Cryogenics

Cryogenics
Introduction
• The word ‘cryogenics’ originates from Greek word ‘Cryo’ which means
cold.
• Cryogenics is the study of very low temperature. The temperature
below 120 K are attained in cryogenic system.
• The first low temperature refrigeration system was primarily
developed for solidification of carbon dioxide and the liquefaction
and subsequent fractional distillation of gases such as air, oxygen,
nitrogen, hydrogen and Helium.
• Cryogenics is the study of low temperature and behavior of material
under these low temperature.
• The cryogenic process also has a unique capability for recycling
difficult to separate composite material.
Introduction
• The extremely low temperature are produced by using substances
called ‘cryogens’. Such as Liquid Nitrogen(LN2) and Liquid
Helium(LH2).
• Liquid Nitrogen are the most commonly used in cryogenics.
• They have the boiling point of below -150°C.
• Cryogens are stored in vessels called as Dewar flask which provides
good insulation.
Application - Space
• Cooling of IR detectors, Telescopes, Cold probes, etc. are some of the
major applications of cryogenics.
• Development of miniature and small cryocoolers for satellites for an
improved accuracy and reliability of earth observation.
• Space simulations chambers are realistic environment for space craft.
The cold space is simulated at cryogenic temperatures by use of LN2.
• The levels of vacuum required in space simulation chambers are very
high.
• This is achieved by the use of cryo pumps and turbomolecular pumps.
Application - Mechanical
• Magnetic separation, heat treatment and Recycling
• Magnetic separation technique is used in variety of applications like
enhancing the brightness of kaolin, improving the quality of ultra-high
purity quartz etc.- Superconducting Magnet ensures proper
separation.
• The lives of the tools, die castings & their dies, forgings, jigs & fixtures
etc increase when subjected to cryogenic heat treatment.
• Cryogenic recycling – turns the scrap into raw material by subjecting it
to cryogenic temperatures.
Application - Medicine
Cryosurgery, Cell preservation, Food preservation
• Cryosurgery is a novel technique in which the harmful tissues are

destroyed by freezing them to cryogenic temperature.
• Cryosurgery has shorter hospital stay, less blood loss, and small
recovery time.
• It is generally used in patients with localized prostate and kidney

cancer, skin disorders, retinal problems, etc.
Application - Medicine
Cryosurgery, Cell preservation, Food preservation
• Preserving food at low temperature is well known technique.
• Cooling of sea foods, meat (sea export), milk products for long time
preservation is achieved by the use of LN2.
• Systems are developed to preserve blood cells, plasma cells, human

organs and animal organs at cryogenic temperatures.
Application – gas industry
Liquefaction, separation, storage
• The transportation of gases across the world is done in liquid state.
This is done by storing the liquid at cryogenic temperature.
• The use of inert gases in welding industry has initiated higher demand
for gas production in the recent past.
• Cryogens like LOX, LH2, are used in rocket propulsion while LH2, is
being considered for automobile.
Application – gas industry
Liquefaction, separation, storage
• Liquid nitrogen is used as precoolant in most of the cryogenic
systems.
• Steel industry - Oxygen is used in the production of steel. Basic
Oxygen Furnace (BOF) uses oxygen instead of air.
• Nitrogen and argon are primarily used to provide an inert atmosphere
in chemical, metallurgical and welding industries.
Application – superconductivity
NMR, MRI, Magnetic levitation locomotion, Transformer and
generators
• The NMR (Nuclear Magnetic Resonance)
is used by the pharmaceutical industry to
study molecular structure.
• The MRI (Magnetic Resonance Imaging) machines are used for body
scanning.
• Maglev Train runs on the principle of Magnetic Levitation.
• The train gets levitated from the guide way by using electromagnetic
forces between superconducting magnets on the vehicle and coils on
the ground.
• This results in no contact motion and therefore no friction.

Application: High energy physics
• CERN is an European organisation for nuclear research which was founded
in 1954.
• It consists of a 27Km accelerator ring with four detectors.
• All the magnet systems (SC) and its accessories are kept at 1.9 K using the
liquid helium.
• ITER (International Thermonuclear Experimental Reactor) is an engineering
project for nuclear fusion reactor.
• The superconducting magnets are maintained at low temperature by
gaseous helium.
• The experiments are carried out to enable mankind to generate energy for
future.
Limitation of VCRS for production of low temperatures
• The single-stage VCRS for different refrigerants are limited to
evaporation temperature of -40°C.
• Production of low temperatures is limited inherently by the
solidification temperatures of the refrigerants.
• Pressure in the evaporator is extremely low and suction volume is
very large when a refrigerant with high boiling temperature is used.
• Pressure in the condenser is very high when a refrigerant with low
boiling temperature is used.
• COP is low due to high pressure ratios.
• Multi-stage systems with some refrigerants can be used to achieve
temperature below -100°C but must be cascaded to prevent
extremely high condenser pressure.
Cascade refrigeration system
• Cascade refrigeration system consist of
two or more VCRS system connected in
series, using refrigerants with
progressively lower boiling
temperatures.
• In this system cascade condenser
serves as an evaporator for the high
temperature cascade system, and
condenser for the low temperature
cascade system.
• Useful refrigerating effect is sought in
low temperature cascade system.
• It allows the use of two refrigerants.
• Low temperature refrigerants have
very high pressure that ensures smaller Refrigerant with low Refrigerant with high
compressor displacement and high boiling temperature boiling temperature
COP.
• Cascade system was first used by Pietet in1877 for liquefaction of oxygen,
using SO2 and CO2 as refrigerants.
• In three-stage cascade system, ammonia, ethylene and methane are the
commonly used refrigerants which are commonly used for liquefaction of
gases.
COP of two-stage cascade system
• Mass of refrigerant flowing through the low
temperature cascade system,
210𝑄
• 𝑚1 = kg/min
ℎ1 −ℎ4
• 𝑚2 is the mass of the refrigerant flowing through high
temperature cascade system.
• Heat absorbed by the high temperature cascade
system is equal to heat rejected by the low
temperature cascade system
• 𝑚2 ℎ5 − ℎ8 = 𝑚1 ℎ2 − ℎ𝑓3
𝑚1 ℎ2 −ℎ𝑓3 𝑚1 ℎ2 −ℎ4
• Therefore, 𝑚2 = =
ℎ5 −ℎ8 ℎ5 −ℎ8
• Total work done by the system,
• 𝑊 = 𝑚1 ℎ2 − ℎ1 + 𝑚2 ℎ6 − ℎ5 kJ/min
• Power required to drive the system
𝑚1 ℎ2 −ℎ1 +𝑚2 ℎ6 −ℎ5
•𝑃= kW
60
• 𝑚2 ℎ5 − ℎ8 = 𝑚1 ℎ2 − ℎ𝑓3
𝑚1 ℎ2 −ℎ𝑓3 𝑚1 ℎ2 −ℎ4
• Therefore, 𝑚2 = =
ℎ5 −ℎ8 ℎ5 −ℎ8
• Refrigerating effect, 𝑅𝐸 = 210 𝑄 kJ/min
𝑅𝐸 210 𝑄
• Therefore,𝐶𝑂𝑃 = =
𝑊 𝑚1 ℎ2 −ℎ1 +𝑚2 ℎ6 −ℎ5
• Power required to drive the system,
• COP of low temperature cascade system,
𝑇𝐸𝐿
• (𝐶𝑂𝑃)𝐿𝑇 =
𝑇𝐶𝐿 −𝑇𝐸𝐿
• COP of high temperature cascade system,
𝑇𝐸𝐻
• (𝐶𝑂𝑃)𝐻𝑇 =
𝑇𝐶𝐻 −𝑇𝐸𝐻
• Where, 𝑇𝐸𝐿 and 𝑇𝐶𝐿 are evaporator and condenser
temperature for low temperature cascade system.
• 𝑇𝐸𝐻 and 𝑇𝐶𝐻 are evaporator and condenser
temperature for high temperature cascade system.
• When 𝑇𝐶𝐿 = 𝑇𝐸𝐻 , it is termed as intermediate
temperature, 𝑇𝐼 .
Methods of cold production
• Throttling method
• Heat exchanger
Joule-Thomson effect
• The dividing line is called as

inversion curve.
• The temperature on the inversion 1
2
curve at p=0 is called as maximum
inversion temperature.
• The initial state of the gas should
be inside the region 2 or below
inversion temperature to have a
cooling effect.
Liquefaction
• Linde-Hamson gas
liquefaction system.
• Not only for
production of liquid
air but also used in
the separation of
gases from the
atmosphere by
fractional
distillation.
Linde-Hamson gas liquefaction system
Claude air liquefaction system
• Additional expander and
second heat exchanger.
• Air is compressed
isothermally to 40 atm
approx.
Claude air liquefaction system
Advantages of Claude system over Linde system
• In Claude system, the air is to be compressed only up to 40
atmospheres, as compared to 100-200 atmospheres in Linde system.
• About 80% of the air is expanded reversibly in the expander and the
remaining 20% of the compressed air is subjected to irreversible
throttling. In Linde system, all the air is throttled irreversibly.
• The specific work of Claude system is less than that of simple Linde
system.
Liquefaction of hydrogen
• It is one of most difficult gas to
liquefy due to extremely low
liquefaction temperature.
Liquefaction of helium
• It is most difficult of all gases to liquify. 4-stage
compression
• At atmospheric pressure, it boils at
approximately -269°C.
• The Helium was liquified by H.K. Onnes of the
university of Leiden in 1908.
• Liquid nitrogen and liquid hydrogen are used
for cooling.
• Disadvantage: high cost and hazardous nature
of liquid hydrogen.
System
developed by
Collins
Adiabatic demagnetization by paramagnetic salt
• It is possible to attain a temperature of
about 0.8 K through lowering the pressure
over liquid helium.
• Lowest recorded temperature by adiabatic
demagnetization is as low as 0.001 K, by
using some paramagnetic salts cooled by
liquid helium and subjected to the strong
magnetic field.
• Paramagnetic salts such as gadolinium
sulphate found to be the best suited for
obtaining low temperatures.
• Salts precooled to minimize thermal motion
of molecules.
• It is then exposed to strong magnetic field,
causes rise in temp., which is removed by
liquid helium.
• When strong magnetic field is removed and
avoided heat exchange, its internal energy
decreases.
Dewar flask

Cryogenics

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Cryogenics

• Cryosurgery is a novel technique in which the harmful tissues are

• It is generally used in patients with localized prostate and kidney

• Preserving food at low temperature is well known technique.

• Systems are developed to preserve blood cells, plasma cells, human

• This results in no contact motion and therefore no friction.

• The dividing line is called as

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