Logic

For lawyers and judges, Logic is the science of correct reasoning. They often
use logic to communicate more effectively, construct valid arguments, analyze
legal contracts, and make decisions.
For Instance, programmers use logic to design computer software, electrical
engineers use logic to design circuits for smart phones, and mathematicians
use logic to solve problems and construct mathematical proofs.
In this chapter, you will encounter several facets of logic. Specifically, you will
use logic to:
 analyze information and the relationship between statements;
 determine the validity of arguments
 determine the valid conclusions based on given assumptions; and
 analyze electronic circuits.
Logic Statements
and Quantifiers
Historical Note Logic Statements
One of the first Every language contains different types of sentences, such as
mathematicians to make a
serious study of symbolic logic
statements, questions, and commands. For instance,
was Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz
(1646 – 1716). Leibniz tried to “Is the test today?” is a question.
advance the study of logic from a
merely philosophical subject to a “Go get the newspaper” is a command.
formal mathematical subject. He
never completely achieved this
goal; however, several “This is a nice car” is an opinion.
mathematicians of, such as
Augustus De Morgan (1806 – “Denver is the capital of Colorado” is a statement
1871) and George Boole (1815 –
1864), contributed to the of fact.
advancement of symbolic logic as
a mathematical discipline. The symbolic logic that Boole was instrumental in creating
Boole published The applies only to sentences that are STATEMENTS as defined
Mathematical Analysis of Logic in
1848. In 1854 he published the below.
more extensive work, An
Investigation of the Laws of
Thought. Concerning this Statement
document, the mathematician

is a declarative sentence that is either

Bertrand Russell stated, “Pure
Mathematics was discovered by
Boole in a work which is called
The Laws of Thought.”
true or false, but not both true and false.
Identify Statements:
Determine whether each sentence is a statement.

1. Florida is a state in the United States.

2. How are you?

9
3. 9 + 2 is a prime number.

4. x+1=5
 Simple Statements and Compound Statements
Historical Note
A simple statement is a statement that
One of the best –
known logicians is Charles
Dodgson (1832 – 1898). His
conveys a single idea.
mathematical works include A
Syllabus of Plane Algebraical
Geometry, The Fifth Book of Euclid
A compound statement is a statement that
Treated Algebraically, and
Symbolic Logic. Although Dodgson
was a distinguished
conveys two or more ideas.
mathematician in his time, he is Statement Connective Symbolic Type of
best known by his pen name Lewis
Carroll, which he used when he Form Statement
published Alice’s Adventures in Logic Connectives and Symbols
Wonderland and Through the Not p not ~p Negation
Looking – Glass.
p and q and p^q Conjunction
Queen Victoria of the
United Kingdom enjoyed Alice’s p or q or pVq Disjunction
Adventures in Wonderland to the
extent that she told Dodgson she
was looking forward to reading
if p, then q If…then p→q Conditional
another of his books. He promptly
sent her his Syllabus of Plane
p if and only if if and only if p↔q Biconditional
Algebraical Geometry , and it was q
reported that she was less than
enthusiastic about the latter book.
Write Compound Statements in symbolic Form:
Consider the following simple statements
p: Today is Friday.
q: It is raining.
r: I am going to a movie.
s: I am not going to the basketball game.
Write the following compound statements in symbolic form.
1. Today is Friday and it is raining.
2. It is not raining and I am going to a movie.
3. I am going to the basketball game or I am going to a movie.
4. If it is raining, then I am not going to the basketball game.
Translate Symbolic Statements
Consider the following statements.

p: The game will be played in Atlanta.

q: The game will be shown on CBS.
r: The game will not be shown on ESPN.
s: The Mets are favored to win.

Write each of the following symbolic statements in words.

a. q^p
b. ~r^s
c. s ↔~p
Compound Statements and Grouping Symbols
If a compound statement is written in symbolic
form, then parenthesis are used to indicate which
simple statements are grouped together.
Symbolic Form The parenthesis indicate
that:

p^(qV~r) q and ~ r are grouped together.

(p^q)Vr p and q are grouped together.

(p^~q)→(rVs) p and ~ q are grouped together.

r and s are also grouped
together.
If a compound statement is written as an English sentence, then the
comma is used to indicate which simple statements are grouped
together. Statements on the same side of a comma are grouped
together.
English Sentence The comma indicates that:

P, and q or not r. q and ~ r are grouped together because

they are both on the same side of the
comma.
p and q, or r. p and q are grouped together because they
are both on the same side of the comma.
If p and not q, then p and ~ q are grouped together because
r or s. they are both to the left of the comma.
r and s are also grouped together because
they are both to the right of the comma.
Translate Compound Statements

Let p, q, r represent the following.

p: You get a promotion.
q: You complete the training.
r: You will receive a bonus.

a. Write ( p ^ ~ q ) → r as an English sentence.

b. Write “ If you do not complete the training, then you will
not get a promotion and you will not receive a bonus.” in
symbolic form.
Quantifiers and Negation

In a statement, the word some and the phrases

there exists and at least one are called
existential quantifiers. Existential quantifiers
are used as prefixes to assert the existence of
something.

In a statement, the words none, no, all, and every

are called universal quantifiers. The universal
quantifiers none and no deny the existence of
something, whereas the universal quantifiers all
and every are used to assert that every element
Quantified Statements and Their Negations
Statement Negation
All X are Y. Some X are not Y.
No X are Y. Some X are Y.
Some X are not Y. All X are Y.
Some X are Y. No X are Y.

Write the Negation of a Quantified Statement

1. Some airports are open.

2. All movies are worth the price of admission.
3. No odd numbers are divisible by 2.
Truth Value and Truth Tables

The truth value of a simple statement is either

true or false.

The truth value of a compound statement

depends on the truth values of its simple
statements and its connectives.

A truth table is a table that shows the truth value

of a compound statement for all possible truth
values of its simple statements.
Truth Table for ~
p
P ~P
T F
F T
Truth Value of a Conjunction
The conjunction p ^ q is true if and only if both p and q are
true.
Truth table for p ^ q

p q p^q
T T T
T F F
F T F
F F F
Truth Value of a Disjunction
The disjunction p ˅ q is true if and only if p is true, q is true,
or both p and q are true.
Truth table for p ˅ q

p q p^q
T T T
T F T
F T T
F F F
Determine the truth value of a statement:

Determine whether each sentence is true or false.

a. 7 ≥ 5.
b. 5 is a whole number and 5 is an even number.
c. 2 is a prime number and 2 is an even number.
Florida is one of the 50
states in the United States,
so this statement is true
and it is a statement.
The sentence “How are
you?” is a question; it is not
a declarative sentence.
Thus it is not a statement.
 9
You may not know whether 9 + 2 is a
prime number; however, you do know
that it is a whole number larger than
1, so it is either a prime or it is not a
prime number. The sentence is either
true or it is false, and it is not both
true and false, so it is a statement.
X + 1 = 5 is a statement. It is
known as an open statement. It is
true for x = 4, and it is false for any
other values of x. For any given
value of x, it is true or false but not
both.