnesium (Mg) and fluorine (F).
Number of electrons
Element Atomic number Electron configuration
donated or accepted
Mg 12 ....................... .......................
F 9 ....................... .......................
Table. 3.7
• How many fluorine atoms are required to receive the electrons

donated by magnesium?
........................................................................................................................................
During the formation of magnesium fluoride, one magnesium
atom combines with two fluorine atoms. Hence, the chemical
formula of magnesium fluoride will be MgF2.
Let us see how chemical formula can be derived from the valencies
of atoms.
• What are the constituent elements of aluminium oxide?
.........................................................................................................................................
• What is the valency of aluminium? (Atomic number -13)
.........................................................................................................................................
• What is the valency of oxygen ? (Atomic number – 8)
.........................................................................................................................................
Write the symbols of constituent elements together in such a way
that the symbol of the element having lower electronegativity
comes first.
AlO
Interchange the valencies of each element and write them as base
index.
Al2O3
From this, you have understood that the chemical formula of
aluminium oxide is Al2O3.
Let us find out the chemical formula of carbon dioxide.
60
• What are the constituent elements of carbon dioxide?
........................................................................................................................................
• Write the symbols of elements together considering their
electronegativity.
........................................................................................................................................
• The valency of carbon is 4 and that of oxygen is 2. Interchange
the valencies and write them as base indices.
........................................................................................................................................
Divide each base index with the common factor of the indices.
C2/2 O4/2 = C1O2
If the base index is 1, it need not be written. If so, the chemical

formula of carbon dioxide will be C1O2 or CO2 .
• The constituent elements of some compounds and the

valencies of their constituent elements are given in
the following table. Find out the chemical formulae
and record them in your science diary.
Element- 1 Element - 2 Chemical

formula of the
Name Valency Name Valency compound
Potassium (K) 1 Oxygen 2 ..........
Zinc (Zn) 2 Chlorine 1 ..........
Carbon (C) 4 Chlorine 1 ..........
Magnesium (Mg) 2 Oxygen 2 ..........
How to write the chemical formulae of acids and bases

You have learned about acids and bases in previous classes.
Generally, acids release hydrogen ions (H+) and alkalies release
hydroxyl or hydroxide (OH) ions when they dissolve in water.
Acids and bases react together to form salt and water. These types
of reactions are called neutralisation reactions.
61
Let us see how the chemical formulae of acids can be written.

Which are the ions derived from hydrochloric acid? Why is it a
monobasic acid?
Since one molecule of hydrochloric acid contains one H+ and one
Cl, the chemical formula will be HCl.
H+ and SO42 are the ions derived from sulphuric acid. Sulphuric
acid is a dibasic acid. Hence, the chemical formula of sulphuric
acid is H2SO4. The basicity and the negative ions of certain acids
are given in Table 3.8. Find their chemical formulae and complete
the table.
Chemical formula
Negative ion in acid Basicity
of acid
Cl 1 HCl
SO42 2 H2SO4
PO43 3
NO3 1
CO32 2
SO32 2
Table 3.8
Alkalies are bases that dissolve in water. The number of OH ions
present in alkalies will be equal to the charge of the positive ion.
• Which is the positive ion present in sodium hydroxide?

.........................................................................................................................................
• How many OH ions, equal to the positive charge on sodium

ion will be present in sodium hydroxide?
.........................................................................................................................................
• If so, what is the chemical formula of sodium hydroxide?

.........................................................................................................................................
62
• The positive ions of some bases are given in the table

below. Find the chemical formulae and complete the table.
Positive Number of OH ions
ion in the that combine with Chemical formula Name of base
base positive ions
Na+ 1 NaOH Sodium hydroxide
K+ ........... ........... Potassium hydroxide
Ca2+ 2 Ca(OH)2 Calcium hydroxide
Al3+ ........... ........... Aluminium hydroxide
Fe3+ ........... ........... Ferric hydroxide
Cu2+ ........... ........... Cupric hydroxide
Chemical formulae of salts

You know that acids and bases react to form salt and water
through neutralization reaction. Salt is formed by the combination
of negative ions of acids and the positive ions of bases.
e.g. During the reaction between hydrochloric acid and sodium
hydroxide, the Na+ ion of NaOH and Cl of HCl combine to form
the salt NaCl.
Na+ OH - + H + Cl→ NaCl + H2O
Salts are electrically neutral. During the formation of salts,

constituent ions combine in such a way that the sum of the charges
of the positive ions and the negative ions is zero.
The sum of the charges of the positive ions and the negative
ions in a salt will be zero.
Let us see how the chemical formulae of salts can be written.
• While writing the chemical formulae of salts, first write the
symbol of the positive ion and then the symbol of the negative
ion.
• Interchange the numbers indicating the charge of each ion/
radical and write them as base indices.
• Simplify the base indices and write them in the smallest
possible whole number ratio.
63
• Which is the positive ion in magnesium hydroxide, Mg(OH)2?

.........................................................................................................................................
• Which is the negative ion in phosphoric acid (H3PO4)?
.........................................................................................................................................
Let us see how the chemical formula of the salt magnesium
phosphate, which is formed from magnesium hydroxide and
phosphoric acid, is written.
• To derive the chemical formula, first write the symbol of the
positive ion and then the symbol of the negative ion.
.........................................................................................................................................
• Write the number indicating the charge of each ion/radical as
base index after interchanging them.
.........................................................................................................................................
From this, you have understood that the chemical formula of
magnesium phosphate is Mg3(PO4)2 .
Let us see how the chemical formula of the salt calcium sulphate,
formed by the reaction between sulphuric acid and calcium
hydroxide, is written.
• Which is the positive ion in calcium hydroxide, Ca(OH)2?
.........................................................................................................................................
• Which is the negative ion in sulphuric acid (H2SO4)?
.........................................................................................................................................
• To derive the chemical formula, first write the symbol of the
positive ion and then the symbol of the negative ion.
.........................................................................................................................................
• Write the number indicating the charge of each ion/radical as
base index after interchanging them.
.........................................................................................................................................
You got Ca2(SO4)2 as the formula after interchanging the base
indices.
Note how the base indices are simplified as small whole number
ratio.
Ca2/2(SO4)2/2 = Ca1(SO4)1 = CaSO4
64
• Certain positive ions and negative ions are given in the following table.
Complete the table by writing the chemical formula and the name of the
salt formed from these ions.
Chemical
Positive ion Negative ion Name of salt
formula
Mg2+ (Magnesium ion) Cl− (Chloride ion)
Mg2+ (Magnesium ion) SO42− (Sulphate ion)
Ca2+ (Calcium ion) CO32− (Carbonate ion)
NH4+ (Ammonium ion) Cl− (Chloride ion)
NH4+ (Ammonium ion) PO43− (Phosphate ion)
Ca2+ (Calcium ion) PO43− (Phosphate ion)
Na+ (Sodium ion) SO42− (Sulphate ion)
Let’s Assess
1. Draw the electron dot diagram of hydrogen (H), helium (He), lithium (Li), beryllium
(Be) and fluorine (F).
2. Illustrate the formation of the chemical bond in chlorine (Cl2) using electron dot
diagram as illustrated in fluorine (F2) molecule.
3. Represent the covalent bond in chlorine molecule using symbols.
4. Represent the formation of ionic bond in the following ionic compounds using
electron dot diagram and orbit model.
a) Sodium fluoride (NaF)
b) Sodium oxide (Na2O)
c) Magnesium fluoride (MgF2)
d) Calcium oxide (CaO)
65
5. Assume that calcium (Ca) and fluorine (F) combine together.

a) Complete the following table accordingly.
Electron Number of electrons

Element Atomic number
configuration received or donated
Ca 20 ............. .............
F 9 ............. .............
b) Write the chemical formula of calcium fluoride.

c) Similarly, write the chemical formula of magnesium chloride and aluminium
chloride.
6. Some cations and anions are given in the table. Fill in the blanks.
Cation Anion Compound
……………..  MgCl2
Cl
Na+ …………. NaF
+ 2 …………….
NH4 SO4
+ ……………. K2CO3
K
7. Complete the following chemical equations and answer the questions given below.
(Hint: Atomic number Mg-12, Cl-17)
Mg → Mg2+ + ………..
Cl + 1e → ………….
……. + ………. → MgCl2
(a) Identify the cation and anion in these compounds.
(b) What is the nature of the chemical bond in MgCl2?
8. Complete the following table. (Hint: Atomic number F – 9, Cl – 17, O – 8, N – 7)
Molecule Number of shared electrons Chemical bond

F2 Single bond
Cl2
O2
N2
66
9. Complete the following table. (Symbols are not real)

Electron
Element Atomic number
configuration
P 12 ……………..
Q ……. 2,7
R 10 ……………..
S 17 ……………..
(a) Which among these is the most stable element?
(b) Which element donates electrons during chemical reactions?
(c) Write the chemical formula of the compound formed when the elements P and S
combine.
10. Atom models of two elements are represented below.
Fluorine
Sodium
(a) Draw the electron dot diagram of the formation of sodium fluoride.
(b) What is the nature of chemical bond in sodium fluoride?
(c) Write any two characteristics of compounds having this type of bond.
11. The electron configuration of the elements P, Q, R are given below. (Symbols are
not real)
P – 2,8,6
Q – 2,8,1
R – 2,8,8
(a) Which is the most stable element among these? What is the reason?
(b) What is the atomic number of Q?
(c) Draw the atom model of Q.
(d) What are the valencies of the elements P and Q?
(e) Write the chemical formula of the compound formed when P and Q combine.
67
12. A, B, C and D are four elements (Symbols are not real). Information about them are
given in the following table.
Element Atomic number Electronegativity
A 6 2.55
B 8 3.44
C 12 1.31
D 17 3.16
Based on these, find the type of bond in the compounds formed by the combination
of the following pairs of elements.
1. C, B 2. C, D 3. A, B
Extended Activities
1. Magnesium nitride is obtained when nitrogen is passed over heated magnesium.
Write the chemical equation of this reaction. Find out whether the formed compound
is ionic or covalent using the electronegativity scale given in this unit.
(Hint - Valency : Nitrogen-3, Magnesium -2)
2. Draw the electron dot diagram of the chemical bonds in ethane (C2H6), ethene
(C2H4) and ethyne (C2H2). Find out whether these compounds are ionic or covalent.
Calculate the total number of bonds in each compound.
3. Conduct the experiment arranging the apparatus as shown in the figure.
Record your observations and identify what types of compounds are sodium chloride
and glucose.
4. Draw the chemical bonds in different compounds and exhibit them on the bulletin
board.
68
Unit 4 : Redox Reactions
4 Redox Reactions
Look at the picture of children doing experiments in the

laboratory. Several chemical reactions are conducted there.
Sodium
What changes are generally observed during chemical
reactions?
Let us do an experiment.
Phenolphthalein +
Take a trough and fill three fourth of it with water. Add two water
drops of phenolphthalein to it and stir well. Cut a small piece
of sodium and put it into the trough carefully (Figure 4.1). Fig. 4.1
69
What changes can be observed? (Figure 4.2)

• What is the reason? Analyse the chemical equation and find out.
2Na + 2H2O → 2NaOH + H2 
..........................................................................................................................................
NaOH You have learnt that chemical changes are accompanied by energy
changes.
Fig. 4.2
Is there any change in the total mass of substances during chemical
reactions?
During the combustion of fuels and the burning of paper, the
total mass appears to be decreasing. Is this true? Let us do an
experiment.
Take 20 mL barium chloride (BaCl2) solution in a beaker. Take
BaCl2 Na2SO4
20 mL sodium sulphate (Na2SO4) solution in another beaker. Place
both the beakers together on an electronic balance and note the
reading (Figure 4.3). Now, pour the solution from one beaker to
Fig. 4.3 the other. What do you observe? (Figure 4.4)
........................................................................................................................................................
After some time, note the reading of the electronic balance again.
Compare this with the previous reading. What is your inference?
NaCl ........................................................................................................................................................
+
BaSO4
Is there any change in the total mass as a result of this chemical
reaction?
........................................................................................................................................................
Fig. 4.4 In this chemical reaction, barium chloride reacts with sodium
sulphate to form barium sulphate and sodium chloride.
Let us write the equation of this chemical reaction.
........................................................................................................................................................
BaCl2 + Na2SO4 → BaSO4 + 2 NaCl
Zn
Now, let us do another experiment.
Take 20 mL dilute hydrochloric acid (HCl) in a conical flask.
Drop some zinc (Zn) granules in a balloon. Fix the balloon firmly
HCl to the mouth of the conical flask as shown in the Figure 4.5. Place
the conical flask on an electronic balance and note the mass.
Then, carefully raise the balloon and drop the zinc granules into
Fig. 4.5
the acid in the flask.
70
• What do you see? (Figure 4.6)

...........................................................................................................................
• Note the reading of the electronic balance. Compare this H2
reading with the previous one. What do you understand?
...........................................................................................................................
• Which gas is collected in the balloon?
...........................................................................................................................
Let us write the equation of the chemical reaction.
Zn + 2HCl → ZnCl2 + H2 
ZnCl2
• What can be inferred from these experiments?
...........................................................................................................................
• Does the total mass change during chemical reactions?
Fig. 4.6
.................................................................................................................
The major products, formed during the combustion
of fuels and burning of paper are carbon dioxide and
water vapour. They are lost in the atmosphere. If these
products are collected without any loss and weighed,
what will be the observation?
There will be no change in the total mass in such
experiments too. Antoine Lavoisier
(1743 - 1794)
Based on experiments and observations, the French Discovered the role of oxygen
scientist Antoine Lavoisier, stated the law of in the process of combustion.
conservation of mass. Based on this law: Found out that oxygen is
inhaled and carbon dioxide
In a chemical reaction, the total mass of the reactants
is exhaled during respiration.
will be equal to the total mass of the products.
Discovered the presence of
The total mass remains unchanged in a chemical oxygen in acids.
reaction. Why? Let us examine. Proposed the names of hydrogen
The atomic mass of elements are expressed using the and oxygen. Classified the
unit, unified atomic mass unit (u). known elements into metals
and non metals. This versatile
You are familiar with the chemical reaction in which genius was guillotined in
hydrogen, having atomic mass 1u and oxygen having 1794 following the political
atomic mass 16u combine together to form water. Let consequences of the French
us write the equation of this chemical reaction. Revolution of 1789.
2H2 + O2 → 2H2O
71
See the symbolic representation of this chemical reaction given

below.
16u
1u 1u
1u 1u
16u 16u
1u 1u 16u
1u 1u
2H2 + O2 2H2O
Analyse Table 4.1 given below.
Total mass of the reactants 4 u + 32 u = 36 u
Total mass of the products 18 u + 18 u = 36 u
Table 4.1
We can see that the total mass of the reactants and the total mass
of the products are equal.
When reactants combine in a specific mass proportion to form
products, the atoms in them undergo a rearrangement. There will
not be any change in the total number of atoms or in the total mass.
• Carbon and oxygen combine to form carbon dioxide. Analyse
the symbolic representation of this chemical reaction.
16u
12u 16u 12u 16u
16u
C + O2 CO2
Complete Table 4.2 given below.
Total mass of the reactants .................................................
Total mass of the products .................................................
Table 4.2
Record your inference.
........................................................................................................................................................
72
Methane (CH4 ) burns in air to form carbon dioxide and water

vapour. The symbolic representation of this chemical reaction is
given below.
O O O
H H H
C O C O
H H
H O
O O H H
Write down the equation of the chemical reaction.

Check whether this chemical reaction obeys the law of
conservation of mass. (Hint : H=1 u, C=12 u, O=16 u.)
Balancing of Chemical Equations
Chemical equation is the symbolic representation of a chemical
reaction using symbols and chemical formulae. When a chemical
reaction is written in accordance with the law of conservation of
mass, the total mass of the reactants must be equal to the total
mass of the products. This can be done by equalising the number
of atoms of the same type on either sides of the equation.
You know that oxygen and hydrogen are diatomic molecules
• How are these molecules represented using symbols?
Oxygen .................................., Hydrogen ......................................
• What is the total number of atoms in water (H2O) molecule?
....................................................................................................................................................
• Calculate the number of molecules and the total number of
atoms present in 5H2O.
Total number of molecules .......... Total number of atoms ..........
Consider the formation of water from hydrogen and oxygen. Let
us have a look at the method of balancing this chemical equation.
Step 1
Hydrogen + Oxygen → Water
H2 + O2 → H2O
Observe Table 4.3.
Number of atoms in the reactants Hydrogen = 2 Oxygen = 2
Number of atoms in the products Hydrogen = 2 Oxygen = 1
Table 4.3
73
The number of oxygen atoms in the products also must be 2. How

is this possible? Let us make the number of water molecules 2.
Step 2
H2 + O2 → 2H2O
Observe Table 4.4.
Table 4.4
The number of hydrogen atoms in the reactants also must be 4.
How is this possible?
Let us make the number of hydrogen molecules in the reactants 2.
Step 3
2H2 + O2 → 2H2O
Analyse Table 4.5.
Table 4.5
The number of the same type of atoms in the reactants as well as
the products are the same now. The balanced chemical equation of
the reaction between hydrogen and oxygen to form water is given
below.
2H2 + O2 → 2H2O
Balancing a chemical equation is the method of equalising
the number of the same type of atoms in both the reactants
and the products. The equation thus obtained is known as a
balanced chemical equation.
Let us practice balancing equations, using other chemical
equations.
1. Magnesium + Oxygen → Magnesium oxide
Step 1 Mg + O2 → MgO
Step 2 Mg + O2 → 2MgO
Step 3 2Mg + O2 → 2MgO
Balanced chemical equation 2Mg + O2 → 2MgO
74
2. Hydrogen + Chlorine → Hydrogen chloride

Step 1 H2 + Cl2 → HCl
Step 2 H2 + Cl2 → 2HCl
Balanced chemical equation H2 + Cl2 → 2HCl
3. Zinc + Hydrochloric acid → Zinc chloride + Hydrogen
Step 1 Zn + HCl → ZnCl2 + H2
Step 2 Zn + 2HCl → ZnCl2 + H2
Balanced chemical equation Zn + 2HCl → ZnCl2 + H2
4. Aluminium + Oxygen → Aluminium oxide
Step 1 Al + O2 → Al2O3
Step 2 Al + 3O2 → Al2O3
Step 3 Al + 3O2 → 2Al2O3
Step 4 4Al + 3O2 → 2Al2O3
Balanced chemical equation 4Al + 3O2 → 2Al2O3
5. Nitrogen + Hydrogen → Ammonia
Step 1 N2 + H2 → NH3
Step 2 N2 + H2 → 2NH3
Step 3 N2 + 3H2 → 2NH3
Balanced chemical equation N2 + 3H2 → 2NH3
• • Balance the chemical equations given

below and record them in science diary. Chemical
equations
H2 + I2 → HI
While writing chemical
Na + H 2O → NaOH + H2 equations, the physical states of
Mg + HCl → MgCl2 + H2 reactants and products, energy
changes, presence of catalysts,
temperature, pressure etc. are
Oxidation and Reduction also indicated usually.
You have learnt how the atoms of elements combine
E.g.
to form molecules of compounds. Atoms engage Fe
N2 (g) + 3H2 (g) 2NH3 (g) + Heat
in chemical bonding by losing, gaining or sharing
electrons.
75
You know how sodium (Na) and chlorine (Cl) combine to form
sodium chloride (NaCl).
Which atom loses electron and becomes a positively charged ion
in this process? Let us write the equation of the chemical reaction.
Na  Na+ + 1e
The process involving loss of electrons in a chemical reaction
is called oxidation.
Which atom gains electron and becomes a negatively charged ion?
Let us write the equation of the chemical reaction.
Cl + 1e  Cl
The process involving gaining of electrons in a chemical
reaction is called reduction.
The positively charged sodium ion (Na+) and the negatively
charged chloride ion (Cl) combine together to form sodium
chloride (NaCl).
Na+ + Cl → NaCl
Given below are some equations of oxidation.
K  K+ + 1e
Ca  Ca2+ + 2e
Mg  Mg2+ + 2e
Zn  Zn2+ + 2e
Al  Al3+ + 3e
Sodium (Na), potassium (K) etc. are metals. Generally, metals
undergo oxidation during chemical reactions.
See some equations of reduction given below.
F + 1e F
Cl + 1e Cl
Br + 1e Br
O + 2e O2
76
Fluorine (F), chlorine (Cl) etc. are non-metals. Generally, non
metals undergo reduction during chemical reactions.
Positive ions also can gain electrons and change into atoms. Such
reactions are also reduction reactions.
e.g.
Ag+ + 1e → Ag
Cu + 2e → Cu
Similarly negative ions lose electrons and change into atoms.
Such reactions are also oxidation reactions.
e.g.
I → I + 1e
S2 → S + 2e
Oxidising agent and reducing agent
Look at the chemical equation regarding the formation of sodium

chloride.
2Na + Cl2 → 2NaCl
Which atom undergoes oxidation ?

Sodium loses electron and undergoes oxidation.
Which atom supports oxidation? (sodium/chlorine)
Chlorine gains electron and helps oxidation.
The species that helps oxidation in a chemical reaction is the

Oxidising agent.
The oxidising agent gets reduced in a chemical reaction.
In the above chemical reaction, chlorine undergoes reduction.
Which atom supports reduction? (sodium/chlorine)
Sodium donates electron and helps reduction.
77
The species that helps reduction is the reducing agent. The

reducing agent gets oxidised in a chemical reaction.
See the illustrations given below.
Undergoes oxidation
2Na + Cl2 → 2NaCl

Reducing agent (Oxidising agent)
Undergoes reduction
Undergoes oxidation
2Mg + O2 → 2MgO
Reducing agent (Oxidising agent)
Undergoes reduction
• Analyse the chemical reactions given below and

complete the table.
1) Mg + F2 → MgF2
2) Ca + Cl2 → CaCl2
3) 4Fe + 3O2 → 2Fe2O3
Equation of Equation of Oxidising

Sl.No. Reducing agent
oxidation reduction agent
1 Mg → Mg2+ + 2e ........... F ...........
2 ........... Cl + le → Cl ........... Ca
3 Fe → Fe3+ + 3e ........... O ...........
78
Oxidation Number
You are familiar with the valency of elements.
Analyse Table 4.6 given below.
Element Atomic number Electron configuration Valency

Sodium (Na) 11 2, 8 1 1
Potassium (K) 19 2, 8, 8, 1 1
Fluorine (F) 9 2, 7 1
Chlorine (Cl) 17 2, 8, 7 1
Magnesium (Mg) 12 2, 8, 2 2
Calcium (Ca) 20 2, 8, 8, 2 2
Oxygen (O) 8 2, 6 2
Aluminium (Al) 13 2, 8, 3 3
Table 4.6
Is it possible to guess whether an element loses or gains electron

in a chemical reaction from its valency? Oxidation number is used
to indicate it.
When an electron is lost, a positive ion is formed and when an
electron is gained, a negative ion is formed.
If all the chemical bonds in a compound are considered to
be ionic, the charge formed on each atom is considered as its
oxidation number or oxidation state.
Sodium chloride (NaCl) is composed of sodium ion (Na+) and

chloride ion (Cl). In ionic compounds, the charge of such ions are
the oxidation number. So, the oxidation number of sodium is +1
and that of chlorine is −1.
• The oxidation number of magnesium is +2 and that

of oxygen is −2 in magnesium oxide (MgO). What
do you understand from this?
Covalent compounds are formed by the sharing of electrons. In

such compounds, the oxidation number is assigned assuming
79
that the shared electrons are shifted to the more electronegative

element.
For example, in the covalent compound HF, it is considered that
the more electronegative fluorine (F) attracts the electron pair and
attains −l oxidation number. Hydrogen is assumed to lose one
electron and it attains +1 oxidation number.
• The sum of the oxidation numbers of all atoms in a compound
is zero.
• In element molecules, electrons are equally shared by
the atoms. So, at elemental state the oxidation number is
considered to be zero.
Method of calculating oxidation number
The common oxidation number of certain elements in their
compounds are given in Table 4.7.
Is it possible to find out the oxidation number of an element in a
compound, whose oxidation number is not known?
Let us examine Table 4.7 and see how the oxidation number of
nitrogen (N) in HNO3 can be found out.
Oxidation number of H = +1
Oxidation number of O = 2
Let the oxidation number of nitrogen be x. We know that the sum
Oxidation of oxidation numbers of atoms in a molecule is zero.
Element
number Then, in HNO
3
H +1
(+1) + (1  x) + (2  3) = 0
Na +1
+1 + x + (6) = 0
K +1
x 5 = 0
Ca +2
x = +5
Al +3
Oxi- dation number of nitrogen in HNO3 = +5
F 1
Cl 1 • Find out the oxidation number of nitrogen in
Br 1 HNO2 and NO2
I 1
Let us find out the oxidation number of chromium (Cr) in potassium
O 2
dichromate (K2Cr2O7). If the oxidation number of chromium is
Table 4.7 considered to be ‘x’,
80
(+1  2) + (2  x) + (2  7) = 0
2 + (2x) + (14) = 0
2x 12 = 0
2x = +12
+ 12
x = 2
= +6
Oxidation number of chromium in K2Cr2O7 = +6
• Find out the oxidation number of chromium in

Cr2O3 .
Construct and
• Find out the oxidation number of manganese (Mn) in compare the
the following compounds and record it in your science structures of
diary. MnO2, Mn2O7 using
Ghemical software.
(Hint: Oxidation number of O = −2, K = +1.)
a) MnO2 b) Mn2O7 c) KMnO4
Oxidation number and oxidation - reduction reactions
Analyse the chemical equation of the formation of sodium chloride
(NaCl).
2Na + Cl2 → 2NaCl
During the formation of sodium chloride sodium loses one electron
and gets one positive charge and chlorine gains one electron and
gets one negative charge. So the oxidation number of sodium is +1
and the oxidation number of chlorine is 1.
• What is the oxidation number of sodium and chlorine in their
elemental state?
............................................................................................................................................
Let us write the chemical equation including their oxidation
numbers.
0 0 +1 -1
2Na Cl2 " 2Na Cl
• What happened to the oxidation number of sodium as a result
of this reaction (increased/decreased)?
............................................................................................................................................
• What happened to the oxidation number of chlorine?
............................................................................................................................................
81
Oxidation number increases during oxidation reactions.

Reduction reactions involve a decrease in oxidation
number.
• Which atom undergoes oxidation during the formation of
sodium chloride?
............................................................................................................................................
• What is the oxidising agent in this reaction? Why?
............................................................................................................................................
• Which atom undergoes reduction in this reaction? Why?
............................................................................................................................................
• What is the reducing agent in this case?
............................................................................................................................................
Analyse the chemical equation given below. Find out the oxidation
number of atoms and complete Table 4.8.
H2 + Cl2 → 2HCl
• The atom whose oxidation number is increased. ..................................
• The atom which has undergone oxidation. ..................................
• The atom whose oxidation number is decreased. ..................................
• The atom which has undergone reduction. ..................................
• Oxidising agent ..................................
• Reducing agent ..................................
Table 4.8
Let us analyse another chemical equation.
Mg + 2HCl → MgCl2 + H2
Write the oxidation number of each atom.
Find out the following.
• The oxidation number of magnesium changes from .............
to .............
• The change that happened to magnesium. (oxidation/
reduction)
• What is the oxidising agent in this case? ………… (Mg/HCl)
• What is the reducing agent? ……………… (Mg/HCl)
82
• Analyse the chemical reaction given below and complete

Table 4.9.
C + O2 → CO2
Oxidation number Oxidation/ Oxidising agent/

Element Reduction Reducing agent
Before reaction After reaction
C ………. +4 ………. ……….
O ………. ………. Reduction ……….
Table 4.9
The equation for the chemical reaction between hydrogen and
chlorine to form hydrogen chloride is given below.
0 0 +1 -1
H2 Cl2 " 2HCl
• Which atom has undergone oxidation in this reaction?
............................................................................................................................................
• Which atom has undergone reduction?
............................................................................................................................................
Here, oxidation and reduction take place simultaneously.
Such reactions are called redox reactions.
In a redox reaction, oxidising agent undergoes reduction and
reducing agent undergoes oxidation.
Some familiar redox reactions in daily life are given below.
• Glucose molecules decompose and release energy during
cellular respiration.
• Formation of oxide coating on the surface of metals.
• Combustion of fuels.
• Decomposition of organic substances in the presence of
oxygen.
• Production of electricity in electrochemical cells.
• Analyse the above redox reactions and present a
seminar on the importance of redox reactions in
daily life.
83
Let’s Assess
1. The unbalanced chemical equation regarding the formation of ammonia from nitrogen and
hydrogen is given below.
N2 + H2 NH3
a) Balance the chemical equation.
b) Find out the total number of atoms of the same type in both the reactants and the
products.
c) If 28 g of nitrogen combines with 6 g of hydrogen, find out the mass of ammonia
formed. (Hint : Atomic mass H=1u N=14u)
2. C + 4HNO3  2H2O + CO2 + 4NO2
a) Find out and mark the oxidation number of carbon in this reaction.
b) What happens to the oxidation number of carbon in this reaction?
c) What happens to carbon-oxidation or reduction?
d) What are the oxidising and reducing agents in this reaction?
3. Find out the oxidation number of sulphur in the following compounds.
(Hint : Oxidation number H = +1, O = 2)
a) SO2 b) SO3 c) H2SO3 d) H2SO4
4. Certain statements are given below. Write whether they are true or false.
a) The process involving an increase in oxidation number is oxidation.
b) The process involving a decrease in oxidation number is oxidation.
c) In a chemical reaction, oxidising agent undergoes reduction.
d) In a chemical reaction, oxidising agent undergoes oxidation.
5. Balance the chemical equations given below.
a) SO2 + O2 → SO3 b) H2O2 → H2O + O2
c) CH4 + O2 → H2O + CO2 d) Fe + HCl → FeCl2 + H2
6. Two chemical reactions are given below. Find out the oxidation number of atoms and
check whether these reactions are redox reactions.
a) CaCO3 + 2HCl → CaCl2 + H2O + CO2 b) Zn + 2HCl → ZnCl2 + H2
7. The gaseous fuel carbon monoxide burns in oxygen to form carbon dioxide.
a) Write the balanced equation of this chemical reaction.
b) Is this a redox reaction? Why?
c) What is the oxidising agent in this reaction? What is the reducing agent?
84
8. Analyse the chemical equation given below.

Ca + 2HCl → CaCl2 + H2
a) Mark the oxidation number of atoms before and after the chemical reaction.
b) Which atom undergoes oxidation?
c) Which atom undergoes reduction?
d) What are the oxidising and reducing agents?
9. Analyse the chemical equations given below and find out whether they are redox reactions.
a) NaOH + HCl  NaCl + H2O
b) H2S + Cl2  2HCl + S
10. A chemical reaction is given in the concept map below. Find out the oxidation number of
each atom. On the basis of this, fill up the blanks.
(Hint : Valency S = 2, Fe = 2)
Atom getting oxidised
Atom whose oxidation

Atom getting reduced number increases
...................
................... ...................
Oxidation Atom whose
number of S oxidation
after reaction number
................... ................... decreases
Fe + S  FeS
Oxidation
Oxidation number of S
number of Fe
................... ................... before the
after the
reaction reaction
Oxidation number
................... ................... Oxidising
of Fe before the
agent
reaction
...................
Reducing agent
85
Extended Activities
1. Mix iron powder and sulphur in the mass ratio 7:4 in a china dish. Heat the mixture well.
After sometime cool the china dish. Check whether iron can be separated using magnet.
Examine whether the product dissolves in carbon disulphide.
What is your inference?
Write down the equation of the chemical reaction. Check whether it is a redox reaction.
2. Take some sand in a tray. Place calcium carbide (CaC2) on it. Place some more sand on top
of it. Place some ice cubes on the sand. Ignite the ice cubes carefully. What do you see?
Calcium carbide reacts with water and forms acetylene (C2H2) gas. Acetylene is an
inflammable gas.
Write the chemical equation of the combustion.
Check whether it is a redox reaction.
3. Make a mixture of aluminium powder and powdered iodine crystals in the mass ratio
1 : 2. Make a heap of it in a china dish. Make a small hole at the top of the heap. Add one
or two drops of water into the hole. What do you see?
Here aluminium and iodine combine to form aluminium triiodide.
The valency of Al = 3 I=1
a) Write the equation of the chemical reaction.
b) Find out the oxidation number of each atom. Check whether it is a redox reaction.
4. Conduct a study tour to understand the importance of redox reactions in industry.
86

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Unit 1 : Structure of Atom

State Council of Educational Research and Training (SCERT)

1. Structure of Atom ............................... 07

2. Periodic Table ...................................... 23

3. Chemical Bonding ............................... 43

4. Redox Reactions .................................. 69

Certain icons are used in this textbook for convenience

For further reading (Not considered for evaluation)

Continuous assessment questions

Yes, there are

These are known as subatomic particles. Let us learn more about

Discharge Tube Experiments and Discovery of

gradually, it was seen that electricity passed through it (electric

Discovery of Cathode Rays

Main characteristics of cathode rays

From this we can infer that cathode rays

Plum Pudding Model of the Atom

Rutherford's Gold Foil Experiment

• Majority of the alpha particles passed through the foil

Niels Bohr Atom Model

• Some statements are given. Which of them are related to

When we represent an atom using its symbol, we write mass number

Electron Configuration in an Atom

1. The maximum number of electrons that can be accommodated

Only the electron configuration of elements from atomic number

• Diagrammatically represent the orbit electron configuration

Analyse the figure and find the following.

• These are the isotopes of hydrogen. Can you define an

a. What is the mass number of this atom?

6. Match the items in column A & B suitably.

List the merits of Mendeleev’s periodic table.

You are also aware of certain demerits of Mendeleev’s periodic

You have also learned about isotopes.

• How do isotopes of the same element differ from one

Since isotopes have different atomic masses, it is necessary to

For e.g. 11 H , 12 H and 13 H are the isotopes of hydrogen. As per

Through his X-ray diffraction experiments, Henry Moseley

Modern Periodic Law

On the basis of modern periodic law, Moseley arranged elements

Let us have a look at the merits of the modern periodic table.

• As you know, one of the demerits of Mendeleev’s periodic

Newly Discovered Elements

• Which period has the least number of elements?

• Are the number of elements in period 2 and 3 the same?

Elements of group 1 are given in the table. Complete Table 2.1.

Name of the Symbol Atomic number Electron

they can be considered as families. A table enlisting the various

In gaseous state ...................................................................

The elements in group 1 and group 2 and groups 13 to 18 are

• How does electron filling take place in the outermost shell of

• What change do you observe in the number of outer electrons

On moving along a period from left to right, there is an increase of

Characteristics of main group elements

• Which are the families included in main group

How to find the group number of main group

• What is the relation between the number of outermost electrons

Name of Symbol Atomic Electron No. of the Group

• Find the number which is added to the number of outermost

• Have you ever thought why the number 10 is added to the

Name of Atomic Electron Group