26 MATHS (E) Vol-2

MATHEMATICS
PART - 2
Standard
IX
Government of Kerala
Department of General Education
Prepared by
State Council of Educational Research and Training (SCERT) Kerala
2024
THE NATIONAL ANTHEM
Jana-gana-mana adhinayaka, jaya he
Bharatha-bhagya-vidhata
Punjab-Sindh-Gujarat-Maratha
Dravida-Utkala-Banga
Vindhya-Himachala-Yamuna-Ganga
Uchchala-Jaladhi-taranga
Tava subha name jage,
Tava subha asisa mage,
Gahe tava jaya gatha
Jana-gana-mangala-dayaka jaya he
Bharatha-bhagya-vidhata
Jaya he, jaya he, jaya he,
Jaya jaya jaya, jaya he.
PLEDGE
India is my country. All Indians are my brothers and sisters.
I love my country, and I am proud of its rich and varied
heritage. I shall always strive to be worthy of it.
I shall give my parents, teachers and all elders, respect and
treat everyone with courtesy.
To my country and my people, I pledge my devotion. In their
well-being and prosperity alone, lies my happiness.
MATHEMATICS
9
State Council of Educational Research and Training (SCERT)
Poojappura, Thiruvananthapuram 695012, Kerala
Website : www.scertkerala.gov.in
e-mail : scertkerala@gmail.com, Phone : 0471 - 2341883,
Typesetting and Layout : SCERT
First Edition : 2024
Printed at : KBPS, Kakkanad, Kochi-30
© Department of General Education, Government of Kerala
Dear children,
To understand the world and to recognise its peculiarities, all

kinds of measurements and the relations between them were
essential for humans.
We’ve seen how natural numbers and fractions, and illustrations
with them evolved like this, in earlier classes. Here we will see
certain measures which cannot be expressed using numbers
learnt so far.
We also continue our study of geometry. This book discusses
the new idea of similarity and how it ties up with the notion of
parallel lines studied earlier.
Our new vision of learning mathematics emphasizes
computational thinking, which gives greater emphasis to analysis
of mathematical processes. What this means is that, instead of
learning different mathematical techniques by rote and using
them mechanically in specified contexts, it is more important to
understand how and why they work and to use different methods
to make them more efficient.
We also discuss the possibilities of the free software GeoGebra
to make geometry more dynamic and thereby enhance
comprehension.
With love and regards,
Dr. Jayaprakash R.K.

Director
SCERT Kerala
TEXTBOOK DEVELOPMENT TEAM
Advisor
Dr. E. Krishnan
Head (Rtd.), Department of Mathematics,
University College, Thiruvananthapuram
Chairperson
Dr. P. Ramesh Kumar
Head (Rtd.), Department of Mathematics, University of Kerala
Karyavattom, Thiruvananthapuram
Experts
Dr. Shikhi M. Madhu B. A. Sukesh
Associate Professor Assistant Professor Assistant Professor,
College of Engineering Trivandrum, Regional Institute of Education, Government College of Engineering,
Thiruvananthapuram Mysore Kannur
Members
R. Ramanujam Vijayakumaran T.K. Firoz Babu C.T.
HSST Mathematics, HSST (Rtd), HST Mathematics,
M.N.K.M. Govt. Higher Secondary G.M.R.H.S.S. for Girls, GGVHSS Wandoor, Malappuram
School, Pulapatta, Palakkad Pravanadukkam, Kasaragod
Unnikrishnan M.V. Nandakumar C. Sreejith Muriyampath

HST Mathematics, HST Mathematics, HST Mathematics, GHSS Chorode,
GHS, Kuttiyeri P.O, Kuttiyeri, Chothavoor Higher Secondary School, Kurikkilad, Vadakara, Kozhikode
Kannur Champad, Kannur
Padmaprasad K. Ubaidulla K.C. Firoza Moidu

HST Mathematics, Pandallur HSS, HST Mathematics, HST Mathematics, Calicut Girls VHSS,
Kadambode Post, Malappuram SOHS Areekode, Malappuram Kundungal, Kallayi, Kozhikode
Priya Raj Dhaneshan M.V. Geomy N George

HST Mathematics, HSST English, China Media, Shornur
MGD High School, Puthusserry, GFHSS Padannakadappuram,
Puthusserry South P.O, Kasaragod
Pathanamthitta
Academic Coordinator
Dr. Anilkumar A.K.
Research Officer, SCERT
State Council of Educational Research and Training (SCERT) Kerala

Vidhyabhavan, Poojappura, Thiruvananthapuram 695 012
CONTENTS
8 Circle Measures 151
9 Real Numbers 165
10 Polynomials 177
11 Parts of Circles 185

12 Prisms 195
13 Polynomial Pictures 209

14 Proportion 223
15 Statistics 233
Certain icons are used in this textbook for
convenience
Let's do problems Project
ICT possibilities
Circle Measures
Circle Measures
Diameter and perimeter
It’s easy to calculate the perimeter of a polygon; just add the lengths of sides:
Perimeter 4 + 1 + 2.5 + 3.5 + 2 = 13 centimetres
All the more easy if the polygon is regular:

2 cm
m
2c
2c
Perimeter 6 × 2 = 12 centimetres
2c
m
m
2c
2 cm
What about a circle?

We can use a piece of string or thread to measure the perimeter. But there are instances
where this is not possible.
For example, see this problem:
151
Mathematics - Standard IX
A piece of wire is to be bent into a circle of diameter 5 centimetres. What should

be the length of the wire?
When the wire is bent into a circle, the length of the wire becomes the perimeter of the
circle:
So to solve the problem above, we must know the relation between the diameter and
perimeter of the circle.
The perimeter of a circle is often called its circumference. Evidently as the diameter is
made larger, the circumference also becomes larger. The question we ask next is whether
these changes are in the same scale; that is, if the diameter is changed to a fraction or
multiple of the original, would the circumference also change to the same fraction or
multiple of the original?
It is not difficult to see that the perimeters of regular polygons drawn within circles of
different diameters are scaled by the same factor as the diameters of the circles.
We have seen in the lesson, Similar Triangles that the sides of such regular polygons
are scaled by the same factor as the radii.
For example, see these pictures:
Regular polygons are drawn within two circles, the larger circle having a radius one and
a half times that of the smaller. In each picture, the sides of the larger regular polygon is
also one and a half times the sides of the smaller polygon.
Since diameter is double the radius, the diameter of the larger circle also is one and a
half times the diameter of the smaller one.
152
Circle Measures
Again, the perimeter of each polygon is a Draw a circle in GeoGebra, centered at a

fixed multiple of the side (three, four and five point A and mark a point B on it. Create
for the different polygons in the pictures). So, a slider n, selecting the option Integer,
perimeters of the larger polygons are also one with Min : 3 and Max : 300. Select the Angle with
and a half times those of the smaller ones. Given Size tool and click on B and then on A. In
Thus, the perimeters of the polygons are scaled the dialog window opening up, give the Angle as
by the same factor as the diameters of the circles. (360/n)°. Select the Regular Polygon tool and click
on B and B′. In the dialog window, give n as the
From this, can we say that the circumferences
number of vertices. This will give a regular n-gon
(perimeters) of the circles also are scaled by the
within the circle. Increase the number of sides
same factor as the diameters?
using the slider. What happens to the polygons?
For example, can we say that if the diameter of
a circle is doubled, then the circumference also is doubled?
Not yet. We have to note another thing before we can claim this. As we keep on drawing
regular polygons of more and more sides within a circle, they get closer and closer to
the circle. See these pictures:
Now suppose such polygons are drawn within a circle and another circle of double the
diameter:
Since the diameter of the larger circle is twice the diameter of the smaller one, the
perimeter of each large polygon is double the perimeter of the smaller one.
153
The perimeter of polygons in both circles gets closer and closer to the circumference of
the circles.
We use a bit of algebra to make the relation between the measures clear:
• The perimeters of the polygons within the larger circle are twice the perimeters of
the polygons within the smaller circle
♦ Let’s denote the perimeter of the smaller equilateral triangle by p1, that of the
smaller square by p2, that of the smaller pentagon as p3 and so on.
♦ The perimeters of the larger polygons are 2p1, 2p2, 2p3, . . .
• The perimeters of the small polygons get closer and closer to the circumference of
the small circle
♦ Let’s denote the circumference of the small circle by c
♦ The numbers p1, p2, p3, ... get closer and closer to c
• The perimeters of the large polygons get closer and closer to the circumference of
the large circle
♦ Let’s denote the circumference of the large circle by d
♦ The numbers 2p1, 2p2, 2p3, ...get closer and closer to d
Note the two statements in the red boxes

above. The first of these say that the numbers Create a slider d in GeoGebra with Min:0
p1, p2, p3, .... get closer and closer to c and Max:10. Next, draw a circle of diameter
So, the numbers 2p1, 2p2, 2p3, ... must get d using the Circle:Center & Radius tool, give the
d
closer and closer to 2c radius as 2 . Selecting the Distance or Length and
clicking on the circle gives its perimeter.It can
But the second statement says that the numbers be seen in the Algebra window also. Right click
2p1, 2p2, 2p3, ... must get closer and closer to d on this and select the Rename option to change
This means d = 2c, doesn’t it? its name to c. Change the diameter of the circle
using the slider and see whether the diameter
Thus the circumference of the larger circle is and circumference are scaled by the same factor.
twice the circumference of the smaller circle. c
Type d in the Input Bar to get the quotient of the
In the same way, we can see that if the diam- circumference by diameter in the Algebra window.
eter of a circle is scaled by some other factor, Does this change when the diameter is changed?
then the circumference also is scaled by the
same factor
154
Circle Measures
In general, we have the following:

The circumference of circles are scaled by the same factor as their diameters
So, if we determine the circumference of a circle of diameter 1, then the circumference

of any circle can be calculated by multiplying the diameter by this number.
Before doing this, try these problems, based on the facts seen so far:
(1) The circumference of a circle of diameter 2metres is measured and found to
be 6.28 metres.
(i) How do we compute the circumference of a circle of diameter 4
metres, without actually measuring it?
(ii) What about the circumference of a circle of diameter 1metre?
(iii) And the circumference of a circle of diameter 3metre?
(2) A piece of wire is bent into a circle of diameter 4 centimetres. If a wire of
half the length is bent into a circle, what would be its diameter ?
A new number
The circumference of a circle of diameter 1 cannot be written as a fraction, like the
diagonal of a square of side 1 or the height of an equilateral triangle of side 2.
It is not easy to prove this, as in the case of other lengths. It was proved only in the
eighteenth century.
There is a basic difference between this number and numbers like 2 , 3 , 2 + 3 and so
on: it cannot be written in terms of roots of natural numbers or fractions, and their basic
operations.
A special symbol is used in mathematics to denote it: π
It is the letter called pi in the Greek alphabet.
Since π is not a fraction, we can only calculate fractions approximately equal to it. Up
to four decimal places, it is given by
π ≈ 3.1416
Thus the circumference of a circle of diameter 1 centimetre is π centimetres, the
circumference of a circle of diameter 2 centimetres is 2π centimetres, the circumference
of a circle of diameter 1 12 centimetres is centimetres and so on
This is the general result:
The circumference of a circle is π times its diameter.
155
Since circles are mostly drawn with a specified π in history

radius, this is often stated in terms of the radius: The efforts to compute the circumference and
The circumference of a circle is 2π times the area of circles started at least four thousand
years ago. In current terminology, these can
its radius.
be interpreted as efforts to compute fractions
In the third century BCE, the Greek approximating π
mathematician Archimedes computed that the The solution of a problem done in the Ahmes
Papyrus from ancient Egypt, interpreted this
circumference of a circle is more than
of way, gives

the diameter and less than of the diameter,
π ≈ 256
81 ≈ 3.16
using a regular polygon of 96 sides. In modern A Babylonian clay tablet from around the same
terminology, this translates to period (BCE 1500) gives
3.1408 < π < 3.1428 π ≈ 25
8 = 3.125
The shatapathabrahmana from India, estimated

up to four decimal places (Archimedes’
to be belonging to the seventh century BCE, this
estimate of 22
7 was used to compute the 339
circumference of a circle for a long time). is given as 108 ≈ 3.139
We have noted that Archimedes used 96 sided
In the fourteenth century CE, the Kerala 10 1
polygon to find 3 71 < π < 3 7 that is
mathematician Madhavan developed a method
to compute π to any desired degree of accuracy 3.1408 < π < 3.1428
by purely numerical methods, without using In 180CE, Zu Chongzhi of China used a regular
geometry; for example, we can compute polygon of 12288 sides to find
3.1415926 < π < 3.1415927
π = 3.1415926535...
and the smaller number is correct up to seven
Now using computers, we can compute π up to decimal places. Better approximations were
billions of decimal places. found only after a thousand years
In practical problems, we usually require

π only up to four decimal places. For
example, the circumference of a circle of
radius 5 metres correct up to millimetres is
π × 2 × 5= 10 π = 10×3.1416
= 31.416 metres
Draw a circle of diameter 1 in GeoGebra.
What is its circumference? Selecting
Options → Rounding → 15 Decimal
Places, we can get π correct up to 15 decimal places
156
Circle Measures
To make a circle of diameter 5 centimetres, we need a

wire of length 5π centimetres; that is, approximately What is the circumference of a

5 × 3.14 = 15.7 centimetres. circle of radius centimetres?
To draw such a circle in
Thus we have the answer to the problem posed at GeoGebra, select the Circle Center &
Radius tool and in the window opening
the beginning of the lesson. on clicking at a point, give the radius as
1/(2pi). Now can you draw a circle of
Now try the problems below. In all these, you can circumference 25 centimetres?
write the measures using π itself; no need to use
decimal approximations.
π in Keralam
(1) Calculate the circumferences of the
The method developed by the Kerala mathe
circles shown below:
matician Madhavan (sometimes known as
Samgamagrama Madhavan) to calculate
fractions which approximate π is a turning
point in the history of mathematics. His
method is numerical, very much different
from the geometrical methods used till then.
What he found was this: starting from 1,

(2) In a circle, a chord 4 centimetres away alternatively subtract and add reciprocals of
from the centre is 6 centimetres long. What the odd numbers, which gives the numbers
is the circumference of the circle? 1 1 1 1 1 1
1, 1− 3, 1 3 5, 1 3 5 7
(3) The figure below shows an isosceles trian-
gle of base and height 4 centimetres drawn and so on. These numbers get closer and
1
with vertices on a circle: closer to 4 π. This was rediscovered in the
seventeenth century by Gregory of Scotland
and Leibniz of Germany.
One defect of Madhavan’s method is that

1
these numbers approach 4 π quite slowly.
To get Archimedes’ approximation, we will
have to take up to 4000 of these numbers.
But Madhavan himself discovered another
method using which he could compute
π ≈ 3.14159265359
Calculate the circumference of the circle.
157
(4) In each of the pictures below, the centres of the large and small circles are
on the same line. In the first and the second pictures, all the small circles have
the same diameter:
In each of these figures, show that the circumference of the large circle is sum
of the circumferences of the small circles.
(5) In the picture below, the two circles have the same centre.
How much more is the circumference of the larger circle than that of the smaller
circle?
Area
Just as the perimeters of regular polygons within a circle approach the circumference of
the circle, the areas of these polygons approach the area of the circle:
158
Circle Measures
To calculate the area of the circle, we must see how the areas of these polygons increase.
If we join the centre of the circle to the vertices of the polygon, we can split the polygon
into equal triangles; and the area of the polygon is the sum of the areas of these triangles
For example, consider the regular pentagon inside the circle. If the length of its sides is
denoted by s and the length of the perpendicular from the centre to one side is denoted
by h, then the area of each of the five triangles is 12 sh:
The pentagon is made up of five such triangles, so that its area is

5 × 12 sh = 1
2 × 5s × h
In this, 5s is the perimeter of the pentagon, since s is the length of its sides. Denoting it
by p, the area of the pentagon is 12 ph.
Whatever regular polygon we take inside the circle, its area can be found to be half the
product of its perimeter and the length of the perpendicular from the center to a side.
For different polygons, the perimeter and the length of the perpendicular are different:
159
As in the computation of the circumference, let’s write these using algebra:
• We denote the perimeters of the equilateral triangle, square, regular pentagon and
so on within the circle by p1, p2, p3, ... and the lengths of the perpendiculars from the
centre to a side by h1, h2, h3, ...
• Let’s denote the radius of the circle by r and its circumference by c
♦ The numbers h1, h2, h3, ... get closer and closer to r
♦ The numbers p1, p2, p3, ... get closer and closer to c
• The numbers 1 1 1
2 p h , 2 p h , 2 p h , ...
1 1 2 2 3 3 get closer and closer to 2 cr
1
♦ The numbers 12 p h , 12 p h , 12 p h , ... are the areas of the polygons.

1 1 2 2 3 3
♦ The areas of the polygons get closer and closer to the area of the circle
♦ Let’s denote the area of the circle by a.
• The numbers 12 p h , 12 p h , 12 p h , ... get closer and closer to a

1 1 2 2 3 3
From the two statements above within red rectangles. we see that
a = 12 cr
What does this mean?
The area of a circle is half the product of its circumference and radius
We have seen that the circumference of a circle of radius r is 2πr. So the area of this
circle is
1
2 × 2πr × r = πr2
The area of a circle is π times the square of the radius
For example, the area of a circle of radius 5 centimetres is 25π square centimetres.
Now let’s do some problems using this.
160
Circle Measures
What is the area of the circular ring in this picture?

What is the area of a circle of radius ?
To draw such a circle in GeoGebra,
just give the radius as sqrt (10/pi) in the dialoge
window got from the Circle:Centre & Radius tool.
On selecting the Area tool and clicking inside the
circle, we get its area. Now can you draw a circle
of area 25?
We can think of this as a circle cut off from a larger circle:
So, the area of the ring is

6.25π – 4π = 2.25π sq.cm
Now let’s draw a right triangle and a circle as below:
161
What is the relation between the areas of the blue ring and the green circle?
(1) The length of a chord of a circle, 3 centimetres from the centre, is 4

centimetres. What is the area of the circle?
(2) In each of the pictures below, compute the difference between the area of the cir-
cle and the area of the regular polygon, correct up to two decimal places:
(3) In the pictures below, circles are drawn through the vertices of a square and a
rectangle:
Calculate the areas of the circles

(4) Draw a square and draw circles with its vertices as centres and radius as half the
side. Draw another square composed of four smaller squares of the same size as
the first square, and draw a circle that just fits inside it.
162
Circle Measures
Prove that the area of the large circle is the sum of the areas of the four small
circles.
(5) In the pictures below, the squares are of the same size. Prove that the areas of the
green regions in the pictures are equal:
(6) Parts of circles are drawn with the vertices of a regular hexagon as centres and the
figure below is cut out:
Calculate the area of the figure cut out.
163
(7) Parts of a circle are drawn within a square like this:
Prove that the area of blue region is half the area of the square.
164
Real Numbers
Real Numbers
Measures and numbers
How do we express lengths of lines as numbers? If we take a definite length as 1, then
twice this length can be termed 2, half this length 12 , one and a half times this length 1 12
and so on:
This length taken as 1 is called a unit of length. Once we specify a unit like this, many
other lengths can be expressed as natural numbers or fractions, as seen above.
But there are some lengths which cannot be expressed as natural numbers or fractions of
the chosen unit. For example, the diagonal of the square with length of sides this unit, or
the circumference of the circle with diameter as this unit:
When relations between measures, and between operations on numbers, are expressed
as algebraic equations, it is convenient to use negative numbers, as seen in the lesson,
Negative Numbers. So, we also need the negatives − 2 and −π of numbers like 2 and π.
Natural numbers, fractions, their negatives and zero are all collectively named
rational numbers. All numbers which cannot be expressed as fractions are called
irrational numbers. All numbers, rational and irrational numbers together are called real
numbers:
165
We can write natural numbers also in fractional

So, can we say that
form: for example, 5 as 15 , 10
2 or in so many other rational people are all
forms. Again, we can write negative natural number of the same kind, but
also in fractional form like this, with numerator or irrational people are all
denominator negative. different ?
Zero can be written as 10 , 02 and so on.

Thus all rational numbers have a common form xy ;
where x and y are natural numbers or their negatives;
and x can be 0 also.
But among irrational numbers, there are roots like
2 or 3 and also numbers like π which cannot be
expressed in terms of the usual operations on rational
numbers. So, they cannot be confined to any common
form.
Numbers and geometry

Every positive real number can be seen as a length. What if we consider all these lengths
as starting from the same point?
To make this clear, think of a line, its left end point and another point to the right of this
point:
Taking the distance between these points as the unit of length, we can write the distances
to various points on the right as numbers:
If we want to mark the distances to all points, we have to include irrational numbers
also:
166
Real Numbers
We can extend this line to the left of the point marked 0; how do we mark points on this
side with numbers?
For that, we can use the negatives of the numbers on the right. Recall how we did this in
the section, Position and number of the lesson, Negative Numbers:
We can imagine all real numbers as points on this line; on the other hand, we can imagine
all points on this line marked with real numbers
Such a line, with all points labelled using real numbers, is called a number line or real
line.
On a number line, as we move to the right from

0, the numbers become larger. What if we move All kinds of numbers
to the left? Mathematics starts with the natural
numbers 1, 2, 3, ..., Afterwards, for
Which is larger, −1 or −2? convenience in writing numbers (among
other things), the number 0 began to be
−1 means 1 less than 0. What about −2? It is 2
used. Fractions became necessary in the
less than 0, right? That is 1 less than −1. So −2 is
measurements of lengths, weights and time.
smaller than −1 and we write Irrational numbers were needed since all
−2 < −1 lengths cannot be expressed as multiples or
fractions of a single unit.
Thus in a number line, we get larger numbers as For convenience in using algebra, nega-
we move right from 0, and smaller numbers as tives of all these numbers began to be used.
we move left from 0. And all such numbers were termed real
numbers.
This is what happens if we move right or left Among real numbers, those which could be
from any number instead of zero, isn't it? expressed as fractions were named rational
numbers and the others, irrational numbers.
So, if we take any two real numbers, the position
of the larger number on the number line would be Natural numbers and their negatives,
on the right of the smaller number. together with zero are called integers.
167
Thus the arithmetical relation of being smaller or larger translates to the geometrical
relation of being on the left or right on the number line
Now we see how the geometric representation of real number as points on a line leads
to a new operation on numbers
Absolute value
We labelled points on a line using numbers, based on their distances from the point
marked 0. For example, the distance between the points marked 0 and 2 is 2:
We marked as -2, the point at the same distance from 0, but to the left:
So, the distance from 0 to -2 is also 2
What can we say in general?
• The distance between zero and a positive number on the number line is that
number itself
• The distance between zero and a negative number is the positive number got by
removing the negative sign in that number
For example,
The distance between 0 and 5 12 is 5 12
The distance between 0 and - 5 12 is 5 12
Now how do we use algebra to write the distance between the numbers 0 and x? (Note
that in writing numbers as letters in algebra, we often write both positive and negative
numbers as just x, y and so on, without attaching a sign).
So we have to describe the operation of removing the sign of a negative number in

another way. Recall seeing in the lesson, Negative Numbers that the negative of the
negative of a positive number is the number itself.
168
Real Numbers
For example
−(−2) = 2
So instead of saying, "remove the sign of a negative number", we can say "take the
negative of that number". Thus if x is a negative number, the positive number got by
removing its negative sign is −x
For example if x = −3 then
−x = −(−3) = 3
Now we can say that the distance between 0 and a negative number x is −x
This operation of taking x itself if x > 0 (that is if x is a positive number) and −x
if x < 0 (that is, if x is a negative number) is written as |x|, and is called the absolute value of x.
For example,
5 = 5 -5 = 5
3 = 3 - 3 = 32
2 2 2
= π - = π
We take the absolute value of 0 as 0 itself.
The general description of absolute value can be stated like this:
If x > 0, then |x| = x
If x < 0, then |x| = −x
If x = 0, then |x| = 0
We can combine these into a single equation like this:
x, if x > 0
|x| = −x, if x < 0
0, if x = 0

We can summarize our discussion like this:
On the number line, the distance between the point labelled zero and the point labelled
by another number is the absolute value of that number.
Using algebra, we can state it like this
On the number line, the distance between the point labelled 0 and the point labelled
x is |x|.
Next we look at some properties of absolute values.
For example, what is the relation between the absolute values of a number and its
negative?
169
For example, we have seen that

|3| = 3 = |−3|
What if we start with −3 instead? We have seen that −(−3) = 3. So, the absolute values
of −3 and its negative are both equal to 3:
|−3| = |3| = | −(−3)|

This is true for all numbers:
Any number and its negative have the same absolute value
Using algebra, this can be stated like this:

|−x| = |x| for any number x
Let's look at another fact. So, you're saying
The square of any number, positive or negative, is you'd root for us
positive. For example, both?
52 = 5 × 5 = 25
(−5)2 = (−5) × (−5) = 25
Now since
|5| = |−5|= 5
we have
|5|2 = 52
|−5|2 = 52 = (−5)2
This is true whatever numbers we take. Thus, we have this general result
|x|2 = x2 for any number x.
(1) Complete the table below:

x y xy |x| |y| |xy| |x| |y|
4 3 12 4 3 12 12
−4 3
4 −3
−4 −3
(i) Expand the table by taking some more pairs x, y of numbers. Do you see
any relation between |xy| and |x| |y| ?
(ii) Prove that |xy| = |x||y| for any two numbers x and y
170
Real Numbers
(2) Complete the table below:

x y x+y |x| |y| |x| + |y| |x + y|
3 5 8 3 5 8 8
−3 5 2 3 5 8 2
3 −5
−3 −5
Expand the table by taking some more pairs x, y of numbers. Do you see any
relation between |x| + |y| and |x + y| ?
Distances
We have seen that the distance between the number 0 and the number x is |x|. Now let's
see how we can write in algebra, the distance between two numbers x and y.
Recall how we calculated the displacement of a point moving along a line in the lesson,
Negative Numbers: displacements to the right as just the distance, and displacements
to the left as the negative of the distance:
171
So, if the displacement is positive, then the distance is the displacement itself; if the
displacement is negative, then the distance is the displacement with its negative sign
removed. Thus distance is the absolute value of the displacement.
We have seen in the lesson, Negative Numbers that the displacement from the number
x to the number y on the number line is y − x.
So, the distance between the numbers x and y is |y − x|
We have also seen that a number and its negative have the same absolute value; and the
negative of y − x is
−(y − x ) = x − y
So, |y − x| = |x − y|
What do we see here?
The distance between two numbers x and y on the number line is |x − y|.
We can state this in another manner in ordinary language
If x is larger than y, then x − y is positive so that |x − y| = x − y
Now if y is the larger number, then x − y is negative, so that
|x − y| = − (x − y) = y − x
So what can we say in general?
The distance between two numbers on the number line is the number got on
subtracting the smaller number from the larger number.
For example, the distance between 4 12 , 1
64 is
64 − 42 = 14
1 1 3
And the distance between 1

42 and -6 4 ?
1
1
42 − c- 6 1 m = 4 1 + 6 1 = 10 34
4 2 4
This leads to another observation:
|x − y| is the algebraic form of subtracting the smaller of the numbers x, y from the
larger.
Now look at this problem:
What are the numbers x for which |x − 1| = 3?
We can do this in different ways
Geometrically, |x − 1| is the distance between x and 1; and this distance is to be 3
The number to the right of 1, at a distance 3 is 1 + 3 = 4
The number to the left of 1, at a distance 3 is 1 − 3 = −2
172
Real Numbers
Thus x = 4 or x = −2
Now let's think algebraically.
If x > 1, then |x − 1| = x − 1; and if x − 1 = 3, then x = 4
If x < 1, then |x − 1| = 1 − x; and if 1 − x = 3, then x = 1 − 3 = −2
Let's change the problem slightly:
What are the numbers x for which |x + 1| = 3?
To do this geometrically, we must interpret
|x + 1|as a distance. Recall that distance is the And I have a sign too!
absolute value of a difference. So, we must In a way both of
us are one! Now tell me, in what
first rewrite x + 1 as a difference instead of a way am I less?
sum:
x + 1 = x − (−1)
Using this, we can write |x + 1| as |x − (−1)|
and hence as the distance between x and −1.
Now as in the first problem, we can find the
number to the right of −1, at a distance 3, as
−1 + 3 = 2; and the number to the left of −1,
at a distance 3, as −1 − 3 = −4.
Let's look at a different problem:
If |x − 1| < 3, then between what two It is my sign that

Don't be so negative,
numbers is x? make me a lesser
be positive!
person!
For this problem also, it is easier to reason
geometrically:
• The geometrical meaning of |x − 1| < 3 is that
the distance between the numbers x and 1 is
less than 3
• The number x can be either to the right of 1 or
to left; only thing is, distance from 1 should be less than 3
 The number to the right of 1, at a distance 3 is 1 + 3 = 4
173
 The number to the left of 1, at a distance 3 is 1 − 3 = −2
• If |x − 1| < 3, then the number should be between −2 and 4; that is −2 < x < 4
(1) Find x satisfying each of the

Small and large
equations below:
To satisfy |x − 3| < 5 the number x should be
(i) |x| = 5 (ii) |x − 3| = 2
between −2 and 8 that is, −2 < x < 8
(iii) |x − 2| = 3 (iv) |x + 2| = 3 What about the x satisfying |x − 3| > 5?
(2) Find between which numbers x should If x is to the right of 3 at a distance farther
lie to satisfy each of the equations than 5, or if x is to the left of 3 at a distance
below: farther than 5, then this condition would be
satisfied.
(i) |x| < 3 (ii) |x − 2| < 1
So, for this inequality to be satisfied,
(iii) |x − 1| < 2 (iv) |x + 1| < 2
either x should be less than −2 or larger than
(3) Find the integers satisfying each of the 8; that is, x < −2 or x > 8.
equations in problem (2)
Midpoint
On the number line, what is the number which marks the point exactly at the middle of
the points marked by the numbers 2 and 4?
It is not difficult to see that this number is 3, is it? So, 3 can be geometrically described
as the midpoint of 2 and 4
What is the midpoint of −2 and 4?
The distance from −2 to the midpoint should be half the distance from −2 to 4, right?
To get the distance from −2 to 4, the smaller number should be subtracted from the
larger:
4 − (−2) = 6
174
Real Numbers
Half this distance is 3. So, the number which marks the midpoint is at a distance 3 to the
right of −2; that is
−2 + 3 = 1
We can find the midpoint of any two numbers like this. Let's write this method using
algebra. Let's denote the smaller of the numbers by x and larger by y. So on the number
line, y is to the right of x at a distance y − x:
The midpoint is at half this distance to the right of x:
So, the midpoint is

x 2 ` y x j 2 x 2 y 2 (x y)
1 1 1 1
The midpoint of two points on the number line is the point marked by half the sum
of the numbers which mark those points
For example, the midpoint of - 2 12 and 4 34 is

1 # c 1
-2 2 + 4 4 m = 2 # 2 4 = 1 8
3 1 1 1
2
and the midpoint of −4.8 and 1.2 is
= 12 # ^- 4.8 + 1.2h
= 12 # ^- 3.6h = - 1.8
175
(1) Find the number which mark the

Number density
midpoint of the points marked by
On any line, there are many points between
each pair of numbers given below on the
any two points, however close they may be.
number line:
For example, the midpoint of two points
(i) 1, −5 (ii) −1, −5 (iii) − 12 , − 13 lie between them; the midpoints of this
point and each of the first two points give
(iv) − 12 , 34 (v) −2.5, 3.5 (vi) 1.3, 8.7 two more points. And this can be continued
indefinitely.
(vii) − 2 , - 3 (viii) − 3 , 7
We can interpret this in terms of numbers.
(2) Find the numbers which mark the points For any two numbers x and y, the number
dividing the distance between the points 1
z1 = (x + y) is between them. The numbers
2
marked by 1 and 2 into four equal parts, on 1 1
z2 = (x + z1), z3 = (y + z1),
the number line. 2 2
are two other numbers between x and y. Thus
we can find as many numbers as we want
between x and y.
Now let's look at another problem:
What number x satisfies the equation |x − 1| = |x − 4|?
Think about the geometrical meaning of the equation
|x − 1| = |x − 4|
The point marked by x on the number line is at the same distance from the points
marked by the numbers 1 and 4
What does this mean?
The point marked by x is the midpoint of the points marked by 1 and 4.

So,
x = 12 × (1 + 4) = 2 12
Find x satisfying each of the equations below:

(i) |x − 1| = |x − 3| (ii) |x − 3| = |x − 4|
(iii) |x + 2| = |x − 5| (iv) |x| = |x + 1|
176
Polynomials
Polynomials
Algebra of measurements
A rectangle of sides 2 centimetres and 3 centimetres is enlarged to a larger rectangle, by
increasing each side by 1 centimetre:
What is the perimeter of the new rectangle?

The lengths of the sides of this rectangle are 3 centimetres and 4 centimetres so that
perimeter is 2 × (4 +3) = 14 centimetres.
We can think about this in another way. The perimeter of the original rectangle was
2 × (3+ 2) = 10 centimetres. Each side is increased by 1 centimetre, which means an
increase of 4 centimetres in all. So the perimeter of the new rectangle is 10 + 4 = 14
centimetres.
What if the sides are extended by 2 centimetres? If we use the second method, then the
total increase in length is 4 × 2 = 8 centimetres, so that the new perimeter is 10 + 8 = 18
centimetres.
This makes the computation easier, right? If the extension is 2 12 centimetres, then the
new perimeter is
c4 # 2 1 m + 10 = 20 cm
2
In general, whatever be the extension of each sides, 4 times that added to 10 gives the
new perimeter.
177
Let's write this using algebra. We denote the extension of each side as x centimetres and
the new perimeter as p centimetres. Then we can write
p = (4 × x) + 10 = 4x + 10
Now we can quickly compute the perimeters for various extensions:
If the extension is 3 centimetres, then the new perimeter is
(4 × 3) + 10 = 22 centimetres
If the extension is 3 12 centimetres, then the new perimeter is
c 4 # 3 1 m + 10 = 24 centimetres
2
If the extension is 3 34 centimetres, then the new perimeter is
c 4 # 3 3 m + 10 = 25 centimetres
4
Using algebra, these can be shortened:
If x = 3, then p = 22
If x = 3 12 , then p = 24
If x = 3 34 , then p = 25
There is a way to shorten these still further:
p(3) = 22
p c 3 12 m = 24
pc 3 34 m = 25
In general, we can write
p(x) = 4x + 10
Let's look at this notation once again. First we write our computation in ordinary
language:
If the sides of a rectangle of sides two centimetres and three centimetres are all
extended by the same length to make a larger rectangle, then the perimeter of this
rectangle is ten added to four times the extension. For example if the sides are
extended by 1 12 centimetres, then the perimeter becomes 16 centimetres.
Next we write this in shorthand, using algebra:
If the sides of a rectangle of sides 2 centimetres and 3 centimetres are all extended
by x centimetres to make a larger rectangle, and the perimeter of the larger rectangle
is p centimetres, then p = 4x + 10. For example, if x = 1 12 , then p = 16.
In this, p changes according to the change in x. To make this dependence clear, we write
p(x) instead of just p. Then we can change the above statement like this:
178
Polynomials
If the sides of a rectangle of sides 2 centimetres and 3 centimetres are all extended
by x centimetres to make a larger rectangle, and the perimeter of the larger rectangle
is p(x) centimetres, then p(x) = 4x + 10. For example, p c1 12 m = 16
As another example, let's see how the area changes in the same setup. Instead of
computing areas for various extensions as before, let's move straight to algebra, taking
the extension of sides as x centimetres:
From the pictures above, we can see that the new area is
6 + 2x + 3x + x2 = 6 + 5x + x2
We can do this using only algebra without any pictures:
(3 + x) (2 + x) = 6 + 3x + 2x + x2 = 6 + 5x + x2
(The lesson, Multiplication Identities)
In algebraic expressions, we usually write the letters first. So, the above equation can
be written
(x + 3) (x + 2) = x2 + 5x + 6
As in the case of the perimeter problem, if the area got by extending each side by x
centimetres is denoted a(x) square centimetres, then we have
a(x) = x2 + 5x + 6
Using this, we can compute for example
a(1) = 12 + (5 × 1) + 6 = 1 + 5 + 6 = 12
a c1 12 m = c1 12 m + c5 # 1 12 m + 6 = 2 14 + 7 12 + 6 = 15 34
2
a(2) = 22 + (5 × 2) + 6 = 4 + 10 + 6 = 20
And these can be written in ordinary language like this:
If the extension is 1 centimetre, then the new area is 12 square centimetres
If the extension is 1 12 centimetres, then the new area is 15 34 square centimetres
If the extension is 2 centimetres, then the new area is 20 square centimetres
179
As another example, let's see how the volume of a rectangular block of edges 1
centimetre, 2 centimetres and 3 centimetres change when it is expanded to a larger block
by extending all edges by the same length.
If the extension is denoted as x centimetres, then the volume of larger block is
(x + 1)(x + 2)(x + 3) cubic centimetres. To compute this product, we first write
(x + 2) (x + 3) = x2 + 5x + 6
as seen earlier. Next this must be multiplied by x + 1. For that we must multiply each
number in the first sum by each number in he second sum and add:
(x + 1)(x2 + 5x + 6) = (x × (x2 + 5x + 6)) + (1 × (x2 + 5x + 6))
= (x3 + 5x2 + 6x) + (x2 + 5x + 6) = x3 + 6x2 + 11x + 6
We write this in detail:
If the sides of a rectangular block of edges 1 centimetre, 2 centimetres and 3
centimetres are all extended by x centimetres to make a larger rectangular block, and
the volume of the larger block is v(x) cubic centimetres, then v(x) = x3 + 6x2 + 11x + 6.
(1) In all rectangles with one side 1 centimetre less than the other, denote the
length of the shorter side as x centimetres
(i) Denote their perimeters as p(x) centimetres and write the relation
between x and p(x) as an equation
(ii) Denote their areas as a(x) square centimetres and write the relation
between x and a(x) as an equation
(iii) Compute p(1), p(2), p(3), p(4), p(5). Do you see any pattern?
(iv) Compute a(1), a(2), a(3), a(4), a(5). Do you see any pattern?
(2) From the four corners of a rectangle, small squares of the same size are cut off
and the tabs are raised up to make a box as in the picture below:
180
Polynomials
(i) Denote the length of the sides of the squares as x centimetres and write the
the lengths of the three edges of the box in terms of x
(ii) Denote the volume of the box as v(x) cubic centimetres and write the relation
between x and v(x) as an equation
(iii) Compute v c 12 m , v(1) and v c1 12 m
(3) Consider all rectangles that can be made with a rope of length 1 metre. Denote
the length of one side as x centimetres and the area enclosed by the rope as a(x)
square centimetres.
(i) Write the relation between x and a(x) as an equation
(ii) Why are a(10) and a(40) the same number?
(iii) To get the same number as a(x) when x is taken as two different numbers,
what should be the relation between the numbers?
Special expressions
We have seen how some relations between measurements can be written as algebraic
equations. These can be seen as relations between just numbers also. For example, in
our first problem on rectangles, we wrote the relation between an extension of the sides
and the new perimeter as
p(x) = 4x + 10
This can seen as the operation of multiplying a number by 4 and adding 10, beyond
computation of perimeters
Let's have a look at the other relations we discussed earlier:
• a(x) = x2 + 5x + 6
• v(x) = x3 + 6x2 + 11x + 6
If we look at them as operations on numbers, we can detect some common features.
In all these, the only operations done are multiplying powers of the number x by fixed
numbers and adding these products; and adding a fixed number. Algebraic expressions
involving only these operations are called polynomials.
There are instances where operations other than these are done on measurements. For
example, let's look at the computation of the diagonals of a rectangle with one side
1 centimetre longer than the other
181
If we denote the length of the shorter side as x centimetres, then the length of the diagonal
in centimetres is
x2 + (x + 1) 2 = 2x2 + 2x + 1
This involves the square root of varying numbers and so this is not a polynomial, by
definition
Now look at this picture:
It shows a rectangle attached to the hypotenuse of an isosceles right triangle. What is its
area?
The area of the triangle is easily seen to be 8 square centimetres. The length of the
longer side of the rectangle is the hypotenuse of the isosceles right triangle and so is 4 2
centimetres, as seen in the lesson New Numbers. The area of the rectangle is thus 4 2
square centimeters.
The total area of the figure is 8 + 4 2 square centimetres
What if the length of the perpendicular sides of the triangle is some other number? If we
denote this number as x, then the area of the figure is the number
2x +
1 2
2x
This uses the square root of 2; but the operations on the varying number x involves
only squaring and multiplication by the fixed numbers 12 and 2 . So, this expression is
indeed a polynomial.
Let's look at another example. Consider all rectangles of area 25 square centimetres. If
we denote the length in centimetres of a side of such a rectangle as x, then the perimeter
of the rectangle in centimetres is
2x + 50
x
Since this expression involves the operation taking the reciprocal of the varying number
x, it is not a polynomial.
A polynomial involves powers of a varying number. The largest exponent occurring like
this is called the degree of the polynomial.
182
Polynomials
Look at some of the polynomials we have seen:

p(x) = 4x + 10
a(x) = x2 + 5x + 6
v(x) = x3 + 6x2 + 11x + 6
In this list, the degree of the first polynomial is 1, the degree of the second is 2 and the
degree of the third is 3
Instead of saying, "polynomial of first degree", "polynomial of second degree" and so
on, we can simply say, "first degree polynomial", "second degree polynomial" and so on
We can write the general form of polynomials, based on their degrees:
First degree polynomial : ax + b
Second degree polynomial : ax2 + bx + c
Third degree polynomial : ax3 + bx2 + cx + d
In these, a, b, c, d denote fixed numbers; thus when we take different numbers as x in
such a polynomial, these numbers are not changed. They are called the coefficients of
the corresponding powers. They can be any real numbers.
(1) In each of the problems below, check whether the relation between the
specified measurements is a polynomial. Give reasons for your assertions.
(i) The relation between the length of the sides of a square park and the area
of a 1 metre wide path around it.
(ii) The relation between the amount of acid added to a mixture of 3 litres
of acid and 7 litres of water, and the change in the percent of acid in the
mixture
(iii) Two poles of heights 3 metres and 4 metres stand 5 metres apart. A rope
is to be stretched from the top of one post to some point on the ground
and then stretched to the top of the other pole:
The distance from the foot of one pole to the point on the ground where the
rope is fixed, and the total length of the rope.
183
(2) Write each of the following operations as an algebraic expression. Check which
of them are polynomials, giving reasons
(i) Sum of a number and its reciprocal
(ii) Sum of a number and its square root
(iii) The product of the sum of a number and its square root, and the difference
of the square root and the number
(3) For each of the polynomial p(x) given below, compute p(1) and p(10)
(i) p(x) = 2x + 5 (ii) p(x) = 3x2 + 6x + 1 (iii) p(x) = 4x3 + 2x2 + 3x + 7
(4) For each of the polynomial p(x) given below, compute p(0), p(1) and p(−1)
(i) p(x) = 3x + 5 (ii) p(x) = 5x − 8 (iii) p(x) = 3x2 + 6x + 1
(iv) p(x) = 2x2 − 5x + 3 (v) p(x) = 4x3 + 2x2 + 3x + 7
(vi) p(x) = ax3 + bx2 + cx + d
184
Parts of Circles
Parts of circles
Length and angle
We have seen how we can calculate the perimeter and area of a circle. Now let's see how
we can calculate the measures of some parts of a circle.
Consider a point travelling around a circle, starting from some point on the circle. The
pictures below show the fraction of the circle covered at some stages of the journey:
Since the path of travel is a circle, instead of the distance travelled around the circle, we
can also talk about the amount of rotation about the centre of the circle.
Remember how we drew angles at the centre of a circle to get different parts of a circle,
in the lesson Angles in class 6? To get 18 of a circle, an angle of 360° ÷ 8 = 45° and to
get 14 of a circle, an angle of 360° ÷ 4 = 90° at the centre and so on.
185
Thus we can describe the journey either in terms of lengths or angles.

Now a question: after completing half a rotation and moving one eighth of the circle
more, the distance travelled is 12 + 18 = 85 of the circle. How do we describe this as a
rotation?
8 of the circle means an angle of 45°; so after a rotation of 180°, there is a further
1
rotation of 45°. So, we can say a total rotation of 180° + 45° = 225°:
Thus each stage of the complete journey around the circle, till arriving back at the starting
position, can be described either as a fraction
of the circle or as the amount of rotation in In GeoGebra draw a circle centred at
a point A, passing through the point B.
degrees (up to 360°).
Create a slider a, choosing the option
Now suppose we take the radius of the circle as Angle. Select the Angle with Given Size and click
1 metre. Then the circumference of the circle on B and then A. Give the angle asked for as a. We
get a new point B' on the circle. Dragging the slider
is 2π metres; and we can describe the distance
moves B' around the circle
travelled as actual lengths, instead of fractions
of the circle:
So we can describe each stage of the journey either in terms of the distance travelled in
metres, or in terms of the the amount of rotation in degrees
If the rotation is 60°, what is the distance travelled around the circle?
First let's calculate it as a fraction of the whole circle. 1° is 360
1
of the circle, right? So,
60° is 60 × 360
1
= 16 of the circle. Since the perimeter of the circle is 2π metres, this is

6 × 2π = metres.
1
186
Parts of Circles
In general. whatever fraction of 360° is the rotation, that fraction of 2π metres is the
distance travelled
What if the radius of the circle is 1 12 metres? Then the circumference is 3π metres. So
to compute the distance corresponding to a rotation, we must take fractions of 3π. In
other words, though the fraction of circumference corresponding to a rotation does not
change; but the actual distance in metres changes.
For example, if rotation is 45°, the distance is still 18 of this circle; but since the circle is
larger, the actual distance changes to 83 π metres:
This is the general result:

In a circle of radius r, the distance travelled around the circle for a rotation of x°
x × 2πr
about the centre is 360
Draw circle with centre at A in GeoGebra and mark
Now let's see how this is stated using two points B and C on it. Hide the circle by right
some new mathematical terms. The clicking on it and unchecking the Show Object in the
part of a circle between two points on menu. Select the Circular Arc tool and click first on A and
the circle is called an arc of the circle. then on B and C to get an arc. Clicking on A and then on C
The angle of rotation from one end of and B results in another arc. See the difference. Drawing the
the arc to the other end is called the radii AB, AC, we can get the angle between them using the
central angle of the arc. Angle tool
187
So, according to what we have seen before, we can say that for an arc which is 18 of the
whole circle, the central angle is 45°, for an arc which is half the circle, the central angle
is 180°, for an arc which is 85 of the circle, the central angle is 225° and so on.
The relation between distance travelled around a circle and the angle of rotation about
the centre can now be stated as a result in pure mathematics.
x #
In a circle of radius r, if the central angle is xo, then arc length is 360 2πr
Whatever fraction of 360° is the central Circumference of the earth

angle of an arc, that fraction of the The circumference of the earth was first calcu-
circumference of the circle is the length lated by the Greek scholar Eratosthenes in the
of the arc second century BCE
He knew on a particular day of each year, the
For example, in а circle of radius 3 midday sun in the city of Syene would be directly
centimetres, what is the length of an arc of overhead, so that no shadows would be cast. He
central angle 60°? measured the slant of the sun's rays at that time
in his native city of
We can do the computation mentally: since Alexandria, using
60° is 16 of 360°, the length of the arc is 16 the shadow of a
of the circumference of the circle, which is vertically erected
stick:
6π centimetres; so the length of the arc is π
If we assume that
centimetres. the rays of the sun
What about the length of an arc of central reach earth as parallel lines, then this angle is
equal to the central angle of the arc joining Syene
angle 50° in a circle of radius 2.5 centimetres?
and Alexandria. And the distance between the
The length of the arc is 360 50
of the two cities is the length of the arc
circumference, and the circumference is Denoting the slant of sun's rays at Alexandria
5π centimetres. So, the length of the arc in as a° and the distance to Syene as d, the
circumference of the earth can be calculated as
centimetres is 360
a ×d
50 × 5π = 25 π ≈ 2.2 centimetres.
360 36
188
Parts of Circles
Let's look at another problem:

From an iron ring of radius 9 centimetres, a piece of central angle 30° was cut off
and this piece was bent into a small circle. What is its radius?
The length of an arc of central angle 30° is Make the GeoGebra applet of the previous
12 of the circumference. So, the length of the
1 experiment, with the radius of the circle

piece is 12 × 18π = 32 π centimetres. This is the (Give the radius as 12/pi). What is the
1
circumference of this circle? Mark the length of
circumference of the small circle. So its radius
the arc using the Distance or Length tool. What is
is 32 π ÷ 2π = 34 centimetre. arc length for central angle 60°? How do we draw
an arc of length 2? Try drawing arcs of lengths 3,
There's an easier way to compute this: the
5, 15, 18 and 19
circumference of the small circle is 121
of the
circumference of the large circle. Since the radius and circumference are scaled by the
same factor, the radius of the small circle is 12
1
of the radius of the large circle; that is,
12 times 9.
1
1 3
12 × 9 = 4 centimetre
(1) In a circle, the length of an arc of central angle 40° is 3π centimetres.

What is the circumference of the circle? And the radius?
(2) In a circle, the length of an arc of central angle 25° is 4 centimetres.
(i) What is the length of an arc of central angle 75° in this circle?
(ii) What is the length of an arc of central angle 75° in a circle with radius one and
a half times this circle?
(3) From a bangle of radius 3 centimetres, a small piece is to be cut off to make a ring
of radius 12 centimetre
(i) What should be the central angle of the piece to be cut off?
(ii) The remaining part of the bangle is bent to make a smaller bangle. What is its
radius?
(4) With each vertex of an equilateral triangle as center, an arc

of a circle which passes through the other two vertices is
drawn to get the given figure. What is its perimeter?
189
(5) With each vertex of a regular octagon as center an arc of a circle is drawn and the
resulting figure is cut off, as in the pictures below:
What is the perimeter of the figure cut off?
Angles and areas

An arc is a part of the circumference of a circle. Combined with the radii through its
ends, it forms the region of the circular area:
In GeoGebra, draw a circle with center A and

mark two pints B and C on it. Selecting the
Circular Sector tool and clicking on A, B, C in this
order, we can draw a sector of the circle. Selecting
the Area tool and clicking inside the sector, we get
its area
Such a part is called a sector of the circle. The central angle of the arc of a sector is called
the central angle of the sector also.
Just as the length of an arc changes with the central angle, so does the area of the sector;
and the computations are similar. For example, an arc of central angle 60° is 16 of the
circumference; and the area of a sector of central angle 60° is 16 of the area of the circle.
190
Parts of Circles
Like this, an arc of central angle 1° is 360

1
of Draw a circle in GeoGebra with center at
the circumference of the circle and a sector of
A and radius . This can be done by
central angle 1° is 360
1
of the area of the circle. using the tool Circle: Centre & Radius and
Thus the relation between the central angle and giving the radius as sqrt(240/pi). What is the area
the area of a sector can be stated in the same of this circle? Mark a point B on the circle and as
before, a moving point B' on the circle, using an
way as the relation between the central angle
angle slider. Draw the sector joining A, B, B' using
and length of an arc:
the Sector tool and mark its area. What is the area
Whatever fraction of 360° is the central angle of the sector with central angle 60°? Draw sectors
of a sector, that fraction of the area of the of area 20, 44, 100, 120, 194. Find their central
circle is the area of the sector angles
Using algebra, this can be stated like this:

x × πr2
The area of a sector of central angle x° in a circle of radius r is 360
For example, the area of a sector of central angle 40° is 360

40
= 19 of the area of the circle.
If the radius of the circle is 3 centimetres, its area is 9π square centimetres and so the
area of this sector is π square centimetres.
Now a problem: What is the area of the green region of the
circle in this picture?
We get this region by removing a triangle from a sector:
191
The area of the sector is 16 of the area of the circle
That is, 16 × 4π = 32 π square centimetres.

Since the triangle is equilateral (why?) its area is 3 square centimetres.
So the area of the green region in the first picture is 32 π − 3 square centimetres.
(1) (i) In a circle of radius 3 centimetres, What is the area of a sector of

central angle 120°?
(ii) What is the area of a sector of the same central angle in a circle of
radius 6 centimetres?
(2) Find the area of green region in the picture below:
192
Parts of Circles
(3) In the picture below, arc of a circle is drawn with each vertex of an equilateral
triangle as centre and half the side as radius:
Calculate the area of the blue region.

(4) In the picture below, arcs of circles are drawn centred on two opposite vertices of a
square and passing through the other two vertices:
4 cm
What is the area of green region?
(5) The picture below shows two circles of the same radii, each passing through the
centre of the other:
Calculate the area of the region common to both.
193
(6) The picture below shows semicircles drawn with the sides of a right triangle as
diameters:
Prove that the area of the largest semicircle is the sum of the areas of the other two.
194
Prisms
Prisms
Different bases
You have learned about rectangular blocks and their volumes in class 6, haven't you?
Its surface is made up of six rectangles; pairs of the same size at the top and bottom, left
and right, front and back; six altogether.
See these pictures:
All these shapes, with horizontal spread and vertical height, are said to be three-
dimensional objects or solids.
The three-dimensional objects shown here have some other peculiarities.
195
What can we say about their surfaces?
In the first, equal triangles at the top and bottom and three rectangles on the sides; in
the second, quadrilaterals on top and bottom and four rectangles on the sides, and in the
third, hexagons at the top and bottom and six rectangles on the sides
In general, the surface of each of them is made up of two identical polygons on the top
and bottom, and rectangles of the same height with corresponding sides of the polygons
as a pair of opposite sides. Such solids are
Let's see how we can draw prisms in
called prisms.
GeoGebra. First we draw the base, using
The top and bottom polygons and the the Polygon tool. Next open the 3D
graphics window via View → 3D Graphics. The
rectangles on the sides are called faces of the polygon drawn will be visible in this window also.
prism; those faces on the top and bottom are Clicking on this window shows a new set of tools
called bases and those on the sides are called in the toolbar. Choose the tool Extrude to Prism
from these and click on the polygon in the 3D
lateral faces. The sides of the faces are called
window. This opens up a window in which the
edges. height (Altitude) of the prism can be given. This
draws the prism. To remove the labels of vertices
Prisms can be classified as triangular, and edges, first select Options→Labeling→No
quadrangular, hexagonal and so on according to New Objects, before starting to draw
the base. The pictures above show a triangular
prism, quadrangular prism and a hexagonal prism. What we have called a rectangular
block so far can now be called (in formal language) a rectangular prism
Try making hollow prisms by cutting out cardboard polygons and rectangles
Volume
Remember how we calculated volumes of rectangular prisms (blocks) in class 6? For
example, look at this rectangular prism:
196
Prisms
This can be split into cubes of edges 1 centimetre:
It contains 5 × 3 × 2 = 30 cubes; so its volume is 30 cubic centimetres.

In class 7, we have seen that even if the lengths of the sides of a rectangle are fractions,
its area is their product (the section, Fractional area of the lesson, Fractions). In the
same way we can show that the volume of a rectangular prism is the product of their
edges, even when they are fractions. Again, in class 9 we have seen that even if the length
of sides of a rectangle are irrational numbers, the area is still their product (the section
Multiplication of the lesson Irrational Multiplication). This can also be extended to
get the volume of a rectangular prism with lengths of sides irrational as the product of
these lengths.
The volume of a rectangular prism can be described in a different manner. In the prism
shown above, the base is a rectangle of sides 5 centimetres and 3 centimetres and hence
area 5 × 3 square centimetres. So, the volume is the product of this area and its height,
2 centimetres
Since all faces of a rectangular prism are rectangles, we can take any of these as the base:
Whichever base we choose, volume is the product of its base area and the corresponding
height, isn't it?
197
Let's see if we can compute the volume of any prism like this. First we take a right
triangular prism:
We can make a rectangular prism by attaching another identical prism to it:
If we denote the base area of the right triangular prism by a, the base area of the
rectangular prism got by attaching its duplicate is 2a. The heights of the triangular prism
and the rectangular prism are the same. Denoting it by h, the volume of the rectangular
prism is 2ah. Since this is double the volume of two of the triangular prisms, the volume
of a single triangular prism is ah; that is its base area multiplied by height.
What about a triangular prism whose base is not right
angled? We know how any triangle can be split into two
right triangles by drawing the perpendicular from a vertex
to the opposite side:
So, any triangular prism can be split into two right triangular
prisms by slicing vertically through such a perpendicular in
the top face, as shown below:
198
Prisms
Adding the volumes of these right triangular prisms will give the volume of the original
triangular prism. If we denote the base area of the original triangular prism by a and the
base areas of the two right triangular prisms by b and c, then a = b + c. All three prisms
have the same height. Denoting this by h, the sum of the volumes of the right triangular
prisms is bh + ch = (b + c)h = ah, which is the product of the base area and height of the
original triangular prism.
Thus the volume of any triangular prism is the product of its base area and height.
Now we can divide any polygon into triangles by joining one vertex to all others:
And the area of the polygon is the sum of the areas of these triangles. So any prism can
be split into triangular prisms:
In GeoGebra draw a polygon
using the Polygon tool. (The
number of vertices can be six
or seven.) Its area can be got using the
Area tool. Draw a prism of any height
you like, with this polygon as base.
Selecting the Volume tool and click-
ing inside the prism gives its volume.
What is the relation between base
And the base area is the sum of the base areas of the
area, height and the volume? Check by
pieces. Let's denote the base area of a whole prism by
a and its height by h. If the base of the prism is split changing the positions of the vertices.
into n triangles, the prism itself is split into n triangular (By dragging a vertex onto another,
prisms. Let's denote their base areas by b1, b2, ..., bn. the number of vertices can be reduced)
Then their volumes are b1h, b2h, ..., bnh. So, the volume
of the original prism is
b1h + b2h + . . . + bnh = (b1 + b2 + . . . + bn)h = ah
Thus we have a general result:
The volume of any prism is the product of the base area and
the height.
199
For example, consider this problem:

Do these problems using GeoGebra. Draw
The base of a prism is an equilateral
a prism with base an equilateral triangle
triangle of sides 4 centimetres and its
of perimeter 15 centimeters, and height 5
height is 10 centimetres. What is its
(The Regular Polygon tool can be used to draw an
volume?
equilateral triangle). What is the volume of this
We have seen that the area of an equilateral prism?
triangle is 3 times the square of half the side, All the edges of a triangular prism are equal and its
in the lesson, Irrational Multiplication. In volume is 16 3 . What is the length of its edges?
this problem, the base is an equilateral triangle Draw this prism. The volume of a hexagonal prism
of side 4 centimetres. So, the base area in with all edges equal is 12 3 . Draw this prism.
centimetres is
3 × 22 = 4 3
Since the height is 10 centimetres, the volume is
4 3 × 10 = 40 3 cubic centimetres
(1) The base of a prism is an equilateral triangle of perimeter 18 centimetres

and its height is 5 centimetres. Calculate its volume.
(2) The base of a prism is a triangle of sides 13 centimetres, 14 centimetres and 15
centimetres, and its height is 20 centimetres. Calculate its volume.
(3) There is a hexagonal pit in the school ground to collect rain water. Each side of
the hexagon is 2 metres and the depth of the pit is 3 metres. It now contains water
one metre deep. How much litres is this? How much more litres can it contain?
(4) A hollow prism with base a square of sides 16 centimetres contains water 10
centimetres high. If a cube of edges 8 centimetres is immersed in it, by how much
would the water level rise?
(5) A rectangular block of metal has edges of lengths 6 centimetres, 9 centimetres and
15 centimetres. It is melted and recast into identical cubes of sides 3 centimetres.
How many cubes would be got?
(6) The base of a prism is a square of sides 6 centimetres and its height is 10
centimetres. What is its volume? What is the maximum volume of a triangular
prism cut from it?
200
Prisms
Area
A hollow tube is to be made of thick paper, with dimensions as shown in the picture
It can be made by gluing together three rectangles cut out separately or by folding a
single rectangle like this:
What is the area of the paper used to make this prism? It is the area of the rectangle
above, which is in square centimetres
(4 + 5 + 6) × 8 = 15 × 8 = 120 square centimetres
It is the sum of the areas of the lateral faces of the prism, isn't it? In general, the sum of
the areas of lateral faces of a prism is called its lateral surface area.
We computed the lateral surface area of the triangular prism above by multiplying 15 by
8. In this 15 = 4 + 5 + 6 is the perimeter of the triangle which forms the base of the prism
and 8 is the height of the prism. So, the lateral surface area of this prism is the product
of the base perimeter and height. A little thought convinces us that this can be done for
any triangular prism.
What if the base is a quadrilateral instead of a triangle?
Imagine a hollow prism cut

along some of the edges
and spread flat as a single
sheet. It can be folded back into the
prism also. To do this for a prism
in GeoGebra, select the Net tool
and click on the prism. Draw some
prisms and see what their nets are.
201
The lateral surface area of this prism is the area of the rectangle got by slicing and
spreading the prism, isn't it? And that is (a + b + c + d)h, which is again the product of
the base perimeter and height.
We can compute the lateral surface area of any prism like this:
The lateral surface area of any prism is the product of its base perimeter
and height.
For a closed prism, the total surface area can be calculated by just adding twice the base
area to the lateral surface area.
Let's look at a problem:
The base of a wooden prism is an equilateral triangle. Its lateral surface area is 48
square centimetres and its height is 4 centimetres. Six of these are joined to make
a hexagonal prism:
It is to be prettied up by sticking coloured paper on all its faces. What is the area
of paper needed?
What we need here is the total surface area of the hexagonal prism; and for that we have
to add the lateral surface area and twice the base area.
To calculate the lateral surface area, we need the perimeter of the hexagon and for that
we need the length of the sides of the base of the triangular prisms.
We can find the base perimeter of any prism by dividing the lateral surface area by the
height, right?
So the base perimeter of the triangular prism is 48 ÷ 4 = 12 centimetres.
Since the base is an equilateral triangle, its perimeter is three times the length of a side;
so the length of a side of the triangle in our problem is 12 ÷ 3 = 4 centimetres
202
Prisms
Now we can calculate the base perimeter of the

hexagonal prism, can't we?
The perimeter of a hexagon with all sides 4
centimetres is 6 × 4 = 24 centimetres. Since the
height of the prism is also 4 centimetres, its lateral
surface area is 24 × 4 = 96 square centimetres.
To this we must add the areas of both the bases.
The area of each of the six triangles which make
the hexagon is
3 × 22 = 4 3 square centimetres.
The area of the hexagon formed by six of them is 6 × 4 3 = 24 3 square centimetres.

So, the total surface area of the hexagonal prism is
96 + (2 × 24 3 ) = 96 + 48 3 = 48 _2 + 3 i square centimetres
We can use a calculator to see that this number is a little more than 179. Anyhow, 180
square centimetres of paper would be enough.
(1) The base of a prism is an equilateral triangle of perimeter 12 centimetres
and its height is 5 centimetres. What is its total surface area?
(2) Two identical prisms with right triangles as bases are joined to form a rectangular
prism, as in the picture below:
What is the total surface area of this rectangular prism?

(3) The base of a prism is a triangle with sides 4 centimetres, 13 ċentimetres and
15 centimetres and its height is 25 centimetres. Calculate its lateral surface area
and total surface area.
203
(4) The lateral surface area of a prism, with base an equilateral triangle, is 120 square
centimetres
(i) What is the lateral surface area of a prism, with base a rhombus, made by
joining two such triangular prisms?
(ii) What is the lateral surface area of a prism, with base an isosceles trapezium,
made by joining three such triangular prisms?
(iii) What is the lateral surface area of a prism, with base a regular hexagon, made
by joining six such triangular prisms?
(5) Six sheets of metal, each a square of sides 10 centimetres are joined to make a
cube
(i) What is its total surface area?
(ii) How much water can it contain?
Cylinders
Prisms are three-dimensional objects with polygons at the ends and rectangles on the
sides. There are also three-dimensional objects with circles at the ends and the side
smoothly rolled curves, instead of being bent into rectangles. You might have seen
several such objects, both solid and hollow:
Such objects are called cylinders. How do We can draw cylinders in GeoGebra, just
we compute the volume of a cylinder? Is it as we drew prisms. Draw a circle in the
the product of the base area and the height? Graphics window and click on it shown
in the 3D Graphics window after selecting the
Extrude to Prism tool. Enter the height to draw the
cylinder.
204
Prisms
Recall how we computed the area of a circle by considering regular polygons of

increasing number of sides within it:?
In the same way we can imagine prisms with regular polygons as bases inside a cylinder:
The volumes of these polygonal In GeoGebra, draw a circle with centre at A and radius 3, and
prisms get closer and closer to mark a point B on it. Make an integer slider n with Max:200.
the volume of the cylinder, Select the Angle with Given Size tool and click on B and then
right? on A. Give the Angle as (360/n)°. We get a new point B' on the circle.
We can now use some algebra Select the Regular Polygon tool; and click on B and B'. Give the
to show that the volume of the Vertices as n. We get a regular polygon of n sides within the circle.
cylinder is also the product of Now in the 3D Graphics window, draw a prism with this polygon as
the base area and height base. See what happens when we increase the value of n.
• Let's denote the base areas of the polygonal prisms by p1, p2, p3, ... and so on
• Let's denote the base area of the cylinder by c. Then the numbers p1, p2, p3, ... get
closer and closer to the number c
• Let's denote the height of the cylinder by h
• The numbers p1h, p2h, p3h, ... get closer and closer to the number ch
* The numbers p h, p h, p h, ... are the volumes of the polygonal prisms.

1 2 3
205
* The volumes of the polygonal prisms get closer and closer to the volume of the
cylinder.
• Let's denote the volume of the cylinder by v
• The numbers p1h, p2h, p3h, ... get closer and closer to the number v
From the two statements within red boxes above, we get
v = ch
Thus we get this:
The volume of a cylinder is the product of the base area and height.
We know that the area of a circle is the product of the square of the radius by π. So, if
the radius of the base of a cylinder is 3 centimetres and its height is 5 centimetres, then
its volume is π × 32 × 5 = 45π cubic centimetres.
Let's look at another problem:
A block of wood in the shape of a square prism has base edges of length 10 centimetres
and height 20 centimetres. What is the volume of the largest cylinder that can be
cut out from it?
The base of the largest cylinder possible is the largest circle
that can be enclosed with the base of the square pyramid; and
the height of this cylinder is the height of the square prism
itself:
This means the base diameter of the cylinder should be equal
to the side of the base of the square prism.
Thus the base radius of the cylinder is 5 centimetres, so that
the base area is 25π square centimetres. Since the height of
the cylinder is 20 centimetres, its volume is 25π × 20 = 500π
cubic centimetres
(1) The base diameter of a cylindrical tank is 1 metre and its height is 2 metres.
How many litres of water can it contain?
(2) The base radius of an iron cylinder is 15 centimetres and its height is 32 centimetres,
It is melted and recast into a cylinder of base radius 20 centimetres. What is the
height of this cylinder?
206
Prisms
(3) The base radii of two cylinders of the same height are in the ratio 3 : 4. What is
the ratio of their volumes?
(4) The base radii of two cylinders are in the ratio 2 : 3 and their heights are in the
ratio 5: 4
(i) What is the ratio of their volumes?
(ii) The volume of the smaller cylinder is 720 cubic centimetres. What is the
volume of the larger one?
Curved surface
A rectangular sheet of paper or metal can be rolled into a cylinder; on the other hand, a
hollow cylinder, open at both ends, can be cut and spread out into a rectangle:
The area of this rectangle is called the curved surface area of the cylinder.
The length of one side of this rectangle is the height of the cylinder. The other side is the
base circle straightened, so that its length is the circumference of this circle. The curved
surface area is the product of these lengths:
The curved surface area of a cylinder is the product of its base circumference and its
height
The base circumference is π times the base diameter, isn't it? So, the curved surface area
of a cylinder of base radius 3 centimetres and height 5 centimetres is π × 6 × 5 = 30π
square centimetres.
If this is a closed cylinder, to get the total surface area, we must add to this, the areas of
the two circles at the ends; that is, 30π + (2 × π × 32) = 48π square centimetres.
207
(1) In a school building there are 12 cylindrical pillars, each of base diameter
1 metre and height 4 metres.
2
(i) What is the curved surface area of a pillar?
(ii) What is the total cost of painting all the pillars at 80 rupees per square
metre?
(2) The drum of a road roller has base diameter 80 centimetres and length 1.2 metres:
What is the area of the road levelled when it rolls once?

(3) The curved surface area of a cylinder is equal to its base area. What is the
relation between its base radius and height?
(4) A rectangular sheet of metal with sides 48 centimetres and 25 centimetres is rolled
into a cylinder of height 25 centimetres and its ends are closed with exactly fitting
circles. What is the total surface area of this cylinder?
Rectangular sheets of thick paper, of sides 24 centimetres and 18 centimetres are

bent along the longer side to make hollow prisms with bases an equilateral triangle,
a square, a regular hexagon, a regular octagon. One of them is rolled into a cylinder.
All the prisms have the same lateral surface area and it is also equal to the curved surface
area of the cylinder. What about their volumes? Do you note anything special?
What if these shapes are made by bending or rolling along the shorter side of the rectangle?
Find out the similarities and differences between these and the first ones, in lateral surface
area, curved surface area and volume.
208
Polynomial Pictures
Polynomial Pictures
Polynomial Pictures
First degree polynomials
We have seen in class 6 how the relation between certain measurements can be written
as algebraic equations; and then saw these as operations on pure numbers in the lesson
Polynomials. Seen this way, every polynomial transforms numbers according to some
definite rule.
For example, let's take the first degree polynomial

p(x) = 2x + 1
This can be seen as the operation of multiplying every number by 2 and adding 1. So, if
we take x as 0, 1, 2, 3 and so on, we get the numbers 1, 3, 5, 7 and so on as p(x). (Recall
the general form of odd numbers, seen in class 7)
We can show how p(x) changes with x using a table:
x 0 1 2 3
p(x) 1 3 5 7
We can show this as a picture, as done in classes 5 and 6.

First draw a horizontal line and mark equally spaced points on it, labelling them 0, 1, 2,
3 and so on. Now from these points draw perpendiculars of heights p(0), p(1), p(2), p(3)
and so on, with the same unit of length used on the horizontal line:
209
We can take negative numbers also as x, and extend the table to the left:
x −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3
p(x) −5 −3 −1 1 3 5 7
How do we show them in the picture ?

As done in the lesson, Real Numbers, we can extend the horizontal line to the left and
mark the negative numbers taken as x:
How do we mark negative numbers got as p(x) ?

We showed positive values of p(x) by drawing perpendiculars upward; so, let's show
negative values of p(x) by drawing perpendiculars downwards:
210
Polynomial Pictures
Now look at the ends of these perpendiculars

Are they all on the same line? Join them using a ruler:
If we take other numbers as x, will the ends of the perpendiculars of lengths p(x) be still
on this line?
What if we take x = 1 34 ?
p c1 4 m = c 2 # 1 4 m 1 4 2
3 3 1
We can mark 1 34 on the horizontal line and draw a

perpendicular to meet the slanted line. We want to check
whether its height is 4 12 . To see this, we zoom in onto the
part of the picture we are interested in:
211
If we draw another perpendicular as in the picture below, we get two right triangles
(shown in red) at the top:
These two triangles have the same angles (why?) and so their sides are scaled by the
same factor, as seen in the lesson, Similar Triangles. The lengths of some of the sides
of these triangles are easily seen:
The bottom side of the smaller triangle is 34 of the bottom side of the larger triangle. So,
the vertical side of the smaller triangle must also be 34 of the vertical side of the larger
triangle.
212
Polynomial Pictures
So, the length of the vertical side of the smaller triangle is 2 × 34 = 1 12
This gives the length of the perpendicular from the point 1 34 on the horizontal line to the
red as 3 1 12 4 12 .
Turning this statement around, we can say that if from the point 1 34 on the horizontal
line, we draw a perpendicular of height p c1 34 m = 4 12 then its end is on the red line.
In the same way, we can see that whatever number
(rational or irrational) we take as x, the end of the
perpendicular of length p(x), drawn from the point
corresponding to x on the horizontal line, would be on
the red line.
This line is called the graph of the polynomial
p(x) = 2x + 1. Usually when we draw graphs like this,
only the ends of the perpendicular are marked (instead
of drawing the whole perpendicular) and then these
points are joined. To see the heights, a perpendicular
to the horizontal line is drawn through the point de-
noting 0, and distances marked on it with respect to
the same unit used in the horizontal line.
We can use the Input Bar in GeoGebra to draw graphs. To

draw the graph of p(x) = 2x + 1, type p(x) = 2x + 1 as Input
and hit the Enter key. [We can simply type 2x + 1 to get
the graph, but the name of the polynomial may not be p(x)]
213
In the same way, we can see that the graph of any first degree polynomial is a straight
line.
We need only two points to draw a line. So to draw the graph of a first degree polynomial,
we need only take two numbers as x and compute the numbers got from the polynomial
For example, consider the polynomial
p(x) = x + 1
Let's take 0 and 1 as x:
x 0 1
p(x) 1 2
Now can't we draw the graph?
On the other hand, it is not difficult to get the first degree polynomial from its graph. For
example see this graph:
214
Polynomial Pictures
Let's denote by p(x), the polynomial with this

Create two sliders a and b in GeoGebra
graph. Then we can see from the picture that
with Increment 0.1. Type p(x) = ax + b
p(0) = −1 and p(2) = 0 from the graph. in the input bar to draw the graph of this
Now since p(x) is a first degree polynomial, it polynomial. Change only b. What happens to the
must be of the form graph? What if we |change a only? Can we find out
what p(x) is, if p(0) = −1 and p(2) = 5 using this?
p(x) = ax + b Try! What if p(1) = 2 and p(2) = 6?
We want to find out a and b.

For that we use the facts that p(0) = −1 and p(2) = 0, got from the graph.
Since p(x) = ax + b we have
p(0) = (a × 0) + b = b
Since p(0) = −1 we get
b = −1
Using this, we can find p(2) as
p(2) = (a × 2) + b = 2a + b = 2a − 1
and we have got p(2) = 0 from the graph. So,
2a − 1 = 0
which means
a = 12
So, the polynomial of the graph is p(x) = 12 x − 1. In other words, the graph of
p(x) = 12 x − 1 is this line:
215
(1) Draw the graphs of these polynomials:

(i) p(x) = 2x − 1 (ii) p(x) = x − 1 (iii) p(x) = 1 − x
(iv) p(x) = x (v) p(x) = −x
(2) Find the polynomials which has these lines as their graphs:
Second degree polynomials

Let's look at graphs of second degree polynomials next. What is the simplest second
degree polynomial?
p(x) = x2
To draw its graph first let's make a small table:
x −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3
p(x) 9 4 1 0 1 4 9
Now as before, we draw two lines perpendicular

to each other and mark equally spaced points
on it, labelling them with numbers. Next, above
each number taken as x on the horizontal line,
mark the point at a height p(x)
216
Polynomial Pictures
Using these points only, we cannot draw the graph; how do we get some points on the
graph in between these?
If we take x = 0.5, then p(0.5) = 0.25 and this distance we cannot mark with a ruler.
We can use GeoGebra to draw the graph.
On opening GeoGebra, we can see horizontal and vertical lines marked with numbers.
If we type (0.5,0.25) in the input bar, we get the point at a height 0.25 above 0.5 on the
horizontal line.
Instead of separately computing the distance and height of each point we want and
marking them one by one, we can do it in one go in GeoGebra. Type the following
command in the Input Bar:
Sequence [(t, t^2), t, −3, 3, 0.5]
This asks GeoGebra to take as t the numbers starting from −3 and repeatedly increased
by 0.5 till 3 is reached, and then for each such t, mark the point at a height t2 above t on
the horizontal line. This produces the picture below:
217
To get more points in between all we need to do is change the difference between the
numbers from 0.5 to 0.1:
In GeoGebra, create a slider a with

Min:0, Max:1 and Increment:0.01
Type Sequence [(t, t^2), t, −3, 3, a]
in the inputbar.
Some points on the graph of p(x) = x2 will be
shown. As we decrease the value of a, we get
more and more points on the graph.
Now don't we get an approximate shape of the graph?

To draw this curve without in gaps, we type x^2 in the Input Bar.
In GeoGebra, create a slider a with

Increment:0.1. If we type (a, a ^ 2), we get
a point on the graph of p(x) = x2. As we
change the value of a, using the slider, the point
moves. To see the path of its travel, right click on
the point and check Trace on in the menu. If we
decrease the increment to say, 0.01, we get points
closer together. (We can change the Increment by
right clicking on the slider and selecting Object
Properties → Slider → Increment). We can get
the path of travel by selecting the Locus tool and
clicking on the slider and the point
Type other second degree polynomials in the Input Bar and see the graphs. For example,
the graphs got on typing (1/2)x^2 − 3x + 1 and −2x^2 + 3x + 1 are shown
on the next page.
218
Polynomial Pictures
Looking at the graphs of various second degree polynomials, we note that the only
differences are change in position, change in spread or a vertical turnabout.
When we look at these curves from left to right, we see two different kinds of behaviour:
• Moving down to a minimum and then moving up.
• Moving up to a maximum and then moving down
How do we describe these using algebra?

In GeoGebra, create a slider a and
In the second degree polynomial p(x), if the numbers draw the graph of the polynomial
taken as x are gradually increased from negative p(x) = x^2 + a. What happens
numbers to positive numbers, the numbers p(x) behave to the curve as the number a is changed?
in either of these two ways: Next draw the graph of q(x) = ax^2.
• The numbers p(x) decrease to a minimum and In this, what is the change, when the
number a is changed?
then increase
• The numbers p(x) increase to a maximum and then decrease
Now let's see how we can find a second degree polynomial from its graph.
219
For example, the picture shows the graph of a second

degree polynomial. Denoting the polynomial by p(x),
we see from the picture that
p(0) = 6
p(2) = 0
p(3) = 0
Since p(x) is a second degree polynomial, we can
write it as
p(x) = ax2 + bx + c
as seen in the lesson, Polynomials
So
p(0) = (a × 02) + (b × 0) + c = c
Now since p(0) = 6 we get
c=6
and so
p(x) = ax2 + bx +6
Next from p(2) = 0 we get
4a + 2b + 6 = 0
and from p(3) = 0 we get
9a + 3b + 6 = 0
We can rewrite the first equation as
2a + b = −3 (1)
and the second equaiton as
3a + b = −2 (2)
Subtracting Equation (1) from Equation (2) gives
a = −2 −(−3) = −2 + 3 = 1
220
Polynomial Pictures
Using this in Equation (1) gives

b = −3 − 2 = −5
So, the polynomial of this graph is
p(x) = x2 − 5x + 6
The graphs of some second degree polynomials are given below:
Find the polynomials
221
Graphs of third degree polynomials do not have such a common form. For example,
draw the graphs of these polynomials in GeoGebra and see:
• p(x) = x3
• p(x) = x3 − x
Draw the graphs of these polynomials::

1
(i) p(x) = x (ii) p(x) = 2x (iii) p(x) = 2 x (iv) p(x) = −x (v) p(x) = −2x
Do you see any common feature of these graphs?

Now draw the graphs of these polynomials:
1
(i) p(x) = x + 1 (ii) p(x) = x + 2 (iii) p(x) = x + 2 (iv) p(x) = x − 1
(v) p(x) = x − 2
Do you see any common feature of these graphs?
222
Proportion
Proportion
Proportional changes
See these pictures:
The same photographs in different sizes.

We have noted in the lesson, Ratios in class 7 that, in enlarging or reducing a photo like
this, the ratio of the sides of the rectangle should not change.
In all the pictures above the width to height ratio is 4 : 3. That is, the height is 3
4 of the
width; or in reverse, the width is 34 = 1 13 of the height.
Now look at these pictures:
A photo in the 16 : 9 format in different sizes. This means that in all these figures, the height
is 16
9 of the width, or in other words, the width is 16 = 1 7 of the height.
9 9
223
Thus in each set of pictures, though the width and height change, one is a fixed multiple
or fraction of the other.
Let’s state this using algebra.
In the first set of photos, if we denote the width by w and the height by h, then in all these,

h = 34 w
Paper proportions
Using the same notation for the second set, we
For printing and copying, we now mostly
have
use A4 size paper. This is just one of a
series of decreasing paper sizes, starting h = 16
9w
with A0 and continued to A1, A2 and so on. There are several instances where two varying
The size of each such sheet in the series is quantities are related like this. For example, if
half that of the preceding one: we draw circles of different radii, in all these the
circumference would be 2π times the radius,
right? Denoting the radius of these by r and the
circumference by c, we have
c = 2πr
In the examples so far, we have been consider-
Also, in all such sheets, the width to height ing only relations between lengths. This kind of
ratio is the same
relation occurs between different kinds of quanti
Let’s denote the widths of such sheets by x ties also.
and the height by kx. The width and height
1
of a sheet in the next type would be then 2 kx For example, if an object travels along a straight
and x: line at the same speed of 10 metres per second,
then the distance travelled at any instant is 10
times the time of travel. If we denote the time
of travel as t seconds and the distance travelled
Since the width to height ratio is the same as s metres, then
for both, we have s = 10t
1 =1
2k k There’s a general name for varying quantities
From this, we get k = 2 which means
2 related in this manner:
k= 2
If two related quantities change in such a way
Thus in the A-series sheets of paper, height is
proportional to the width and the proportion- that the number representing one quantity is
ality constant is 2 . a fixed multiple or fraction of the other, then
the change is said to be proportional.
224
Proportion
(The word proportion is generally used to indicate equality of ratios)

In proportional changes of two quantities, the fixed number which gives one quantity as
a multiple or fraction of the other is called the proportionality constant.
Let’s have another look at our earlier examples:
• If we use a program like GIMP to change the width of any of our first set of
pictures, then on entering the desired width, the program itself would calcu-
late the height as 34 of the width and make the changes. Here, height changes
proportionally with respect to width and the proportionality constant is 34 .
On the other hand, if we instruct the height to be changed, then the width would be
calculated as 34 of the height entered. In this case, width changes proportionally
with respect to height and the proportionality constant is 34 .
• If the pictures are in the 16 : 9 format, as in the second set of pictures above, then a
graphics program calculates height proportionally with respect to the width, with
proportionality constant 16 9
, and calculates width proportionally with respect to
height, with proportionality constant 16 9 .
• If circles of different radii are drawn, the circumference changes proportionally
with respect to radius and the proportionality constant is 2π.
On the other hand if wires of different lengths are bent into circles, the length of
the wire is the circumference of the circle; and the radius changes proportionally
with respect to this length and the proportionality constant is .
• For an object moving along a straight line at the constant speed of 10 metres per
second, the distance travelled (in metres) changes proportionally with respect to
the time of travel (in seconds) and the proportionality constant is 10.
On the other hand, the time of travel (in seconds) changes proportionally with
respect to the distance travelled (in metres) and the proportionality constant is 10
1
.
We can describe proportional changes using algebra:
If the relation between two quantities measured as the numbers x and y is
y = kx where k is a constant,
then the quantity indicated by y changes proportionally with respect to the quantity
indicated by x; and the proportionality constant is k
Let’s look at another example:
For all points on the slanted line, as the distance from the corner changes, the height
from the horizontal line also changes:
225
To check whether this change is proportional, let’s denote by k, the height of a point at a
distance of 1 from the corner:
Weight and length As in the second picture, we denote the distance from
the corner by x, and the height above the horizontal
When a weight is suspended from a
line by y.
spring, its extension is proportional to
the weight:
Since the right triangles in the two pictures have the
same angles, their sides are scaled by the same factor,
as seen in the lesson, Similar Triangles. This means
x y
1 = k
which gives
This was discovered by Robert y = kx
Hooke, an English physicist of the
seventeenth century. So, the height above the horizontal line changes
This principle can be used to calibrate proportionally with respect to the distance from the
spring scales: corner.
(1) In each of the instances below, show

that the second quantity changes
proportionally with respect to the first.
Also find the proportionally constant in
each:
If a weight of 1 kilogram extends the
spring by 5 centimetres, then the (i) The length of sides of squares and
extension for 100 grams would be 2
1 their perimeters.
centimetre, right? So if the scale is
(ii) The lengths of wires bent into
marked at 2 centimeter gaps, it can
1
squares and the length of the sides
measure weights which are integer
multiples of 100 grams. If smaller of the squares.
intervals are marked, then weights (iii) The number of rotations of a circle
less than 100 grams and their rolling along a line, and the distance
multiples can also be weighed. travelled along the line.
226
Proportion
(2) We have seen that in the picture, the height of

a point on the slanted line from the horizon-
tal line changes proportionally with respect
to its distance from the corner. Calculate the
proportionality constants when the angle is
30°, 45° and 60°.
(3) Prove that in equilateral triangles, the perimeter changes proportionally with
respect to the length of the sides. What is the proportionality constant? What can
we say about other regular polygons?
(4) Prove that the lengths of arcs of a fixed circle change proportionally with respect
to their central angles. What is the proportionality constant? What about the rela-
tion between the area of a sector and its central angle?
Scale and proportion
Nothing wrong
Let’s look at a property of proportional change. with the
spring, Sir! May be because
If the width of one of the photos we first saw is it's summer!
doubled using a graphics program, what happens
to the height?
In both photos, height is 34 of the width. So,

New height = 34 × New width
And what is the relation between the old and new widths?
New width = 2 × Old width
So, New height = 34 × 2 × Old width
= 2 × 34 × Old width
In this,
3 × Old width = Old height
4
isn’t it? So,
New height = 2 × Old height
227
Thus if the width is doubled, then height also is doubled.

In the same way, we can see that if the width is tripled, the height is also tripled and if
the width is halved, then the height is also halved. In general, the change in height is the
same multiple or fraction of what the width is changed into. In other words, height is
scaled by the same factors as width. (But in all these, the proportionality constant is the
change of height with respect to width is 34 itself.)
It is not difficult to see this is true in other instances of proportional changes.
In proportional changes of quantities, one is scaled by the same factor as the other
This can be used to check whether some changes are proportional. For example, an
object dropped from a height travels 4.9 metres in one second and 19.6 metres in two
seconds. In other words, when time is doubled, distance is not doubled, but quadrupled.
So, in this travel, distance does not change proportionally with respect to time.
We have seen in the lesson Similar triangles that in triangles with the same angles, sides
are scaled by the same factor; and on the other hand, if the sides of a triangle are scaled
by the same factor, then the angles are not changed. For example, see these triangles:
The sides of the larger triangle are 1 12 times the sides of the smaller one. In other words,
the sides of the small triangle are scaled by a factor of 1 12 to get the larger triangle.
We can note another thing here. In both triangles. we have these relation between pairs
of their sides:
• The longest side is 2 times the smallest side
• The medium-length side is 1 13 times the shortest side
• The longest side is 1 12 times the medium-length side
These relations do not change even if we scale the triangle by any other factor. For
example, see this picture:
228
Proportion
This is drawn by halving the sides of the first

Rain math
triangle by 12 , or by taking one-third the sides of
the second triangle. When it rains, the amount water falling
on each square centimeter is the same. In
So the scale factor for the change from the first other words the volume of water falling in
triangle to the third triangle is 12 and the scale a region is proportional to its area.
factor for the change from the second to the third So when it rains, if we put some vessels,
is1 13 . cylinders or prism-shaped close together
on the the ground, the volume of water
But in this triangle also, the ratio of the sides is
collected in each, divided by the base area
the same: the longest side is double the smallest must be the same number. But the volume
side and the medium-length side is 1 13 times the of water in a prism or cylinder, divided
smallest. (Because of these, the longest side must by the base area is the height of the water
be 1 12 times the medium-length side). level, right? Thus whatever be the size
of the vessel we use, the height of the
Thus, the first triangle can be scaled by different rain water collected would be the same.
factors to get different triangles; but in all these, This height is taken as a measure of the
the ratios of pairs of sides do not change. rainfall. According to this, if the rainfall is
1millimetre, then in a tank with base area
This we state as a general result: 1square metre, water will rise to a height
of 1millimetre. The volume of this
If we consider all triangles with the same an 100 × 100 × 0.1 = 1000
gles, the length of each side changes propor�- In other words, volume of water is 1 litre.
tionally with respect to another side Thus 1millimetre rainfall over a region
means 1 litre of rain water in each square
metre
(1)
(i) What is the sum of the angles of a triangle? And the sum of the
angles of a hexagon?
(ii) Does the sum of the angles of polygons change proportionally
with respect to the number of sides? Explain the reason.
(2) Inside a triangle of base 6 centimetres and height 3 centimetres, lines are drawn
parallel to the base. Prove that the lengths of these lines change proportionally
with respect to the distance from the top vertex. Find the proportionality constant.
229
(3) Within a semicircle of diameter 10 centimetres, lines are drawn parallel to the
diameter:
(i) In each of the pictures below, calculate the length of the line parallel to the
diamenter:
(ii) Does the length of the parallel line change proportionally with respect to the
distance from the top of the semicircle. Explain the reason.
Different proportions
In polygons, does the sum of the inner angles change proportionally with respect to the
number of sides?
The sum of the angles is 180o for triangles and 720o for hexagons; when the number
of sides is doubled, the sum of angles is more than the double. So, the relation is not
proportional.
We have seen in the lesson, Polygons of class 8, that the sum of the inner angles of any
polygon is got by subtracting 2 from the number of sides and then multiplying this
number by 180°. That is, if we denote the sum of the angles by s◦ and the number of
sides by n, then
s = 180(n − 2)
230
Proportion
Let’s denote the number n − 2 here by m. Then the equation becomes

s = 180m
This shows that quantity s is proportional to the quantity m; that is, the sum of the inner
angles is proportional to the number of sides reduced by 2.
There are many instances like this, where even though a change in two quantities is not
proportional, it does become proportional if one of the quantities is changed a bit
For example, since the areas of a circle is the product of the square of the radius and the
fixed number π, area is not proportional to the radius; but area is proportional to the
square of the radius.
Similarly, though the distance travelled by a falling object is not proportional to time,
it is proportional to the square of time.
Let’s look at another thing.
For any regular polygon, we can draw a circle through all its vertices. How is the angle
made by two adjacent vertices at the centre of the circle related to the number of sides
of the polygon?
If we denote the number of sides of the regular polygon by n and denote the central angle
as d ◦, then the relation between them is
d = 360
n
This means, the quantity d changes proportionally with respect to the reciprocal of the
quantity n.
Such a change has its own name:
If two varying quantities are related in such a way that the number representing one
quantity is a fixed multiple or fraction of the reciprocal of the other, then the change
is said to be inversely proportional.
Using algebra, we can state this as follows:

If the relation between two quantities measured as the numbers x and y is
y = kx where k is a constant
then the quantity indicated by y changes inversersely proportional to the quantity
indicated by x; and the proporitionality constant is k.
231
Changes given by the equation y = kx are sometimes

called directly proportional (instead of simply “pro- Late because you
did a problem
portional”, as we have been doing so far) to distin- wrong! How so?
guish it from inversely proportional relationships
Let’s look at another example of inverse proportion- I thought speed
was proportional
ality. to time!
Imagine an object travelling along a straight line
from one point to another point 100 metres away. If
the speed is 10 metres per second, it takes 10 seconds
to reach the other point. If the speed is increased to
25 metres per second, time is reduced to 4 seconds.
If we denote the speed as x metres per second and the
time taken to reach the destination as y seconds, the
relation between x and y is given by
y = 100
x
So, y changes inversely proportional to x.
(1) (i) Prove that the areas of equilateral Volume and weight
triangles change proportionally with In objects made of the same material,
respect to the squares of the lengths weight changes proportionally with
of sides. What is the proportionality respect to volume.
constant? As an example, consider objects made
(ii) Are the areas of squares proportional to the of iron. If the weight of any such object
squares of the lengths of sides? If so, what is is measured in grams and its volume
the proportionality constant? in cubic centimetres, then the number
indicating the weight would be 7.87
(2) Consider all rectangles of area 1 square metre.The times the number indicating volume. In
length of one side of such a rectangle depends on other words, 7.87 is the proportionality
the length of the other side. Write this relation as constant of this change. For objects made
an algebraic equation. How do we state it in terms of copper, the proportionality constant is
of proportion? 8.96. We say that the density of iron is
7.87 grams per cubic centimetre and the
(3) Consider all triangles of a fixed area. How do we density of copper is 9.86 grams per cubic
state in terms of proportion, the relation between centimetre.
the length of the longest side and the length of
the perpendicular to it from the opposite vertex?
What if we use the shortest side instead of the longest?
(4) In regular polygons, can we say the relation between the number of sides and the
measure of an outer angle, in terms of proportion? What is the proportionality
constant?
232
Statistics
Statistics
Average
The table below shows the runs scorerd in the first 10 overs of a one-day cricket match:
Ball
1 2 3 4 5 6
Over
1 2 1 0 2 0 0
2 1 4 0 1 0 0
3 0 0 4 0 0 1
4 4 0 2 0 1 0
5 0 0 4 1 0 3
6 2 0 2 2 0 0
7 1 0 4 0 2 1
8 2 0 2 0 3 0
9 0 0 6 2 2 0
10 2 0 0 4 0 2
This contains all the details of runs scored in each ball of every over. But we don't get a
general view of what happened in the first ten overs.
For that it may be better to condense the table and show only the total runs scored in
each over:
Over 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Runs 5 6 5 7 8 6 8 7 10 8
233
This table does not have all the details in the first one. But still, we can see certain things
at a glance:
• In every over, at least 5 runs were scored
• In eight of these ten overs, more than 5 runs were scored
Next, without drawing up any table, we can just add up all the runs scored in these overs
and simply make the statement
70 runs were scored in the first 10 overs
This gives only two numbers. But even with these, we can say something about the
batting:
• Not a bad start
• If this trend of scoring nearly 70 runs continues, the total score can be expect-
ed to be around 350
We can reduce this to just one number, by dividing 70 by 10 and say this:
The run rate is 7 runs per over
Now what if we don't know any details, but only the run rate?
We cannot conclude that exactly 7 runs were scored in each over; but we can say these:
• If the same number of runs was scored in every over, it would be 7 runs
• The runs scored in every over cannot all be less than 7
* If that be so, the total would be less than 70
• The runs scored in every over cannot all be more than 7
* If that be so, the total would be more than 70
Let's look at another situation. There are 40 students in a class. All of them contributed in a
fund raising. If we look at the amounts donated by each, there would be just 40 numbers;
and from this, we cannot easily see how much money was raised or approximately how
much each donated. But suppose just this fact is given instead:
The total contribution of the 40 students is 2000 rupees
It may not be that everyone donated the same amount. So, we cannot say that each of the
students gave 2000 ÷ 40 = 50 rupees.
Still we can conclude certain facts, as in the case of the cricket match:
• If all students gave the same amount, it would be 50 rupees
• At least one student donated 50 or more (If each had given less than 50 rupees,
the total would have been less than 2000 rupees).
234
Statistics
• At least one student donated 50 or less (If each had given more than 50 rupees,
the total would have been more than 2000 rupees)
• If not all gave the same amount, then some gave more than 50 rupees and some
less than 50 rupees
In both these instances, we started with numbers giving a lot of information and reduced
them to a single number which gave us a general outline of the information.
To do this, we did the same operation with the numbers in both:
• In the first case, we divided 70, the total number of runs, by 10, the number of
overs, to get 7
• In the second, we divided 2000, the total contribution, by 40, the number of
students, to get the number 50
Such a number, got by dividing a sum by the number of terms, is called average in
ordinary language. In the more technical language of mathematics, it is called the
arithmetic mean or simply the mean.
Thus the single numbers calculated in the two examples above can be described as
follows:
• The mean of the runs scored in the first 10 overs is 7 (In the first 10 overs,
average score is 7 runs an over)
• The mean of the contribution made by 40 students is 50 rupees (Each of the 40
students contributed 50 rupees on average)
We have noted that for unequal numbers, the arithmetic mean is larger than some of
these numbers and smaller than some others. We next look at this fact in a little more
detail
As an example, let's have a look at the table used to compute the arithmetic mean as 7
in the cricket match:
Over 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Runs 5 6 5 7 8 6 8 7 10 8
Let's also write how much more or less than the mean was actually scored in each over:
Over 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Runs 5 6 5 7 8 6 8 7 10 8
Excess over mean 1 1 3 1
Deficit from mean 2 1 2 1
235
Let's also add up the excess and deficit separately

Excess = 1 + 1 + 3 + 1 = 6
Deficit = 2 + 1 + 2 + 1 = 6
We can also show the runs scored in each over in a picture, as done in classes 5 and 6:
In this, we can draw a horizontal line through the mean 7, and mark the excess and
deficit in each over:
236
Statistics
Take some numbers and calculate the arithmetic means. Calculate the excess or
deficit of each of the numbers from the mean and add them up separately. Are
the sums equal? Can you explain the reason for this?
Tables
When numerical data are tabulated, repeated numbers are usually collected together. For
example, in a workplace, those getting the same salary are counted together.
Now look at this problem
The table shows the number of workers of different categories in an office, grouped
according to their daily wages:
Daily wage
Number of workers
(Rupees)
675 8
730 4
755 4
780 3
840 1
What is the mean daily wage?

To compute this, we must find the number of workers and their total daily wage.
We can find the total of workers getting the same wage by multiplication. For example,
the total daily wages of those getting daily wage of 675 rupees is
675 × 8 = 5400 rupees
237
Like this we can calculate the total wages of workers in each category separately:
Daily wage Number Total wage

(rupees) of workers (Rupees)
675 8 5400
730 4 2920
755 4 3020
780 3 2340
840 1 840
Total 20 14520
Now can't we compute the mean wage?

Mean wage = 14520 ÷ 20 = 726 rupees
In this problem, the minimum of the wages is 675 rupees and the maximum of the wages
is 840 rupees. The mean wage is more than 675 rupees and less than 840 rupees. Is this
true in all instances?
See this example
• Consider any 8 numbers with minimum 100 and maximum 200
• Their sum is more than 100 × 8 = 800 and less than 200 × 8 = 1600
• So, the mean got by dividing the sum by 8, is more than 800 ÷ 8 = 100 and less
than 1600 ÷ 8 = 200
For numbers other than 8, 100 and 200 also we can reason in the same manner
Thus we have the general result:
The arithmetic mean of a set of numbers is between
their minimum and maximum
(1) In a T20 match, 51 runs were scored in the first 5 overs

(i) What is the mean run rate then?
(ii) If this run rate is maintained, what is the total they can expect?
238
Statistics
(2) The table below shows the children in a class grouped according to their marks
in a math test:
Marks Children
2 1
3 2
4 5
5 4
6 6
7 11
8 10
9 4
10 2
(i) What is the mean marks of the class?
(ii) How many got less marks than the mean?
(iii) How many got more marks than the mean?
(3) The details of rubber sheets a farmer got during a month are shown below:
Rubber (kg) Days

9 3
10 4
11 3
12 3
13 5
14 6
16 6
(i)
How many kilograms of rubber did he get a day on average in this month?
(ii) The price of a kilogram of rubber is 175 rupees. How much did he get a day
on average this month from rubber?
239
(4) The table below shows the days in a month sorted according to the amount of
rainfall in a locality:
Rainfall (mm) Days
54 3
56 5
58 6
55 3
50 2
47 4
44 5
41 2
What is the mean rainfall per day during this month?
Frequency tables
We have seen in class 8 how data is tabulated as classes

and frequencies when the amount of data is large. Let's see Marks Persons
how we compute the arithmetic mean from such a table. 0 - 10 4
10 - 20 6
The table classifies 40 persons who took a test
20 - 30 16
according to the marks they scored: Calculate the
30 - 40 8
mean marks scored. 40 - 50 6
To calculate the mean, we must divide the total marks by the number of persons.
Here, how do we find the total marks?
From the first line of the table, we know only that 4 persons got marks between 0 and
10. Without knowing the exact marks each got, how do we compute the total? Same is
the problem with the other rows.
In such cases, we will have to make some assumptions about the missing information.
Even though we don't know the exact marks of the 4 persons listed in the first row, we
know that it is between 0 and 10. So their mean marks is also between 0 and 10. (We
have seen that the arithmetic mean of a set of numbers is between their minimum and
maximum.)
Not only that, in most such cases, the mean is nearly half way between 0 and 10.
240
Statistics
So in computing the mean from tables such as this, we proceed under the assumption
that the mean of each is at the exact middle of the class. It is called the class mark.
For example in the table above, we assume that the mean marks of the 4 persons listed in
the first row is 5, which is at the exact middle of 0 and 10; and then compute their total
marks as 4 x 5 = 20
We can compute the total marks of persons in each class under this assumption and
extend the table:
Marks Persons Class mark Total marks
0 - 10 4 5 20
10 - 20 6 15 90
20 - 30 16 25 400
30 - 40 8 35 280
40 - 50 6 45 270
Total 40 1060
Now we can compute the mean marks of all the 40 persons together as
1060 ÷ 40 = 26.5
(1) The table below shows the children in a class, grouped according
to their heights:
Height (cm) Number of children

148 - 152 8
152 - 156 10
156 - 160 15
160 - 164 10
164 - 168 7
What is the mean height?
241
(2) The table below shows the classification of teachers in a university based on their
ages:
Age Number of teachers

25 - 30 6
30 - 35 14
35 - 40 18
40 - 45 20
45 - 50 5
50 - 55 4
55 - 60 3
Calculate the mean age of the teachers
(3) The classification of a group of children according to their weights is given in the
table below:
Weight (kg) 21 - 23 23 - 25 25 - 27 27 - 29 29 - 31 31 - 33
Number of
4 7 8 6 3 1
children
Calculate the mean weight.
242
Notes
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MATHEMATICS

To understand the world and to recognise its peculiarities, all

Dr. Jayaprakash R.K.

Unnikrishnan M.V. Nandakumar C. Sreejith Muriyampath

Padmaprasad K. Ubaidulla K.C. Firoza Moidu

Priya Raj Dhaneshan M.V. Geomy N George

State Council of Educational Research and Training (SCERT) Kerala

9 Real Numbers 165

11 Parts of Circles 185

13 Polynomial Pictures 209

Let's do problems Project

Perimeter 4 + 1 + 2.5 + 3.5 + 2 = 13 centimetres

All the more easy if the polygon is regular:

What about a circle?

A piece of wire is to be bent into a circle of diameter 5 centimetres. What should

Again, the perimeter of each polygon is a Draw a circle in GeoGebra, centered at a

♦ Let’s denote the circumference of the small circle by c

♦ Let’s denote the circumference of the large circle by d

♦ The numbers 2p1, 2p2, 2p3, ...get closer and closer to d

Note the two statements in the red boxes

In general, we have the following:

So, if we determine the circumference of a circle of diameter 1, then the circumference

Since circles are mostly drawn with a specified π in history

The shatapathabrahmana from India, estimated

In practical problems, we usually require

To make a circle of diameter 5 centimetres, we need a

What he found was this: starting from 1,

One defect of Madhavan’s method is that

The pentagon is made up of five such triangles, so that its area is

As in the computation of the circumference, let’s write these using algebra:

• Let’s denote the radius of the circle by r and its circumference by c

♦ The numbers 12 p h , 12 p h , 12 p h , ... are the areas of the polygons.

♦ Let’s denote the area of the circle by a.

• The numbers 12 p h , 12 p h , 12 p h , ... get closer and closer to a

What does this mean?

The area of a circle is π times the square of the radius

Now let’s do some problems using this.

What is the area of the circular ring in this picture?

We can think of this as a circle cut off from a larger circle:

So, the area of the ring is

(1) The length of a chord of a circle, 3 centimetres from the centre, is 4

Calculate the areas of the circles

Calculate the area of the figure cut out.

(7) Parts of a circle are drawn within a square like this:

We can write natural numbers also in fractional

Zero can be written as 10 , 02 and so on.

Numbers and geometry

On a number line, as we move to the right from

So, the distance from 0 to -2 is also 2

What can we say in general?

The distance between 0 and 5 12 is 5 12

The distance between 0 and - 5 12 is 5 12

So we have to describe the operation of removing the sign of a negative number in

For example, we have seen that

|−3| = |3| = | −(−3)|

Using algebra, this can be stated like this:

(1) Complete the table below:

(2) Complete the table below:

And the distance between 1