Propositional Logic

Critical Thinking and Logic

At the end of the course, the students are expected to:
1. Analyze the merits and advantages of propositional logic
compared to classical logic
2. Develop critical thinking by distilling statements and
reducing them to their logical meaning
3. Apply the methods of symbolic logic by translating
ordinary language into propositional form in order to
evaluate their truth value and validity
 Classical
vs.
Modern Logic
Also known as Aristotelean or Categorical Logic

Categories as the main building block

Ex.
All humans are mortal. → 𝐴𝑙𝑙 𝐻 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑀

• Analyzing the relationship between two categories (i.e.,

“humans” and “mortal”)
Doesn’t focus on categories, but whole propositions
• Analysis of the truth value of propositions
• Also known as Propositional or Symbolic Logic
• Propositions translated as symbols

Ex. All humans are mortal. → 𝐻

 Classical Modern

All humans are mortal. All humans are mortal.

𝐴𝑙𝑙 𝐻 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑀 𝐻
Instead of individual categories (terms), whole propositions
or statements are represented in symbols (capital letter of
the main component in the statement)

1. Simple statements are symbolized

Ex. Rudolf has a red nose. → 𝑅
2. Compound statements are a combination of simple
statements
Ex. Rudolf has a red nose and brown horns. → 𝑅 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐵
Rudolf has a red nose + Rudolf has brown horns
A statement that does not contain any other statement
as a component

1. Santa exists. → 𝑆
2. Manila is the capital of the Philippines. → 𝑀
3. We went to Intramuros yesterday. → 𝐼
A statement that contains two or more statements as
components

1. Santa exists or my parents are liars.

2. Manila is both the capital and the most populous place in
the Philippines.
3. We went to Intramuros yesterday and the day before that.

Q: What are the components of each compound statement?

1. Santa exists or my parents are liars.

Components:

Santa exists or my parents are liars.

𝑆 𝑜𝑟 𝑃
2. Manila is both the capital and the most populous place
in the Philippines.

Components:

Manila is the capital and Manila is the most populous

𝐶 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑃
3. We went to Intramuros yesterday and the day before
that.

Components:
We went to Intramuros yesterday
and
We went to Intramuros the day before yesterday.

𝑌 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐵
5 Basic Connectives
Compound statements are characterized by connectives
that relate the individual components. There are 5 basic
connectives, each symbolized as such:
Type Connective Statement Form
Conjunction (and) • 𝑝 • 𝑞
Negation (not) ˜ ~𝑝
Disjunction (or) ∨ 𝑝 ∨ 𝑞
Conditional (if-then) ⊃ 𝑝 ⊃ 𝑞
Biconditional (if and only if) ≡ 𝑝 ≡ 𝑞
A truth-functional connective meaning “and,” symbolized by
the dot, •. A statement of the form 𝑝 • 𝑞 is true if and only if p
is true and q is true.

Ex. Manila is both the capital of the Philippines and its most
populous city.

𝐶 • 𝑃
Every statement is either true or false. This can be best
visualized using a truth table:

Conjunction (𝑝 • 𝑞)
𝑝 𝑞 𝑝 • 𝑞
T T T
T F F
F T F
F F F
The table shows us the possible combination of the truth
values of the components, and what would happen to the
truth value of the whole statement:
Conjunction (𝑝 • 𝑞)
𝑝 𝑞 𝑝 • 𝑞
T T T
T F F
F T F
F F F
In this case, the statement 𝑝 • 𝑞 would only be true if and
only if both p and q are true at the same time; otherwise the
statement is false
Conjunction (𝑝 • 𝑞)
𝑝 𝑞 𝑝 • 𝑞
T T T
T F F
F T F
F F F
Denial; symbolized by the tilde (~𝑝) simply means “it is not
the case that p,” and may be read as “not-p.”

Ex. Plato was not a good logician. → ~𝑃

Truth Table:
𝑝 ~𝑝

T F

F T
A disjunctive statement asserts that either p or q is true. The
component statements p and q are called the disjuncts, and
the connective “or” is represented by ∨—the “vee” or “wedge”
sign.

1. Either Santa is real or my parents are liars.

𝑆 ∨ 𝐿
2. Either the Tamaraws or the Falcons will win the basketball
champions.
a. The Tamaraws will win. → 𝑇
b. The Falcons will win. → 𝐹

𝑇∨𝐹
The statement 𝑝 ∨ 𝑞 will only be false if both 𝑝 and 𝑞 are
false; otherwise the statement is true. This is expressed by
the truth table:
Disjunction (𝑝 ∨ 𝑞)
𝑝 𝑞 𝑝∨𝑞
T T T
T F T
F T T
F F F
 𝑝 ⊃ 𝑞
A hypothetical statement; a compound proposition or
statement of the form “If 𝑝 then 𝑞.” In such a statement, 𝑝 is
called the antecedent and 𝑞 is the consequent. The
connection between them, the if–then relationship, is
represented by the symbol ⊃, called the “horseshoe.” A
statement involving this connective says that if the
antecedent is true, the consequent is true as well.
1. If it’s raining, then the ground is wet.

𝑅 ⊃ 𝑊

Conditionals have the same logical truths as hypothetical

propositions (in Classical Logic).
A conditional statement asserts that if 𝑝 is true, 𝑞 must be
true as well, so the statement 𝑝 ⊃ 𝑞 is false only on one
combination, expressed in the table:
Conditional (𝑝 ⊃ 𝑞)

𝑝 𝑞 𝑝⊃𝑞
T T T
T F F
F T T
F F T
A biconditional statement is true when the two components
have identical truth values; they are either both true or
both false. Also known as equivalence, a biconditional is
indicated by a triple bar, as in 𝑝 ≡ 𝑞.

Ex.: John will go to the party if and only if Martha is going.

𝐽 ≡ 𝑀
 𝑝 ≡ 𝑞

they are either both true or both false

𝑝 𝑞 𝑝 ≡ 𝑞
T T T
T F F
F T F
F F T
 Type Connective Statement Form
Conjunction (and) • 𝑝 • 𝑞
Negation (not) ˜ ~𝑝
Disjunction (or) ∨ 𝑝 ∨ 𝑞
Conditional (if-then) ⊃ 𝑝 ⊃ 𝑞
Biconditional (if and only if) ≡ 𝑝 ≡ 𝑞
Translate to symbolic form:

1. If these shoes go on sale, I’ll buy two pairs.

2. The mouse will play if the cat’s away.
3. Roses are red, violets are blue.
4. I am not ashamed.
5. Either we pay the price now or a greater price later.
6. He is an excellent musician, but he hates playing.
7. Although they were all tired, the campers were happy.
Translate to symbolic form:

1. If these shoes go on sale, I’ll buy two pairs. S⊃P

2. The mouse will play if the cat’s away. C⊃ M
3. Roses are red, violets are blue. R • V
4. I am not ashamed. ~𝑨
5. Either we pay the price now or a greater price later. N ∨ L
6. He is an excellent musician, but he hates playing. M • P
7. Although they were all tired, the campers were happy. T •H
 [𝐴 ⊃ (𝑋 • 𝑌)] ⊃ [(𝐴 ⊃ 𝑋) ∨ (𝐴 ⊃ 𝑌)]

Here we have an example of a complex statement, which

looks intimidating at first. But with the knowledge of truth
tables, we can analyze the truth value of the whole
statement.
 [𝐴 ⊃ (𝑋 • 𝑌)] ⊃ [(𝐴 ⊃ 𝑋) ∨ (𝐴 ⊃ 𝑌)]

Let’s say, 𝐴 and 𝑌 are true, while 𝑋 is false. What is the truth
value of the whole statement?

Replace the items with T and F accordingly:

[𝑇 ⊃ (𝐹 • 𝑇)] ⊃ [(𝑇 ⊃ 𝐹 ) ∨ (𝑇 ⊃ 𝑇)]

 [𝐴 ⊃ (𝑋 • 𝑌)] ⊃ [(𝐴 ⊃ 𝑋) ∨ (𝐴 ⊃ 𝑌)]

Let’s say, 𝐴 and 𝑌 are true, while 𝑋 is false. What is the truth
value of the whole statement?

Pay attention to the connectives inside parentheses first, just

like in a mathematical equation.

[𝑇 ⊃ (𝐹 • 𝑇)] ⊃ [(𝑇 ⊃ 𝐹 ) ∨ (𝑇 ⊃ 𝑇)]

Pay attention to the connectives inside parentheses first, just
like in a mathematical equation.

[𝑇 ⊃ (𝐹 • 𝑇)] ⊃ [(𝑇 ⊃ 𝐹 ) ∨ (𝑇 ⊃ 𝑇)]

Simplified as:
[𝑇 ⊃ 𝐹 ] ⊃ [(𝑇 ⊃ 𝐹 ) ∨ (𝑇 ⊃ 𝑇)]

F because for conjunctions (𝑝 • 𝑞), both have to be true for the whole to be true.
Pay attention to the connectives inside parentheses first, just
like in a mathematical equation.

[𝑇 ⊃ (𝐹 • 𝑇)] ⊃ [(𝑇 ⊃ 𝐹 ) ∨ (𝑇 ⊃ 𝑇)]

Simplified as:
[𝑇 ⊃ 𝐹 ] ⊃ [𝐹 ∨ (𝑇 ⊃ 𝑇)]

F because for conditionals (𝑝 ⊃ 𝑞), 𝑞 cannot be false if 𝑝 is true.

Simplify the connectives inside parentheses first, just like in a
mathematical equation.

[𝑇 ⊃ (𝐹 • 𝑇)] ⊃ [(𝑇 ⊃ 𝐹 ) ∨ (𝑇 ⊃ 𝑇)]

Simplified as:
[𝑇 ⊃ 𝐹 ] ⊃ [𝐹 ∨ 𝑇]

T because a conditional statement (𝑝 ⊃ 𝑞) is true if both 𝑝 and 𝑞 are true.

Simplify the connectives inside parentheses first, just like in a
mathematical equation.

[𝑇 ⊃ 𝐹 ] ⊃ [𝐹 ∨ 𝑇]

Simplified as:
𝐹 ⊃ [𝐹 ∨ 𝑇]

F because for conditionals (𝑝 ⊃ 𝑞), 𝑞 cannot be false if 𝑝 is true.

Simplify the connectives inside parentheses first, just like in a
mathematical equation.

[𝑇 ⊃ 𝐹 ] ⊃ [𝐹 ∨ 𝑇]

Simplified as:
𝐹 ⊃ 𝑇

T because for disjunctions (𝑝 ∨ 𝑞), only one component is required to be true for the
whole statement to be true.
Finally:
𝐹 ⊃ 𝑇

Simplified as:
T

T because for conditionals (𝑝 ⊃ 𝑞), 𝑞 can be true even if 𝑝

is false.
If 𝐴, 𝐵, and 𝐶 are true statements and 𝑋, 𝑌, and 𝑍 are false, which of the
following are true?
1. ~𝐴 ∨ 𝐵 8. (𝑍 ⊃ 𝑋) ≡ (𝐵 • 𝐶)
2. ~𝐵 ∨ 𝑋 9. ~[~(𝐴 • 𝑋) • (𝑌 ∨ ~𝐵)]
3. ~𝑌 ∨ 𝐶 10. ~(𝐴 ∨ 𝑌) • (𝐵 ∨ 𝑋)
4. (𝐴 • 𝑋) ∨ (𝐵 • 𝑌) 11. ~(𝑋 • ~𝑌) ∨ (𝐵 • ~𝐶)
5. (𝐵 • 𝐶) ∨ (𝑌 • 𝑍) 12. [(𝐴 ⊃ 𝑋) ⊃ 𝑌] ⊃ 𝑍
6. ~(𝐴 • 𝐵) ∨ (𝑋 • 𝑌) 13. 𝐴 ⊃ (𝐵 ⊃ 𝑍)
7. 𝐴 ⊃ 𝑍 14. [(𝐴 • 𝑋) ∨ 𝐶] ⊃ (𝐴 ∨ 𝐶)
 If 𝐴, 𝐵, and 𝐶 are true statements and 𝑋, 𝑌, and 𝑍 are false, which of
the following are true?
1. ~𝐴 • 𝐵 ✔ 8. (𝑍 ⊃ 𝑋) ≡ (𝐵 • 𝐶)
✔ 2. ~𝐵 ∨ 𝑋 ✔ 9. ~[~(𝐴 • 𝑋) • (𝑌 ∨ ~𝐵)]
✔ 3. ~𝑌 ∨ 𝐶 10. ~(𝐴 ∨ 𝑌) • (𝐵 ∨ 𝑋)
4. (𝐴 • 𝑋) ∨ (𝐵 • 𝑌) ✔ 11. ~(𝑋 • ~𝑌) ∨ (𝐵 • ~𝐶)
5. (𝐵 • 𝐶) ∨ (𝑌 • 𝑍) 12. [(𝐴 ⊃ 𝑋) ⊃ 𝑌] ⊃ 𝑍
✔ 6. ~(𝐴 • 𝐵) ∨ (𝑋 • 𝑌) 13. 𝐴 ⊃ (𝐵 ⊃ 𝑍)
7. 𝐴 ⊃ 𝑍 ✔ 14. [(𝐴 • 𝑋) ∨ 𝐶] ⊃ (𝐴 ∨ 𝐶)