NERVE PHYSIOLOGY

Lecture Notes (Aug. 30 - F2F)

Nervous System

 Transport signals/impulses
 Central Nervous System (CNS) and Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)
 CNS: brain and spinal cord
 PNS: nerves that branch out from the CNS
Nerves
 Transport stimuli
 Control and integrate all body activities w/n limits that maintain life
 3 basic functions to maintain life:
 Sensing changes w/ sensory receptors
 Interpreting and remembering those changes (happens in the CNS)
 Reacting to those changes w/ effectors [effector organs (muscles/glands) → movement]
*changes: stimuli (could be external or internal changes; sensed by receptor cells)
* nervous system of recent organisms exhibits all trends
 Differs in vertebrates and invertebrates
 Invertebrate NS: smaller but still capable of basic functions
 Vertebrate NS: more complex and has more parts → bigger

Diversity of Nervous System

 Hydra: nerve net

 Sea stars: radial nerves, nerve rings
  Flatworms: brain, nerve cord, ...
 Chiton (ancient mollusk): ganglia, anterior nerve ring, ...
 Squid (newer mollusk): brain, giant axon

* complexity of organism=complexity of nervous system

* higher order=complex/sophisticated nervous system

Trends in the Evolution of the Nervous System

 Centralization
 Is the NS concentrated/centralized?
 Cephalization
 Is there a head region?
 Distinct head denotes a centralized/complex NS)
 Specialization
 Are its sense organs complete?
 Ex.: in babies, NS is not yet well-developed but in adults, NS is complex

Animal Nervous Systems (Invertebrates)

 Porifera/Sponges
 The only group of multicellular organisms with no nervous system
 Sessile (immobile) → employ filter feeding → eat whatever goes to them → no need for
sensory structures to sense food

 Cnidarians
 Have nerve net
 Nerve net: a collection of separate but “connected” neurons
 No ganglia
 No centralization
 Ex.: some jellyfish have structures that can detect:
 Light (called ocelli)
 Balance (called statocysts)
 Chemical detection (olfaction)
 Touch (called sensory lappets)

 Platyhelminthes/Flatworms
 Nerve net connected by nerve cords → connected to ganglia
 Contain some receptors to find food and light so that they can avoid it
 More cephalization than cnidarians

 Nematodes/Roundworms
 Nerve cells are even more centralized
 Has 2 nerve cords that transmit impulses in the roundworm
*chitin: thick body covering (like in crabs and shells)
  Annelida/Segmented Worms
 Earthworm’s NS: simple brain and nerve cord
 brain is above the pharynx and connected to the first ventral ganglion
 each segment has its own ganglia which controls muscles in that specific part
 Have touch, light, vibration, and chemical receptors all along the entire body surface

 Echinoderms
 Exhibit pentamerism
 Can be divided into 5 parts
 A starfish’s NS:
 Nerve rings: surround mouth
 Radial nerves: arms
 Eyespots: on each arm, have light sensitive pigments
*protist with an eyespot: euglena

 Mollusks
 Ganglia is organized into a brain
 Centralized brain and a multitude of sense organs
 Snails: 6 ganglia
 Bivalves: 3 pairs of ganglia
 Each ganglion’s specialization:
 Control esophagus
 Muscles close to the shell
 Muscles close to the foot

 Arthropods/Insecta
 Most diverse animals
 Highly sensitive and well-developed NS
 Simple or compound eyes
 Centralized brain and many sense organs (grasshopper)
 Receptors for taste and smell and on antennae and legs
 Antennae can detect odors or touch objects

Animal Nervous Systems (Vertebrates)

 Fish (Vertebrates)
 Well-developed NS
 highly developed sense organs (olfactory bulbs)
 have a lateral line system that detects water movement
 why we shouldn’t pound on the glass of an aquarium
 Amphibians
 Well-developed nervous and sensory systems
 Keen vision for spotting insects
  Hear through their lymphanic membranes
 Lateral line system in water

 Reptiles
 Similar pattern of brain as amphibians
 Cerebrum and cerebellum is much bigger than amphibians
 Simple external ear drum and single bone conducting sound to inner ear
 Most snakes: good sense of smell
 Smell through tongue
 Birds
 Well-developed sense organs needed for flight
 sight
 birds see well (highly developed eyes)
 lens is highly flexible in water birds
 hearing
 birds hear well
 ear lack external pinna
 sound is still conducted by a single bone (columella)
 cochlea is present (but not spiraled like in mammals)
 smell: birds have poor sense of smell
 large brain for its body size
 has cerebrum, cerebellum, and medulla oblongata

 Primates
 Binocular vision
 Well-developed cerebrum, fingers, and toes
 Arms rotate around their shoulder joint

 Chordates
 Nonvertebrate chordates
 Simple nervous system
 Mass of nerve cells form the brain
 Vertebrates
 More complex brains with distinct regions
 Each region, different function

Major Structures of the Human Nervous System

Lecture (Sept. 1 – Online)

Structures

 Brain
 100 billion neurons
 Cranial nerves
 Nerve
 bundles containing hundreds to thousands of axons
 follows a defined path and serves a specific region of body
 Spinal Cord
 100 million neurons
 Ganglia
 Small masses of nervous tissue containing cell bodies of neurons
 Located outside the brain and spinal cord
 Sensory Receptors
 Dendrites of sensory neurons
 specialized cells that monitor changes in the external or internal environment

Organization of the Nervous System

 receive, transmit, interpret, respond

 sensing → remembering/interpreting → responding
Neurons

 functional unit of the nervous system

 have the capacity to produce action potentials
 electrical excitability
 cell body
 single nucleus with prominent nucleolus
 Nissl bodies (chromatophilic substance)
 Rough ER and free ribosomes for protein synthesis
 Neurofilaments give cell shape and support
 Microtubules move material inside the cell
 Lipofuscin pigment clumps (harmless aging)

Parts of a Neuron

 Dendrites
 Conducts impulses towards the cell body
 Typically short, highly branched, and unmyelinated
 Surfaces specialized for contact with other neurons
  Contains neurofibrils and Nissl bodies
 Axons
 Conduct impulses away from cell body
 Long, thin, cylindrical process of cell
 Arises at axon hillock
 Impulse arise from initial segment (trigger zone)
 Side branches (collaterals) end in fine processes called axon terminals
 Swollen tips called synaptic end bulbs
 Contain vesicles filled with neurotransmitters

Axonal Transport

 Cell body is location for most protein synthesis

 Neurotransmitters and repair proteins
 Axonal transport system moves substances
 Slow axonal flow
 Movement is one direction only
 Away from cell body
 Movement at 1-5 mm per day
 Fast axonal flow
 Moves organelles and materials along surface of microtubules
 Movement is at 200-400 mm per day
 Transports in either direction
 For use or recycling in cell body

Axonal Transport & Disease

 Fast axonal transport route by which toxins or pathogens reach neuron cell bodies
 Ex.: tetanus (Clostridium tetani bacteria)
 Disrupts motor neurons causing painful muscle spasms
 Bacteria enter the body through a laceration or puncture injury
 More serious if wound is at the head or neck due to shorter transit time

Functional Classification of Neurons

 Sensory (afferent) neurons

 Transport sensory information from the ff to the the CNS
 Skin
 Muscles
 Joints
 Sense organs
 Viscera
 Motor (efferent) neurons
 Send motor nerve impulses to muscles and glands
 Interneurons (association) neurons
 Connect sensory to motor neurons
  90% of the neurons in the body

Structural Classification of Neurons

Lecture Notes (Sept. 4 – Online)

Neuroglial Cells

 50% of the volume of the CNS

 Smaller cells than neurons
 50x more numerous
 Can undergo cell division
 Rapid mitosis in tumor formation

Types of Neuroglial Cells (based on location: CNS or PNS)

Neuroglial Cells in CNS

 Astrocytes
 Star-shaped
 Form clood-brain barrier by covering blood capillaries
 Metabolize neurotransmitters
 Neurotransmitters: chemicals used to transmit signals
 Regulate potassium ion (K+) balance
 Provide structural support
 Oligodendrocytes
 Most common glial cell type
 Each forms myelin sheath of axons in CNS
 Analogous to Schwann cells of PNS
 Microglia
 Found near blood vessels
 Phagocytic role
 Clear away dead cells
 Derived from cells that also give rise to macrophages and monocytes
 Ependymal cells
 Form epithelial membrane lining, cerebral cavities, and central canal
 Produce cerebrospinal fluid (CSF)

Myelin Sheath

 Lipid and protein covering produced by neuroglia cells

 Electrically insulates the axon of a neuron
 Increases the speed of nerve impulse conduction

Myelination in the CNS

 Oligodendrocytes → myelinate axons in the CNS

 Broad, flat cell processes wrap around
 Cell bodies do not surround the axons
  No neurolemma
 Allows little regrowth after an injury bc of lack of distinct tube/neurolemma

Types of Neuroglial Cells (based on location: CNS or PNS)

Neuroglial Cells in PNS

*no much cell processes (extensions)

 Satellite cells
 Flat cells surrounding neuronal cell bodies in peripheral ganglia
 Support neurons in the PNS ganglia
 Schwann cells
 Produces the myelin sheath of axons in the PNS
 Encircle PNS axons

Myelination in the PNS

 Schwann cells → myelinate axons in the PNS

 During fetal development
 Schwann cell cytoplansm and nucleus forms outermost layer of neurolemma (inner portion is
the myelin sheath)
  Tube guides growing axons that are repairing themselves

Neurolemma/Neurilemma
 Outermost nucleated cytoplasmic layer
 Encloses myelin sheath (only in PNS axons)
 Aid in the regeneration and regrowth of axon

Nodes of Ranvier

 Gaps in the myelin sheath that appears at intervals along the axon

Electrical Signals in Neurons

 Electrical excitability of neurons is due to the voltage difference across their membrane
 Communicate with 2 types of electrical signals
 Action potentials
 Travel long distances
 Graded potentials
 Local membrane changes only
 A flow of ions occurs through ion channels in the membrane of living cells
 Two Types of Ion Channels
 Leakage (nongated) channels are always open
 nerve cells have more K+ than Na+ leakage channels
 as a result, membrane permeability to K+ is higher
 explains resting membrane potential of -70mV in nerve tissue
 Gated channels
 open and close in response to a stimulus
 results in neuron excitability
 types of gated channels
  voltage-gated
 open in response to change in voltage
 ligand-gated
 open & close in response to particular chemical stimuli
(hormone, neurotransmitter, ion)
 mechanically-gated
 open with mechanical stimulation

Resting Membrane Potential

 An electrical voltage difference across the membrane

 Ranges from -40 to -90 mV in neurons
 Typical value is -70 mV
 More negative in cytosol than in extracellular fluid

 Negative ions along inside of cell membrane & positive ions along outside
 potential energy difference at rest is -70 mV
 cell is “polarized”
 Resting potential exists because
 concentration of ions different inside & outside
 extracellular fluid rich in Na+ and Cl
 cytosol full of K+, organic phosphate & amino acids
 membrane permeability differs for Na+ and K+
 50-100 greater permeability for K+
 inward flow of Na+ can’t keep up with outward flow of K+
 Na+/K+ pump removes Na+ as fast as it leaks in

 Passive and active fluxes maintain the resting membrane potential

Action Potential

 Allows communication over both short and long distances w/n the body
 Sequence of rapidly occurring events that decrease (and eventually reverse/restore to resting
state) the membrane potential
 Ion channels open → Na+ rushes in (depolarization) → K+ rushes out (repolarization)
 All-or-none principal (with stimulation)
 Either happens one specific way or not at all
 Lasts 1/1000 of a second
 Travels over the surface of a cell without dying out

Phases of Action Potential

 Resting state
 -70 mV
 Na+ and K+ channels are closed
 Depolarization Phase
 Stimulus causes a graded potential to reach at least (-55 mV: threshold)
 Na+ channels open
 Na+ rushes into the cell
 only a total of 20,000 Na+ actually enter the cell, but they change the membrane potential
considerably (up to +30mV)
 -55 mV to 0mV to +30 mV
 Repolarizing Phase
 When threshold potential of-55mV is reached, voltage-gated K+ channels open
 K+ channel opening is much slower than Na+ channel opening which caused
depolarization
 When K+ channels finally do open, the Na+ channels have already closed
 Na+ inflow stops
 K+ outflow returns membrane potential to -70 mV
 K+ channels permit the outflow of K+ to extracellular fluid
 If enough K+ leaves the cell, a -90 mV membrane potential will be reached
 Will enter the after-hyperpolarizing phase
 From +30 mV to 0 mV to -70 mV
 Hyperpolarization Phase
 -90 mV
 Membrane is more permeable to K+ than the resting state
 Refractory Period
 Period of time during which neuron cannot generate another action potential

 Absolute RP
 A second action potential cannot be initiated (even w/ v strong stimulus)
 Inactivated Na channels cannot reopen
 They must first return to resting state

 Relative RP
 A second action potential can be initiated but only through a suprathreshold stimulus
 Coincides with the period when K+ are still open after Na+ channels have returned to
resting state

* Local Anesthetics

 Prevent the opening of voltage-gated Na+ channels

 Nerve impulses cannot pass the anesthetized region
 Novocaine and lidocaine
Conduction/Propagation

 Special mode of impulse travel

 Continuous/Saltatory
Continuous Conduction

 Unmyelinated fibers
 Step-by-step depolarization of each portion of the length of the axolemma
Saltatory Conduction

 Depolarization only at nodes of Ranvier

 Nodes of Ranvier: high density of voltage-gated ion channels
 Current carried by ions flows through extracellular fluid
 Nerve impulse jumps from node to node

Speed of Impulse Propagation

 Speed of nerve impulse is not related to stimulus strength
 Larger, myelinated fibers conduct impulses faster due to size & saltatory conduction
 Factors:
 Diameter of axon
 Myelin sheath
 temperature

Fiber Types
 A Fibers
 Largest (5-20 microns and 130 m/sec)
 Myelinated somatic sensory and motor to skeletal muscle
 B Fibers
 Medium (2-3 microns and 15 m/sec)
 myelinated visceral sensory & autonomic preganglionic
 C Fibers
 Smallest (0.5-1.5 microns and 2 m/sec)
 Unmyelinated sensory & autonomic motor

Stimulus Intensity
How do we differentiate a light touch from a firmer touch?

 Frequency of impulses
 Firm pressure generates impulses at a higher frequency
 Number of sensory neurons activated
 Firm pressure stimulates more neurons than does a light touch