Theoretical Physics

Prof. Ruiz, UNC Asheville, doctorphys on YouTube

Chapter T Notes. Poles and the Residue Theorem

T1. Poles.

First Review:
Complex Variable: z = x + iy , where {x, y ∈ ℝ}

Complex Function: f ( z ) = u ( x, y ) + iv( x, y ) , where {u, v ∈ ℝ}

∂u ∂v The Cauchy-Riemann Conditions define analytic functions f (z) ,

= where
∂x ∂y
df ( z )
∂u
=−
∂v f '( z ) =
dz is unambiguous and ∫ f ( z)dz = 0 .
C
∂y ∂x Integration is unambiguous and path independent.

Powers of z are analytic and therefore

f ( z ) = ∑ cn z n is analytic.
n=0

A pole a is a point where a non-analytic

function "blows up." See the integrand
below.
1
∫ z−a
dz = 2π i

The Cauchy Integral Formula below involves an

analytic function f (z) divided by z −a,
which introduces a pole for the integrand at a.

f ( z)
∫ z−a
dz = 2π if (a)

This is true for any closed path enclosing the pole.

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 eimz
Find the poles for
f ( z) = 2 .
z + a2
The numerator is fine. The denominator though
gives us two poles. We find them by factoring and
setting the denominator to zero.

z 2 + a 2 = ( z + ia )( z − ia) = 0
There are two solutions that make the denominator zero. These occur for

z = ia and z = −ia .
These are the poles. These two poles are illustrated in the above figure.

PT1 (Practice Problem). Find the poles for the following function by factoring and
check your answer using the quadratic formula.

z2 + 3
f ( z) =
z ( z 2 + iz + 2)

PT2 (Practice Problem). Find the poles for the following function using the quadratic
formula.

eikz
f ( z) = 2
z − 6 z + 25

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T2. The Residue.

Note that for analytic functions ∫ f ( z)dz = 0 .

C

f ( z)
For analytic functions f ( z ) , we have ∫ z−a
dz = 2π if (a) .

f ( z)
Now consider
F ( z) = f ( z) F ( z)
z − a , where is analytic. The function has

a pole at z − a . We know
f ( z)
∫ F ( z) dz = ∫ z−a
dz = 2π if (a)

We can get this answer by a)clearing out the denominator of F ( z) , b)setting

z = a , and c)multiplying by 2π i .

∫ F ( z) dz = 2π i [( z − a) F ( z)] z =a

∫ F ( z) dz = 2π i [ f ( z)] z =a
= 2π if (a)

The value f (a ) is called the residue of F ( z) at z =a.

f (a) = Res( F , a)
The residue of a simple pole is given by

Res ( F , a) = lim [ ( z − a) F ( z )] .
z →a

What about multiple poles? We take this up in our next section.

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T3. The Residue Theorem. What about multiple poles?
Image Courtesy www.knotebooks.com
and Prof. Mark Hillery, City University of New York
Graduate Center

The Case of No Poles.

Well this is easy. A closed contour integral

gives zero.

∫ F ( z)dz = 0
C

The Case of One Pole. For the pole at z = z0 ,

∫ F ( z) dz = 2π iRes ( F , z ) 0

We emphasize below that the closed integral can be of any shape!

www.knotebooks.com and Prof. Mark Hillery, City University of New York Graduate Center

∫ F ( z) dz + ∫ F ( z) dz + ∫ F ( z) dz + ∫ F ( z) dz = 0
C l2 Cr l1

The two line integrals in the limit as the gap approaches zero sum to zero.

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 ∫ F ( z) dz + ∫ F ( z) dz = 0
C Cr

Since the second integral is clockwise, we get the following result.

∫ F ( z) dz − 2π iRes ( F , z ) = 0
C
0

∫ F ( z) dz = 2π iRes ( F , z )
C
0

∫ F ( z) dz = 2π iRes ( F , z )
Any
0

The Case of Multiple Poles. For multiple poles we apply a similar trick with paths.

Image Courtesy www.knotebooks.com and Prof. Mark

Hillery, City University of New York Graduate Center

∫ F ( z ) dz − 2π iRes ( F , z )
C
1

−2π iRes ( F , z2 ) − 2π iRes( F , z3 ) = 0

∫ F ( z) dz = 2π i∑ Res( F , z )
C n
n

This is the Residue Theorem.

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 f ( z)
F ( z) =
For our case with three poles: ( z − z1 )( z − z2 )( z − z3 )

f ( z1 )
Res( F , z1 ) =
( z1 − z2 )( z1 − z3 )

f ( z2 )
Res ( F , z2 ) =
( z2 − z1 )( z2 − z3 )

f ( z3 )
Res ( F , z3 ) =
( z3 − z1 )( z3 − z2 )

∞ dx
T4. Complex Integration 1.
I =∫
−∞ 1 + x 2

We will evaluate this integral using complex variable techniques. But first, we evaluate
this integral from the observation that

d 1
tan −1 x =
dx 1 + x2 .

So we know the answer to this one. It is always good to try a new technique on
something for which we know the answer.

−1 ∞  π
π
I = tan x = − −  = π
−∞ 2  2

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The method lies in this hope shown below as the radius R →∞.
1 ∞ dx 1 ∞ dx
∫ 1 + z 2 dz = ∫−∞ 1 + x2 + C∫ 1 + z 2 dz = ∫−∞ 1 + x2
R

1
I = ∫ 2
dz
1+ z
1 1
=
z 2 + 1 ( z + i)( z − i)
1
Let
f ( z) =
z +i .

1 f ( z) 1
I = ∫ dz = ∫ = 2π if (i) = 2π i = π
( z + i )( z − i ) z −i 2i

1 1
I = 2π iRes( F , i ) = 2π i = 2π i = π
or z +i z =i 2i .

All we have to do now is let R→∞ and hope that the semicircle integration along
CR goes to zero. Then, the complete enclosed contour integral will give a
nonvanishing answer for just the path along the complete x-axis and we are finished.
You know this must happen because you have your I = π , which you know is the
answer. Show

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 1
lim I CR = 0 , where
R →∞
ICR = ∫C 1 + z 2 dz .
R

z = Reiθ and dz = iReiθ dθ

1
∫C 1 + (Reiθ )2 dθ
iθ
ICR = iRe
R

1
ICR =∫ 2 2iθ
iRe iθ
dθ
CR
1+ R e
For R large

1
∫
iθ
ICR = lim 2 2 iθ
iRe dθ
R →∞
CR
1+ R e

1
R →∞ ∫ R 2 e2 iθ
iθ
ICR = lim iRe dθ
CR

e−2iθ
ICR = lim ∫ 2 iReiθ dθ
R →∞
CR
R

e−iθ 1
ICR = i lim ∫ dθ = i lim ∫ e−iθ dθ = 0
R →∞
CR
R R →∞ R
CR

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 eimx dx
∞

T5. Complex Integration 2.

I =∫ 2 a > 0, m >0
−∞ x + a 2 with

Let's organize our procedure into three steps.

Step 1. Find Your Poles.

eimz
F ( z) = 2
z + a2
From z 2 + a 2 = ( z + ia )( z − ia) = 0 we
find two poles. z1 = ia and z2 = −ia .

Step 2. Know Where to Close (Choose Your Semicircle). We need to choose the
semicircle that will not mess up our vanishing semicircle result from the last section.
Which semicircle should we choose? m>0
Top - along upper imaginary axis

iR => eim (iR ) = e− mR

Bottom - along lower imaginary axis

−iR => eim( − iR ) = emR

The top one is the one that will vanish.

Step 3. Sum Your Residues (Use the Residue Theorem). Note that we only have one

pole inside our enclosed region of integration. This is z1 = ia .

eimz
∫ F ( z) dz = 2π iRes ( F , ia)
C
with
F ( z) =
( z + ia)( z − ia)
eimz e− ma ∞ eimx dx π − ma
Res ( F , ia) = =
z + ia z =ia 2ia and ∫−∞ x2 + a2 = a e
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With the Real-Imaginary Trick, we now know the two following integrals where a>0
and m > 0.

eimx dx
∞ ∞ cos( mx) dx ∞ sin( mx) dx
I =∫ 2 =∫ + i∫
−∞ x + a 2 −∞ 2
x +a 2 −∞ x2 + a2

∞cos(mx)dx π − ma ∞ sin(mx)dx
∫−∞ x2 + a2 = a e and ∫−∞ x2 + a2 = 0
Note that also by the symmetry argument the second integral must be zero.

eimx dx
∞

T6. Complex Integration 3.

I =∫ 2 where m>0
−∞ x − 2ix − 2

eimz
Step 1. Find Your Poles.
F ( z) = 2
z − 2iz − 2
−(−2i) ± (−2i)2 − 4(1)(−2)
Use the quadratic formula with z 2 − 2iz − 2 to get
2(1)

2i ± −4 + 8 2i ± 2
=
2 2
Our poles are

z1 = −1 + i

z2 = 1 + i

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Step 2. Know Where to Close (Choose Your Semicircle). We choose the upper
imz
plane since we have an exponential of the form e
and remember m > 0 .

Se we close in the upper

plane so that we get

eim(iR ) = e− mR
along the imaginary axis.
As R → ∞ we get no
trouble. Remember when
1
we showed for a type
z2
of integrand that the
semicircle path vanishes.
We just want to make sure here that the exponential factor does not mess us up.

Step 3. Sum Your Residues (Use the Residue Theorem).

The left figure is not

needed. It just reminds you
about the workings of the
residue theorem. So we
proceed to find the residues
for the poles.

2π i ∑ Res ( F , zn )
n

eimz
F ( z) = z1 = −1 + i z2 = 1 + i
( z − z1 )( z − z2 ) where and

eimz eimz
∑n Res ( F , zn ) = z − z +
z − z1
2 z = z1 z = z2

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 eimz1 eimz2
∑n Res ( F , zn ) = z − z + z − z where z1 = −1 + i and z2 = 1 + i
1 2 2 1

I = 2π i ∑ Res ( F , zn )
n

2π i 2π i imz1 imz2
I= eimz1 − eimz2  = e − e 
z1 − z2 (−2)

I = −π i eim ( −1+i ) − eim(1+i ) 

I = −π i em ( −i −1) − em (i −1) 

I = −π i e−ime − m − eim e − m 

I = −π ie − m e−im − eim 

I = π ie− m eim − e−im 

−m eim − e−im 

I = π ie (2i)  
 2i 

eimx dx
∞
I =∫ 2 = −2π e− m sin m
−∞ x − 2ix − 2

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