Dis07 U 2 Instrumentation For Safe Plant Operation

DIS07 SAFETY IN CHEMICAL INDUSTRY
UNIT-2
INSTRUMENTATION FOR SAFE PLANT OPERATIONS
1. INTRODUCTION:
Instrumentation in common terms is eyes and ears for practicing engineers which is a means
to measure and indicate various process and equipment parameters for the purpose of effective
control over them in optimising the plant performance. This is in addition to safeguard the plant
from potentially dangerous situations, affecting the property, people and environment.
Therefore, the design engineer must devote extra time and effort to incorporate right type of
instrument and control mechanism to suit the processes and their parameters present in the
industrial unit.
In a smaller, simpler batch unit, the instrumentation may just be for measurement and
indication with nil or minimum control. This kind of mechanism must in any case be installed
and should remain in working condition. In such units, even basic instruments tend to be
ignored and the batching operation carried out manually, sometimes in the hands of contract
employees with no written instructions. Since there are no gauges in working order, the
criticality of process parameters is not appreciated and the operations continue with inadequate
supervision for most of the time.
It is a general belief that automation through instrumentation provides more flexibility to

operating personnel in taking up wider responsibility thereby saving the costs of manpower
employed. However, although, this might be true to some extent, there is more to this then just
manpower saving. The instrumentation and control provide better and efficient control of
operation resulting in higher productivity and reduced maintenance downtime; the silver lining
added will be safer, much safer operations.
Additional capital cost being employed in providing the better instrumentation is well
compensated by achievements of high productivity and safety. Furthermore, information on
the behaviour pattern of various equipment and the process parameters which can be presented
in terms of trend analysis can help the unit in better planning of operation and maintenance.
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In the event of abnormal conditions which can occur due to process, equipment or utilities
failure, automatic safe shutdown being incorporated in instrumentation & control (I&C) will
help tremendously in averting a large scale hazardous incident.
The basic purpose of instruments is to measure, indicate, record and control the process
parameters like temperatures, pressure, level, flows, etc. additionally, on line instruments to
analyse moisture content and composition of mixtures may also be considered. There are also
special instruments such as the gas leak detectors, smoke detectors, and equipment health
monitors.
Instrumentation & Control:
In a batch system, alarms will warn the operating personnel to take the remedial actions
manually. While in a continuous system which involves complex operations, a faster online
remedial action is required to avoid unsafe situations.
The control in such situations is provided by the incorporation of suitable control valves
(CV) in the measurement loop of the specific process parameters. The data transmission from
the measurement instrument through the control valve would ensure indication and recording
of data as well as mechanism for opening and closing valve from a remote location. Thus, if a
need arises to increase the flow rate, the relevant control valve can be adjusted from the control
room at short notice. In unsafe condition, a reactor can be dumped into another vessel by first
closing the feed CV and fully opening the discharge CV to next vessel from control room.
The transmission of signals has been traditionally carried out by pneumatic air with
pressure range from 3 psi to 15 psi corresponding to 0 to 100 % on the scale for parameters
considered. For example, valve opening of zero on control valve would be at air pressure of 3
psi and full opening at 15 psi of air through a mechanism of regulators. The pressure and scale
settings may be adjusted as per requirements of process.
2. WORK PERMIT APPLICATION:
Permit systems must adhere to the following eight principles:

1. Wherever possible, and especially with routine jobs, hazards should be eliminated so
that the work can be done safely without requiring a permit to work.
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2. although the Site Manager may delegate the responsibility for the operation of the
permit system, the overall responsibility for ensuring safe operation rests with him/her
3. The permit must be recognized as the master instruction which, until it is cancelled,
overrides all other instructions.
4. the permit applies to everyone on site, including contractors
5. Information given in a permit must be detailed and accurate. It must state:
 which plant/equipment has been made safe and the steps by which this has been
achieved
 what work may be done
 the time at which the permit comes into effect
6. the permit remains in force until the work has been completed and the permit is
cancelled by the person who issued it, or by the person nominated by management to
take over the responsibility (e.g. at the end of a shift or during absence)
7. No work other than that specified is authorized. If it is found that the planned work has
to be changed, the existing permit should be cancelled and a new one issued
8. Responsibility for the plant must be clearly defined at all stages.
2.1. Work requiring a permit:

The main types of permit and the work to be covered by each are identified below.
2.1.1. General permit
The general permit should be used for work such as:
 Alterations to or overhaul of plant or machinery where
 Mechanical, toxic or electrical hazards may arise
 Work on or near overhead crane tracks
 Work on pipelines with hazardous contents
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 Repairs to railway tracks, tippers, conveyors

 Work with asbestos-based materials
 Work involving ionising radiation
 Roof work
 Excavations to avoid underground services.
2.1.2. Confined space permit
Confined spaces include chambers, tanks (sealed and open-top), vessels, furnaces,
ducts, sewers, manholes, pits, flues, excavations, boilers, reactors and ovens. Many fatal
accidents have occurred where inadequate precautions were taken before and during work
involving entry into confined spaces. The two main hazards are the potential presence of toxic
or other dangerous substances and the absence of adequate oxygen. In addition, there may be
mechanical hazards (entanglement on agitators) ingress of fluids, risk of engulfment in a free
flowing solid like grain or sugar, and raised temperatures.
The work to be carried out may itself be especially hazardous when done in a confined
space, for example, cleaning using solvents, cutting/welding work. Should the person working
in a confined space get into difficulties for whatever reason, getting help in and getting the
individual out may prove difficult and dangerous.
Stringent preparation, isolation, air testing and other precautions are therefore essential
and experience shows that the use of a confined space entry permit is essential to confirm that
all the appropriate precautions have been taken. They detail the specific controls that are
necessary when people enter confined spaces.
2.1.3. Work on high voltage apparatus (including testing)
Work on high voltage apparatus (over about 600 volts) is potentially high risk. Hazards include:
 possibly fatal electric shock/burns to the people doing the work
 electrical fires/explosions
 Consequential danger from disruption of power supply to safety-critical plant
and equipment.
In view of the risk, this work must only be done by suitably trained and competent people
acting under the terms of a high voltage permit.
2.1.4. Hot work
Hot work is potentially hazardous as:
 a source of ignition in any plant in which flammable materials are handled
 a cause of fires in all processes, regardless of whether flammable materials are present.
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Hot work includes cutting, welding, brazing, soldering and any process involving the
application of a naked flame. Drilling and grinding should also be included where a flammable
atmosphere is potentially present. Hot work should therefore be done under the terms of a hot
work permit, the only exception being where hot work is done in a designated maintenance
area suitable for the purpose.
2.2. Responsibilities
The effective operation of the permit system requires the involvement of many people. The
following specific responsibilities can be identified:
(Note: all appointments, definitions of work requiring a permit etc. must be in writing. All the
categories of people identified below should receive training in the operation of the permit
system as it affects them.)
Site manager
 has overall responsibility for the operation and management of the permit system
 Appoints a senior manager (normally the chief engineer) to act as senior authorized
person.
Senior authorized person
 is responsible to the site manager for the operation of the permit system
 defines the work on the site which requires a permit
 ensures that people responsible for this work are aware that it must only be done under
the terms of a valid permit
 appoints all necessary authorized persons
 Appoints a deputy to act in his/her absence.
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Authorized persons
 issue permits to competent persons and retain copies
 personally inspect the site to ensure that the conditions and proposed precautions are
adequate and that it is safe for the work to proceed
 accompany the competent person to the site to ensure that the plant/equipment is
correctly identified and that the competent person understands the permit
 Cancel the permit on satisfactory completion of the work.
Competent persons
 receive permits from authorized persons
 read the permit and make sure they fully understand the work to be done and the
precautions to be taken
 signify their acceptance of the permit by signing both copies
 comply with the permit and make sure those under their supervision similarly
understand and implement the required precautions
 On completion of the work, return the permit to the authorised person who issued it.
Operatives
 Read the permit and comply with its requirements, under the supervision of the
competent person.
Specialists
A number of permits require the advice/skills of specialists in order to operate effectively. Such
specialists may include chemists, electrical engineers, health and safety advisers and fire
officers. Their role may involve:
 Isolations within his/her discipline – e.g. electrical work
 Using suitable techniques and equipment to monitor the working environment for toxic
or flammable materials, or for lack of oxygen giving advice to managers on safe
methods of working.
Specialists must not assume responsibility for the permit system. This lies with the site manager
and the senior authorized person.
Engineers (and others responsible for work covered by permits)
 Ensure that permits are raised as required.
Contractors
The permit system should be applied to contractors in the same way as to direct employees.
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The contractor must be given adequate information and training on the permit system, the
restrictions it imposes and the precautions it requires.
3. INDUSTRIAL PROCESSES & OPERATIONS

3.1. SAFETY IN OPERATIONS/PROCESSES INVOLVING EXPLOSIVES:
An explosive is a “substance or mixture, which when subjected to thermal or mechanical

shock, gets very rapidly oxidised, exothermically into products of greatly increased volume,
with a sudden release of potential energy.
 Since the explosive reaction is exothermic, the products get heated to a high
temperature and a high pressure is exerted on the surroundings.
 When this extremely rapidly chemical change takes place in a confined space, an
extremely high pressure is developed, which shatters the surrounding walls or if
developed at a relatively slower controlled rate, it may be used to propel
projectiles.
Characteristics of Explosives:
1. The rate of decomposition of an explosive should be fast enough to produce a large

volume of gaseous products exothermically, so that the effective increase in volume,
due to heating effect, is very large.
2. It should be cheap and stable under normal conditions. The stability of an explosive is
determined by its decomposition point by DTA.
3. It must have at least one chemical bond
In general, an explosive must not be volatile and hygroscopic and should be chemically stable.
i.e. it should not react with the container materials to form shock-sensitive salt.
CLASSIFICATION OF EXPLOSIVES:
Explosives are primarily classified as 3 types:
1. Primary or initiating explosives (or detonators)

2. Low explosives (or propellants) simply they burn and do not explode suddenly.
3. High explosives (have higher energy content than the primary explosives)
a. Simple compound explosives
b. Binary explosives
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c. Plastic explosives
d. Dynamites
PRECAUTIONS DURING STORAGE OF EXPLOSIVES:
The following precautions should be taken while storing explosives:
1. Different explosives should be stored in separate boxes.

2. Detonators and explosives should be stored explosively.
3. Flame lanterns should not be used in any case. When power failure takes place, only
torches should be used for lighting purposes.
4. All electric fittings and wirings should be properly insulated and frequency checked.
5. Only authorised persons should be allowed inside the explosive store. The authorised
person must wear shoes with conductive soles.
6. Jerks or drops of explosives should not be allowed.
7. Smoking/fire should be strictly prohibited within a radius of 50 m from the explosive
store.
8. Explosives stores should not be constructed within 500 m from any working kiln or
furnace.
9. The boundary of the explosive store should be protected by high barbed-wire fencing,
and proper “sign boards” should be installed around it.
10. Watchman should guard the “explosive storage” round the clock.
11. Lighting conductor should be provided to safeguard storage.
Explosives stores should not be opened during or before an approaching thunderstorm, and no
person should be allowed to remain in the vicinity of the store during such a storm.
3.2. SAFETY IN PROCESSES/OPERATIONS INVOLVING FLAMMABLE DUST

/LIQUIDS/GASES/VAPOURS:
Flammable dust
A large amount of dust is generated in cement, metal and food industries and the dust produced
will be of flammable or explosive in nature. The accumulation of dust on smooth surfaces,
when comes in contact with any minute ignition sources such as electric sparks, naked flames,
electric/mechanical sparks, hot surfaces, electrostatic discharges and lightning strikes, etc.,
cloud will explode and leads to catastrophic dust explosion.
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The possible sources of ignition can be avoided by:
 Observe a general ban on smoking; only allow smoking in designated areas that are
marked accordingly and that are far enough away from the processing and storage areas.
 Do not allow matches, lighters or other items that can produce spark to be taken into the
processing or storage areas.
 Do not allow any naked flames, lights or sparks in the processing and storage areas or
in dusty areas. Introduce a system of hot-work permits for work involving an ignition
risk.
 Avoid friction sparks and inadvertent metal–metal or metal–concrete contact.
 Avoid any contact whatsoever of aluminium powder or items made from aluminium
with rust or rusty metal parts as incentive sparks can be produced (thermite reaction).
 Avoid electrostatic charges as otherwise electrostatic discharge sparks can occur.
The electrostatic discharges can be avoided by:
 Only use conductive tools and containers (do not use plastic tools or plastic containers,
or plastic sacks for transfer processes) as aluminium powder builds up an electrical
charge when in contact with a non-conductive surface. When cleaning, for example,
only use brushes with natural bristles (coconut, horsehair, etc.).
 Earthing is absolutely essential.
 When handling and processing aluminium powders it is essential that there is electrical
contact between the plant components and that they are earthed to discharge static
electricity.
Flammable gases:
Safe handling of flammable gases contained in cylinders are used for many different purposes
such as in research work, for soldering, welding and flame cutting, and for extinguishing fires.
They are safe when adequate risk control is in place but users and others sometimes suffer
accidents if careful risk assessment has not been carried out. The main causes of accidents with
gas cylinders are:
 Inadequate training and supervision of users;

 Poor installation;
 Poor examination and maintenance;
 Faulty equipment and/or design (e.g. badly fitted valves and regulators);
 Poor handling;
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 Poor storage;
 Inadequately ventilated working conditions.
Users must ensure: -
 Staff who handle cylinders are properly trained

 Minimum numbers of cylinders are used and held in laboratories
 Cylinders are secured to walls or benches with chains or proprietary clamps
 Valves are not opened fully. Half a turn is sufficient to ensure optimum gas flow. (If
fully open it becomes difficult to close in an emergency.)
 Risk assessments are carried out to determine the potential for an explosive atmosphere
when using flammable gases.
 Adequate ventilation where flammable gases are used
 All obvious ignition sources are removed from handling areas
 Electrical items not in use are switched off and unplugged
 Storage areas for flammable gases are well ventilated.
 Cylinder valves are closed immediately when no longer needed
 Cylinders are transported in suitable cylinder trolleys by staff trained in manual
handling techniques
 Acetylene cylinders are moved with the valve upright, or allowed to stand for at least 1
hour after moving and before use.
 Acetylene equipment never contains copper. Acetylene reacts with silver, mercury and
copper to form explosive acetylides
 Acetylene cylinders subject to excess pressure, impact or heat must be checked for
temperature rise using the back of the bare hand as acetylene becomes unstable and
potentially explosive. Never move or approach a cylinder subjected to excess heat.
 Staff are trained to fit regulators correctly.
 Flashback arrestors are fitted to fuel regulators to give flashback protection.
 Dry powder fire extinguishers are present in the workplace.
 Skin is protected from liquid propane, which freezes skin on contact.
 Propane gas is only used with special resistant hoses (orange colour).
 Propane is never stored underground. Ensure good ventilation at low levels.
 Propane cylinders are not exposed to excess heat.
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 Propane cylinders are always transported and used upright.

 Staff are aware hydrogen is highly flammable and ignites more easily than any other
common gas. At high pressure it can self-ignite. It burns with an almost invisible flame.
 Everyone knows the emergency procedure in the event of a significant leak of
flammable gas. Extinguish all flames and heat sources, do not switch electrical
appliances on or off, get out and stay out.
4. Introduction to safety in chemical plants using chemicals and resulting in

health disorders:
Fertilizer industry:
Ammonia fertilizers are widely used because of their effectiveness in getting large amounts of
nitrogen into the soil. Anhydrous ammonia fertilizer is essentially dry ammonia gas
compressed into liquid form. This material is very harmful if accidentally spilled or sprayed
onto body surfaces. It can cause blindness if it gets into the eyes. Also, high concentrations of
ammonia gas in the air are very irritating to the lungs. Always use appropriate personal
protective equipment and exercise rigorous care when handling, applying, and storing such
toxic or irritating materials.
Safety Precautions
Most ammonia fertilizer accidents occur when the material is being transferred from one tank
to another. One of the major causes of accidents is hoses coming loose or bursting.
Exercise care in the handling and use of ammonia fertilizer by doing the following:
 Always wear chemical goggles and adequate skin cover.

 Inspect equipment before each day's work and correct any abnormal conditions.
 Water is the first aid treatment of choice when ammonia gets into the eyes or on the
skin. In case of mishap, flush affected areas for 15 minutes and get medical help as soon
as possible.
 Make sure all valves, lines, and connections are secure in order to reduce the chance of
either leaks or being doused during transfer.
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Precautions When Working with Anhydrous Ammonia
 Use good equipment specially designed for handling anhydrous ammonia.

 Keep your equipment in good repair. Worn hoses, loose connections, and other defects
can cause accidents.
 Follow the prescribed sequence of operations for connecting to, filling, and
disconnecting from the applicator tank.
 Never leave the equipment during the transfer operation.
 After filling the applicator tank, close all valves.
Chloro-Alkali industry:
The chloro-alkali industry produces chlorine and caustic solution (sodium or potassium
hydroxide) simultaneously by means of decomposition of a solution of salt in water. Along
with the chlorine and the caustic solution, hydrogen is produced.
Chlorine is a highly toxic gas, and strict precautions are necessary to minimize risk to workers
and possible releases during its handling. In addition to toxicity, it poses fire hazard when react
with turpentine, ether, ammonia gas, hydrogen, wax, rubber, alcohol and other materials. When
heated, emits toxic fumes. When reacted with water or steam, produces toxic and corrosive
fumes of HCl.
Precautions in Bulk storage of Chlorine:
 Being a compressed gas, all instaneous and tank vehicles used for storage and transport
of liquid and gaseous chlorine have to be approved and licensed.
 Appropriate minimum safety distances as stipulated in the above mentioned rules have
to be maintained from buildings or group of buildings or adjacent property.
 The tank has to be installed entirely above ground.
 The bulk storage tanks for chlorine should be installed near waste-air system.
 Pressure indicator with alarm should be available in the control room.
Polymer Industry:
The rubber manufacturing plant, synthetic yarn (nylon, Terylene, etc.) unit, plastic or resin or
silica making factory or a starch manufacturing factory can be called a “polymer industry”.
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Hazards & Controls:
Mostly the polymerisation processes are carried out in totally enclosed system and therefore
the hazards are reduced too much extent. Machinery is also mostly enclosed. The hazards are
possible from exposure to raw materials, leakage and spillage, dusts and fumes, hot surfaces
and radiant heat, noise and vibration and heat and humidity.
Chemicals like formaldehyde and caprolactum cause burning in eyes, nose and throat. High
temperature and pressure of thermic fluid in oil heating system may cause burn and sometimes
fire. Extrusion machines have hot surfaces which need insulation to prevent burn injury.
Polyamides used to manufacture epoxy resins are skin irritant. Acrylonitrile used is toxic, skin
irritant and carcinogenic. Dimethyl formaldehyde cause digestive effects, abdominal pain, skin
effect and pancreatitis to workers exposed ti it. Styrene vapour may cause narcosis (effects on
head, nose and throat).
Pesticide Industry:
Pesticide is a chemical used to destroy an organism detrimental to human interest. It includes

insecticides, fungicides, herbicides, rodenticides, bactericides and nematocides etc. they are
generally halogenated hydrocarbons, Cycloparaffins, Organo-chlorines and Organo-
phosphourous.
Pesticides and agro chemicals enter into the body through inhalation, skin absorption and
ingestion. They are classified as toxic, harmful, corrosive, irritant, and flammable and
explosive and oxidising.
The health effects caused by pesticides may be acute or chronic. Some common symptoms are
dizziness, headache, shaking, and weakness. More toxic effects may cause convulsions,
irrational behaviour or unconsciousness.
Pesticides that are not primarily nerve poisons also cause nerve damage in exposed workers.
Workers manufacturing arsenic-based pesticides died of anaemia at higher than expected rate.
Cancer risks of pesticide production workers have been hotly debated.
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4. CHEMICAL PROCESS IN HAZARDOUS OPERATIONS
4.1 CHEMICAL PROCESS
In recent years chemicals have been occupying key position in the industry’s chemical
process and in our daily life. However, many of these chemicals are toxic, highly reactive,
explosive or flammable. Such chemicals when involved in chemical reactions in hazardous
processes may lead to potential hazards in abnormal conditions that not only affect human
beings and plants but also to the environment.
The common causes of accidental release of toxic chemicals, fire and explosion are due
to the equipment failure, design deficiency, unsafe acts, corrosion, and abnormalities in
operation or maintenance.
The deviation from safe operating parameters leads to abnormal conditions like sudden
increases in temperature, pressure in chemical storages, reactors, etc. causing the release of
toxic chemicals, fire, and explosion. The chemical hazards that are present in hazardous
chemical reactions, such as oxidation, nitration, halogenation, polymerisation, alkylation, etc.,
are to be studied in detail. In the modern chemical industry, increase in sophistication may also
cause chemical hazards.
2.2 Hazardous Chemical Processes:
In the chemical industry, a large varieties of Chemicals are handled and processed. Depending
on the characteristics of the chemical, it may be subject to explosive reactions, detonation,
spontaneous polymerisation or heating, even leading to energetic reactions with water or
common contaminants.
Hazardous processes which may involve chemical hazards, include:
 Exothermic reaction processes
 flammable chemicals when operated at high temperature or high pressure or both;
 flammable chemicals when operated under refrigeration
 chemicals when operated in or near their explosive ranges
 chemical processes which contain intrinsically unstable compounds
 chemical processes which contain highly toxic chemicals
 chemical processes containing some chemicals which have the propensity to
decompose or react violently in contrast with other substances
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 chemical processes that have a large inventory of stored pressure energy

 Chemical processes that contain thermodynamically unstable compounds, which
undergo violent self-reaction or decomposition, catalysed by mechanical shock,
friction, heat, or chemical impurities.
 Chemicals in processes that involve cooling water or condensate or rain water, which
come in contact with water and cause chemical reactions, leading to:
 Over pressurisation of sealed equipment or pipe work
 Release of toxic chemicals, fire or explosion
 Incompatible chemicals, which on mixing cause violent reaction leading to
explosion
 Pyrophoric chemicals, on contact with air or its moisture undergo exothermic
oxidation/hydrolysis to causing ignition.
5. CHEMICAL REACTORS:
The chemical reactor is the chemical heart of the process. The most important feature of a
reactor is the chemical reaction itself. The characteristics of the reaction may involve:
 Reaction in gas, liquid or solid phase
 Catalytic or non-catalytic reaction
 Exothermic or endothermic reaction
 Reversible or irreversible reaction
 First or second order or kinetic reaction
The choice of suitable reactor depend on many factors, including the main reaction, side
reaction and the associated heat effects. The reaction rate, temperature and characteristics
commonly encountered with chemical reactions are:
1. Rapid increase in rate with increasing temperature and normal characteristics.

2. Slow increase in rate with increasing temperature.
3. Vary rapid increase at one point.
4. Decrease in rate at higher temperatures is a characteristics of catalytic reactions
5. Reaction rate complicated by side reactions as the temperature is increased.
6. Rate decreased with temperature.
The abnormal conditions which may occur in chemical reactor are:
 Loss of feed, coolant or utilities

 Inability to remove heat or to agitate the reactor
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 Undesired flows may occur from one part of the system to another (Runaway Reaction)
 The reactor contents may set into the feed pipes or the coolant may leak into the reactor.
 Effects may occur due to impurities in catalyst.
Runaway Reaction:
Some causes of runaway reaction in reactors or storage tanks are:
 Incorrect kinetic
 Incorrect assumption
 Temperature of heat, assumptions on heat balance transfer fluid too high
 Incorrect initiation
 Impurities
 Insufficient mixing
 Emergency loss of
 Inhibitors
 Feed rate too fast
Accumulation of
Triggering off
reactants or Insufficient cooling
undesired reaction
intermediates
AND AND
Heat accumulation,
uncontrolled
temperature rise
Thermal Runaway
To avoid runaway conditions, it is essential to carefully control the rate of addition of reactants
and eliminate any possible confusion in process control. Many chemical processes involve a
high degree of technology and require specially designed equipment or rigid specifications,
coupled with sophisticated automatic control and safety devices. The reactor should be
designed as a pressure system. It should have a sufficient combination of mechanical strength
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and pressure relief to withstand overpressure. Pressure relief on reactors is frequently provided
by bursting discs and venting of chemical reactors.
6. REACTION HAZARDS:
There are many hazardous chemical reactions which include: Acylation, alkaline fusion,
alkylation amination, aromatisation, calcinations, carboxylation, causticisation, combustion,
condensation, coupling, cracking, diazotisation, double decomposition, electrolysis,
esterification, fermentation, halogenation, hydration, hydroforming, hydrogenation,
hydrolysis, ion exchange, isomerisation, neutralisation, nitration, oxidation/reduction,
polymerisation, pyrolysis, and sulphonation. The generally more hazardous unit processes are
considered for illustration: i). Nitration, ii). Halogenation, iii). Polymerisation, iv). Oxidation
and v). Hydrogenation.
6.1. Nitration:
Nitration is the replacement of a hydrogen atom in a compound with a nitro group. Nitration
has commercial importance in the manufacture of nitrobenzene and chemical explosives.
Nitration accidents are among not only the most frequent, but also the most destructive in the
chemical industry. Nitration may constitute hazard due to reaction isotherms or a sensitive
product. Nitration reactions are strongly exothermic. Since nitration mixtures are often very
sensitive, highly flammable, having strong oxidising nature and liable to explode, unless
conditions are closely controlled, this strong heat generation is problem. Explosions in a
nitration reactors is a big consequence.
6.2. Halogenation:
It is the process of introduction of halogen atoms (fluorine, chlorine, bromine or iodine) into
an organic molecule. Halogenation reactions are highly exothermic and chain reactions may
result in detonations. In organic chlorination, hazards arise from the flammability of
hydrocarbon, raw materials and from toxicity of chlorine.
6.3. Polymerisation:
Polymerisation is the joining together of molecules to form chains or other linkages.
Polymerisations are exothermic processes which, unless carefully controlled, can run away and
create thermal explosion.
6.4. Oxidation:
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Oxidation is the combination of oxygen with some substances in which reaction is controlled
where vigorous oxidising agents such as chlorates, nitric acid, hypocholorous acids, and salts
are used, the hazard is greater. Oxidation reactions are generally exothermic. So there is a
problem of heat removal and temperature control.
6.5. Hydrogenation:
Hydrogenation reactions are generally exothermic vapor phase. Hydrogenations are carried out
in pressure range from atmospheric pressure to several hundred bars and in temperature ranges
from 100-4000C. This may result in undesirable side reactions and catalyst deterioration and
may have implications for reactor materials, for construction and for control. The use of
hydrogen under pressure is a hazard involved the reaction of hydrogenation.
7. OPERATION DEVIATIONS:
The possible deviations of operating parameters from their design values are considered
important aspects of process safety. The cause of deviations of a process are due to the
deterioration of the control system. There are certain safety devices which are generally
provided to the operational system to give protection against extreme deviations of pressure
and temperature. The operational deviations should be checked during the design stage of the
plant to ensure safety.
7.1. Pressure Deviations:
Pressure deviations can occur as a result of changes in action of operating parameters, such as:
 Changes in action of pumping equipment, e.g. failure of a pump or compressor.

 Change in flow
 Changes in heat output
 Changes in heat output
 Contacting of materials
 Thermal expansion or contraction
 Chemical reactions & explosion
The overpressure and under-pressure of equipment, and changes in temperature, flow and
level are the effects of pressure deviations. To prevent overpressure and under-pressure, it is
essential to provide protective devices. Besides, appropriate safety measures should be taken
to reduce pressure deviations.
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7.2. Temperature Deviations
Temperature deviations in reactors can occur as a result of:
 Sequence errors
 Delay in initiating agitation
 Temperature variations or feed flow
 Mal-distribution of reactants
 Development of catalyst hot spots
 Fouling of heat transfer surfaces
Some causes of temperature deviations are due to:
 Changes in heat input, e.g. loss of fuel

 Changes in heat output, e.g. loss of cooling
 Changes in heat transfer, e.g. fouling of heat exchangers
 Generation of heat, e.g. runaway reactions
 Changes in flow, e.g. flow to a reactor
 Changes in pressure, e.g. pressure reduction, causing liquid flashing
 Thermal lags, e.g. lags in heat exchangers
 Hot spots, e.g. machinery in distress
The over-temperature and under-temperature of equipment, changes of pressure and flow, and
runaway reactions are the effects of temperature deviations. It is essential that careful attention
should be paid to the heat input and output in the plant and to the control of reactors.
Appropriate control measures should be taken to reduce temperature deviations.
7.3. FLOW DEVIATIONS:

Flow deviations can cause deviations of pressure, temperature and level. They can result in
materials entering wrong parts of the plant, cause erosion, cavitation, and hammer blow, and
result in pump overload and trip. Flow deviations may be too high, too low, zero, reverse or
fluctuating.
Some causes of no flow are:
 Lack of feed material
 Lack of pressure differences
 Vapour effects and equipment failures
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Temperature/pressure/flow sensors in the process initiate actions such as emergency cooling,

the input of a reaction stopper or the opening of the bypass.
7.4. Vapour effects can cause:

 Loss of flow, including vapour locks, and
 Gassing up of pumps
Equipment failure can cause:
 Stoppage of pumping equipment, and
 Fracture of equipment, resulting in leakage and the blockage of equipment.
The equipment which is prone to blockage is: pipes, heat exchangers, packed beds and filters.
Blockage of equipment may occur in a number of ways.
 Items may be left in the plant after construction or maintenance work
 Deposits may build up
 Liquid impurities may be present
 Corrosion or erosion products may be present
 The fluid may polymerise or solidify.
 Cessation of flow or other reasons, can cause solidification due to loss of heat on
standing.
 Solidification or polymerisation may occur in a heat exchanger.
 Low ambient temperature may increase the risk of freezing
If there is a reversal of the pressure differential, reverse flow occurs. Failure of pumping
equipment is the main cause of reverse flow.
Complete stoppage of flow may cause disturbances to the other parts of the plant. Control
should be exercised for the manipulation of fluid flows. If there is a loss of control, many
hazards can arise in the plant. Low flow may be as hazardous as zero flow.
Contamination between process streams or emissions to the atmosphere can be caused due to
leakage flow. Contamination may result in:
 Blockages
 Corrosion
 Phase changes
 Chemical reactions and
 Explosion
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Water can give all these effects as it is the most common substance used in process plants.
Water may enter other streams through pipe holes or tube failure or through leaking shut-off
valves.
Thus, due attention should be paid to reducing flow deviation, which includes:
 Reliability of the pumping equipment

 Provision of adequate stoppage
 Elimination of blockages, and
 Other parameters which have similar effects.
7.5. Level Deviation:
Level deviations often occur as a result of changes:
 In the flow in of the vessel
 In the flow out of the vessel
 In the control operations, in particular equipment failure, causing overfilling or
emptying of the vessel.
Some of other causes of level deviations are:
 Surging
 Foaming and thermal expansion
 Siphoning and blown lutes
 Excessive agitation or vibration of the vessel
Measurement of the liquid level is often difficult if there are solids, two liquid phases or foam,
or if inerts, water and sediments accumulate.
7.6. Control Disturbances:

The process operated may be a cause of operating deviations in the control system. Deviations
may also be caused by the actions of the automatic control system. It is important for the
process design to provide sufficient potential correction of control system.
7.7. Operation and Control:
When an installation is designed to withstand all loads that can occur during normal or foreseen
abnormal operating conditions it is the task of the process control system to keep the plant
safely within these limits. To achieve this, such systems may be used as:
 Manual records
 Automatic controls
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 Automatic shut-down systems

 Safety devices
 Alarm systems
After understanding various types of chemical hazards in forgoing parts, we should proceed to
know the instruments, equipment and other control measures.
To maintain, control, measure, alarm and record process parameters, various industrial
instruments and safety devices are used. Their proper selection, application and maintenance
are most important. Some basic instruments are given below;
1. Anemometer: instrument for measuring the speed of wind or any other moving gases.
2. Atmometer: evaporimeter, an instrument for measuring rate of evaporation of water.
3. Barometer: for measuring atmospheric pressure
4. Barograph: used in meteorology for recording on paper the variations in atmospheric
pressure over a period of time.
5. Bolometer: an extremely sensitive instrument for measuring heat radiations.
6. Bomb calorimeter: a strong metal used for measuring heat of radiation, heat of
combustion, e.g. for determining the calorific value of a fuel.
7. Bourdon gauge: a pressure gauge for steam boiler or etc.
8. Calorimeter: for determining quantities of heat evolved, absorbed or transformed.
9. Cryometer: a thermometer especially designed for measuring low temperatures.
10. Dasymeter: an instrument for determining the density of a gas.
11. Dilatometer: an apparatus used for measuring volume changes of substances.
12. Hydrometer: for measuring the density of relative density of liquids.
13. Hygrometer: for measuring the relative humidity of the atmosphere
14. Manometer: for measuring gaseous pressure
15. Pyknometer: an apparatus for determining the density and coefficient of expansion of
liquid.
16. Pyrometer: for measuring high temperatures.
17. Rotameter: a device to use the measure the rate of flow of fluids.
18. Salinometer: a type of hydrometer used for determining the concentrations of the salt
solutions by measuring their density.
19. Seismograph: for recording earthquakes and phenomena associated with them.
22
20. Spectrophotometer: a photometer for comparing two light radiation wavelength by

wavelength.
21. Spherometer: for accurate measurement of small thickness, or curvature of spherical
surfaces.
22. Tensimeter: for measuring vapour pressure
23. Tensiometer: to measure, surface tension of liquids, moisture content of soil and
tension in wire or fibre or beam.
24. Thermo barograph: for measuring and recording atmospheric temperature and
pressure and consisting of a thermograph and barograph.
25. Thermocouple: for measurement of temperature
26. Thermograph: measurement of temperature, mercury thermometer, gas thermometer,
pyrometer, resistance thermometer, resistance thermocouple.
27. Thermopile: for detecting and measuring heat radiation
28. Thermostat: for maintaining a constant temperature by the use of device cuts of supply
of heat when the temperature falls below that required.
29. Viscometer: for the measurement of viscosity.
8. SPECIFIC INSTRUMENTS:
Specific instruments some special instruments available as follows
Gas fuel vapour detector and alarm (gas leakage warning instrument): This is an
electronic instrument having a sensor and audible alarm to give warning when pre-set air-gas
mixture exceeds the set TLV or LEL limit. It detects flue gases, LPG, smoke, petrol vapours,
paraffin fumes, hydrocarbons, ammonia, Freon, hexane, acetone, benzene, chloroform fumes,
carbon dioxide, hydrogen sulphide, methane solvent vapours and many poisonous explosive
gases. Various types of gas detector and models are also available.
Metal detector: It detects the metallic objects of ferrous and nonferrous materials hidden in
the pocket/bag, etc. and can locate the concealed conducts or cables etc. from a loose distance
it is like torch has a piezo alarm.
Electronic flasher: A built in solid state electronic flasher which can flash bulb for series lamps
on means that adjustable flashing rate. It can be used as a danger indicator or attracting attention
etc.
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Electronic air cleaner: For indoor use up to an area of 25 square metres for pollution free
clean atmosphere and wherever bad odour is a problem. It also deactivates dust particles
suspended in air, reduces effects of secondary smoking and controls virus and retards growth
of bacteria.
Alcohol detecting instruments: With electronic alarm to warn before driver’s sit behind the
wheels or workers on the machines, thus prevent them from alcohol consumption when they
are on duty.
Similar other instruments: Explosimeter, clap switch, LPG, level alarm, gas level indicator,
smoke detector, insect killer, proximity, switches remote controls, breath analyser, carbon
monoxide methane detector, touch switch, electronic siren loud hailer, multipoint gas detection
system, ammonia detector, chloride detector, flammable gas detector, digital in and out
indicator, burglar alarm, heat sensor, manual fire alarm, switch control, power unit static charge
detector, hand dryer, timer hooter, 2 wire ionization smoke detector, heat detector for locations
subject to rapid temperature, fluctuations, carbon dioxide extinguishing system, carbon dioxide
extinguishing system, dragon tubes and air pump for contaminated air sampling, gas
chromatography solid state potentiometric recorders, combustion gas detector, explosive gas
detector with the personal monitor, infrared gas analyser for the measurement of carbon
monoxide carbon dioxide methane and other constituents in the PPM and percentage range.
Dragger polymeter to determine mean value of gas concentrations in air over a period of several
hours by means of special gas detector tubes, example for carbon monoxide, ammonia,
benzene, vinyl chloride etc.
Oxygen detection system for oxygen measurement with audible alarm and fail-safe
monitoring, tunnel control laser, portable anemometer giving direct reading of wind velocity,
voltmeters, noise dosimeter, noise metres, calibrators and filters, temperature data logger, dust
sampler for taking the samples for gravimetric chemical and mineralogical analysis, Hilgers
i.e. oil and water remover, (International sensor technology of USA) sensor to measure carbon
dioxide, NOX, ammonia, sulphur dioxide, hydrogen, hydrocarbons, Vinyl chloride,
acrylonitrile etc. in ppm to percentage level, high pressure, liquid chromatography for
degassing of solvents not necessary, refractive index detector, fluorescence detector, auto
sampler, microprocessor based system controller, flame arresters to ensure safety from
explosions due to flammable gases vapours or dust etc.
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Flameproof equipment: Switch gears, lighting fitting, cable/conductor, cable glands and
accessories, switch circuit, limit switches, rotary cam operated switches or isolators, fuse unit
with HRC fuse links, bell tube light fixture glass, lighting fitting, flood light control, gearbox
bulkhead fittings and lamb little lamb safety torch indicating lamp ammeter circuit breaker
distribution board control station remote control panels junction boxes round and Square
flameproof and explosion proof electric motors of type ‘d’ and ‘e’ type ‘n’ type b are to be
selected for use in hazardous areas. Various Indian Standards 5571 and 8240 are also
prescribed.
9. PROCESS CONTROL INSTRUMENTS
For temperatures: Thermocouples, radiation pyrometers, optical pyrometers, resistance

thermometer, all glass thermometer, electronic potentiometer, multipoint potentiometer,
automatic electronic, balance bridge, ratio metre, automatic millimetre, liquid type manometer,
temperature measuring instrument and direct acting temperature controller.
For pressure: strain gauges, pressure transducers, pressure gauge, vacuum gauge, compound
pressure and vacuum gauge, pressure gauge, draught gauge, compound pressure and draught
gauge, automatic pressure regulator, gas pressure regulator, fuel oil pressure regulator, direct
acting recorders, diaphragm breathing valve.
High vacuum measurement: bourdon gauge, Balance gauge, diaphragm gauge, McLeod
gauge, Knudsen gauge, thermal conductivity gauge, rotating viscometer gauge, heat filament
ionization gauge, Philip’s cold cathode ionization gauge.
For level liquid: level detector, float gauges, Mercury manometer, aneroid manometers, liquid
level measuring instrument, remote liquid level indicator with continuous type, fixed point
indicating device, fluidized solid level detector.
For flow: liquid filled manometer, float type manometer, head flow metre, belt type metre, wet
balance type metre, bellows meter, force Balance metre, integrators area flow meter, example
general rotameters, question type area metre, positive displacement metre, weirs mass and
magnetic flow meter densitometer, turbine velocity metre, volumetric flow metre, gasoline
flow metre, gas flow controller, air flow controller, differential pressure gauges for measuring
flow rates.
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Quality analysis: commercial automatic analysis installed on Process Plant, chromatography

operators’ photoelectric colorimeter gas analyser, gas/vapour monitor alarm devices and
viscosity metre
For centralised control computers: digital computers, automatic petroleum processing

control computers, automatic air operated centralised monitoring and control system electronic
instrumentation system.
Revolution metres: Tachometer, governor, a velocity metre accelerometer.
Density and specific gravity metres: Psychrometer, hygrometers, dew point meter,
viscometer, velocity measuring device, consistency measuring device, densitometer.
10. PROCESS AND CONTROL SYSTEM CHARACTERISTICS:
Chemical processes and operations need efficient process and control system and a
variety of instruments of them. Instrumentation and control (IC) has developed as a specific
branch of engineering exclusive IC department and IC engineers are employed for this specific
purpose. Types of instruments, manual, mechanical, pneumatic, hydraulic, electrical, and
electronic and computer aided, their quality and sophistication are day by day improving. Their
design, erection and maintenance certainly need qualified and experienced personnel. When
the safety, productivity and control systems by such instrumentation, it occupies due to
important place in modern industry.
Process control system can be classified machine, reactor or parameterwise such as

printing or painting machine control, turbine air compressor control, reactor vessel control,
pressure temperature flow control, speed control and instrument control. It can also be
classified as manual control, auto control, semi auto control, analogue control and computer
control. Classification also exists as mechanical control, pneumatic control, hydraulic control,
electronic control etc.
Main functions of control system are to collect information, to measure and display it,
to control normal working and to detect fault and correct it. The control system depends on
process characteristics therefore there discuss the first.
Control system characteristics include manual analogue and computer controls.
Manual control system includes instruments for whole range of chemical and physical
properties and a wide range of displays such as panel board displays, Computer Graphics and
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displays of flow, current measurement, alarms, sequential control, mal-operation, command

etc.
Analogue control equipments used for measurement, information reduction and sequential
control. They include data loggers alarm scanners and trip systems, trips may be used for safety
shutdown function also.
Computer controls include direct digital control DDC Programmable Logic Control PLC
distribution control system DCS and supervisory control.
Present trend in control system is to increase degree of automation and a change in operators
rule from control to monitoring.
Basically a controller is any device that operates automatically to regulate a variable

examples include thermostat, which turn heating on or off to regulate temperature, pH
controllers which operate acid or base pumps to regulate pH of a process stream. Flow
controllers which automatically actuate valves to regulate fluid flow. Any control circuit must
consist of at least three basic elements.
A sensing element to read the process value, a control unit that makes the decisions
about regulating the variable and actuation system to make necessary adjustments as directed
by the control unit. In simplified controls symbology the diaphragm at the right illustrates a
basic feedback control loop in which air flow transmitter sense is signal to flow controller that
adjust the position of a wall to maintain a flow rates at point.
It is common to have a dedicated, centrally located, Programmable Logic controller

(PLC) or PC based control system, which receives process data from multiple field instruments
and controls the actions of numerous feedback loops to regulate performance. The controller
continually cycles through its sequence and make adjustment every few seconds the entire
network is known as a distributed control system or DCS. Process variable received by the
controller are usually analogue that is continuously variable quantities where is outputs or most
likely to be digital or numerically discrete values.
Many controllers was actually use a combination of proportional integral and derivative
control to achieve the best results and as such a known as PID controllers. They are found in
many microprocessor controlled systems and devices the response time and accuracy of PID
control loops are optimised by adjusting the mathematical coefficients associated with the
control algorithms a process called tuning.
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11. INSTRUMENT SYSTEM FOR SAFETY

Use of instrumentation for safety is equally important process parameters are well
known because of the fixed objectives, and therefore instrument system for process control
developer first. Instrument system for safety developer Airtel later stage based on learning from
accidents and thinking of remedial measures.
Types of instrument systems for safety include failsafe design trips alarms interlocks gas
smoke and fire detectors toxic detectors reaction Runway detectors Logic systems like PLC
DCS etc.
Basic principles of safety instrumentation are as under:
1. Instead of providing elaborate or complex instrument system the hazards should be

reduced at source
2. HAZOP study should be conducted to assess potential hazards operating difficulties
and instrumentation necessary
3. The measurement should be of direct variable and it direct location
4. While designing alarms other factors like instrument failure operator confidence his
information load etc., should also be considered
5. As far as possible instrument design should be fail safe
6. Range of the instrument should be sufficient so that even no input can be measured
7. Control system should be capable of dealing with normal and abnormal conditions
example start-up and shutdown
8. In case of failure of auto control, manual control should also be provided for safety
9. Fault finding instrument should not be disturbed by the fault itself
10. Service instruments example for air power inert gas should have high integrity
11. Instrument should be checked regularly and repaired quickly
12. Instrument design should be such that it should indicate it's fault easily the process
operator should be trained to find search fault as a part of his duty
13. Test should correspond as nearly as possible to the expected plant conditions. It may
pass a workshop test but may not perform satisfactorily on the plant
14. Valves may stick or jam. Jamming in the open position is dangerous for positive
isolation may require double block and bleed valves
15. Adult should be fully considered economic principles should be applied to reduce
human error as far as possible
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12.SAFETY ASPECTS OF INSTRUMENTS
Instruments failure can also cause accidents therefore while designing and manufacturing
it is necessary to consider safety features of instruments also. For example ordinary glass or
plastic parts may not withstand high pressure, temperature, corrosive metal parts are not
suitable for corrosive Chemicals. Metal parts with stainless steel is required for a material like
Oleum, led is preferred to make film batches for shielding against ionizing radiation, electrical
parts must conform to Indian standards for better performance and special alloys are required
for special purposes.
 Meant by failed due to a functional fault or loss of contaminant from the instrument.
 Sight glasses or rotameters, made of glass can break and leak. If leaks are dangerous
glass should be avoided.
 Material of construction should be proper after considering the properties of the
material to be handled and working parameters material for instrument should be
selected.
 Visual transmitters and 10 letters can be damaged by over question if they break
there pressure should be safely released.
 Protection against corrosive fluid is necessary example use of inert liquid in impulse
lines on pressure transmitters are of chemical diaphragm seals on pressure gauges.
 Sampling and impulse lines should be checked for Rakesh steam tracing is useful
against freezing.
 A thermowell to hold thermometer should be here Police designed to take into
account corrosion erosion effect.
 Pulsating flow in flow metres can cause inaccuracies design of orifice plate should
consider this factor.
 Complex instruments like analysers, speed controllers vibration monitor and solid
weighers are generally less reliable consequences of their failure should be carefully
analysed.
 Out of different types of pressure regulator the right one should be selected it right
to place no bypass should be provided between pressure regulator.
 A control valve should be selected properly. Nominal capacity, range ability,
control characteristics, flow limit, when fully open, cooling fins temperature
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protection, bellows seals to prevent leaks and mechanical balancing against process
pressure are the factors to be considered for selection.
 Instruments should not become a source of ignition electrical area classification
should be considered they should be flameproof as per requirement.
13.Sampling technique for toxic & Flammable substances:
13.1. Sampling Analysis Methods:
1. Chemical laboratory analysis
2. Instrumental or physical methods
3. Analytical methods
13.1.1. Chemical Laboratory analysis:
Micro methods have been developed and accepted as reference methods. They need
sophisticated laboratory apparatus and qualified and trained personnel. Their reliability
depends on many factors like specificity, accuracy, precision, reproducibility, sensitivity,
practical confirmation etc., Analysis is carried out by 1) approximation, 2). Titration and
gravimetric methods, 3). Spectro-photometry, 4). Visible Spectrophotometry, 5). Nephelo-
metric method and 6). Calibration curves.
13.1.2. Instrumental or physical method:
These are advanced methods. They are superseded traditional wet chemical methods of
environmental estimations. They require regular calibration, skilled operator, and more
expense. The methods include: 1). Gas & Liquid Chromatography, 2). Spectroscopy using
visible, IR, or UV rays. 3). Polarography, 4). XRD, 5). Neutron activation analysis, 6). General
methods like, combustible gas indicators, spectrophotometers and flame ionisation detectors.
13.1.3. Analytical Methods:
These are chemical and physical methods used for determination of contaminants in sample.
a). Colorimetric: the principle of this method is the development of the color by a reagent
which is indicative of the concentration of the substance to be analysed. Examples of these
methods are: determination of zinc, lead, mercury etc., by dithizone extraction.
b). Ion exchange: by this technique it is possible to separate elements from one another.
Mercury in urine, fluorine in urine and fluoride sample can be separated from further analysis.
c). Gravimetric method: this method depends on the formation of a precipitate or a residue
which can be weighed. Example is an analysis of dust samples for free silica.
d). volumetric method: by the use of standard solution for titration. Examples are acid gases
which are titrated with a basic reagent.
30
e). Physical method: the physical methods widely used for the determination of the various
contaminants are emission spectroscopy, infrared and UV spectroscopy, mass spectroscopy,
polarography, XRD, and gas chromatography.
13.2. SAMPLING INSTRUMENTS:

 Source of suction: which may be an electrically or hand operated pump, an aspirator or
squeeze bulb. They are of 3 types: low flow, high flow and dual range.
 Absorbing medium: it should be able to efficiently retain the contaminants to be sampled
by absorption, chemical reaction or mechanical retention filter or collection media. Sorbent
tubes, bags, filters liquid and impingers are used to collect airborne contaminants for
analysis. Sorbent tubes (activated charcoal, silica gel) work on principle of adsorption.
They are used for non-reactive insoluble gas/vapour and give accurate assessment of TWA
exposures. Adsorbed material is desorbed and analysed in laboratory.
 Cyclone device: used to collect and separate Respirable particulate matter. Rapid
circulation of air separates particulates according to size. The grit pot remains in place
during sampling.
 Impinger: is a glass bubble tube. It contains liquid media for complete absorption of
reactive chemicals like acids and anhydrides. PVC filters are used for Respirable dust e.g.
silica and crystalline.
 Flow meter: to indicate and control the rate of suction of air to calculate the amount of air
sampled. The flow meter attached to instrument must be calibrated with wet or dry gas
meter.
 Gas meter: is used to detect all toxic and combustible gases and oxygen content in
workroom, manholes of storage tanks, tank cars, confined space, pumping station etc. its
range are 0 to 50 ppm for toxic gas, 0 to 100 % for LEL and 0 to 25 % for oxygen, its
operating range are: 0 to 40 0C for toxic gas, 18 to 40 0C for combustible gas and 0 to 40
0
C for oxygen. Its humidity range is 10 to 90% RG. Long-time extreme humidity reduces
the sensor life.
 Specific gas detectors are available to measure, record and to give audio-visual alarm
when set limit is reached. They give direct reading by digital display. Such instruments are
portable and costly. They are available to detect Cl2, H2S, SO2, CO, phosgene, etc. an H2S
meter operates on electrochemical solarographic cell. They should be properly calibrated
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and used within their ranges of ppm, LEL, humidity and temperature. Dragger gas detector
tubes for such specific gases and sampler pumps are also utilised.
Precautions in sampling of Flammable Substances:
Flammable gases, liquids and solids (typified by hydrogen, fuel oil and coal) including
substances which although not normally regarded as being flammable themselves will give
combustible products if exposed to moisture (alkali metal hydrides and calcium carbide are
examples). Other substances will ignite spontaneously in contact with air, for example, white
phosphorus, pyrophoric nickel and carbon. The risk varies with the substances, its temperature
and its state of subdivision. It is generally higher with liquids than solids and is always high if
the substance is volatile, yields flammable gases or is in a form which is readily dispersed in
the air. Attention is particularly directed to the risk or explosion which is present in enclosed
spaces where volatile fractions of the materials including residual traces of solvents, may
accumulate and in places where dust rising out from combustible matter such as flour, starch
and coal will if dispersed yield an explosive mixture. Those responsible for the sampling must
be acquainted with the flash and auto-ignition points, and the flammability limits of such
substances.
Additional Precautions:
 The vicinity of the sampling operation shall be free of possible means or aids of
ignition. Naked lights and smoking shall be prohibited. Where appropriate, tools
manufactured from low-or reduced-spark generating materials shall be specified.
 Precautions shall be taken to eliminate sparks due to the generation of static electricity
by ensuring that the accumulation of static electrical charges cannot occur on electricity
insulated metal containers. Rubber tyred vehicles shall be earthed before operations
commence. Metal sampling cans shall be earthed or bonded to the tank into which they
are inserted. The flow of liquids can generate static electricity as can also the mixing of
liquids and sufficient time should elapse after movement has stopped and before
sampling is undertaken to ensure leakage to earth of the charge generated by movement.
In fixed installations, sampling points shall be individually earthed if there is any
possibility that they may become electrically insulated. There is also the possibility of
the sample or his clothing being charged. To eliminate sparks between the sampler and
earth, the sampler shall wear conductive footwear. Nylon overalls will often be highly
charged in dry weather and cotton is to be preferred.
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 Adequate and appropriate fire extinguishers shall be available.

 All spillages shall be reported and corrected as soon as possible; spilt flammable liquids
should not be allowed to enter drains unless the system is known to be designed to take
such fluids. Whenever possible time shall be allowed for the vapours to dissipate.
 Protective goggles and protective clothing shall be worn. Such clothing shall not in
itself be flammable.
 Spontaneously flammable substance: shall be handled either under an inert liquid or in
an inert atmosphere.
Precautions in sampling of Toxic Substances:
Poisons may enter the body by one or more of three: routes, namely: a) Mouth and alimentary
canal; b) Respiratory system; and c) Skin.
In acute poisoning, that is, from a single dose the effect may be immediate and
associated with immediate discomfort and other symptoms, but in some cases there are delayed
effects not appearing for some hours. Repeated low level doses of some substances are a health
hazard because of accumulation of the poison itself in the body or by virtue of accumulated
minor organic changes.
When appropriate, persons exposed to this kind of risk shall be periodically examined
by a doctor. Whenever toxic substances are handled or sampled those persons exposed to the
risk shall be made aware of the risk, the symptoms of poisoning and the nature of any delayed
effects and be instructed to seek immediate medical assistance in the event of their feeling
unwell in any way. It is recommended that whenever the substance sampled may have a delayed
effect, the sampler should be given dated card stating that he has handled the named substance
and bearing the name and telephone number of a medical officer able to advice on the subject.
Additional Precautions:
 Smoking, tile use of snuff, eating and drinking in the vicinity of the poisonous substance
shall be prohibited.
 Adequate washing facilities shall be provided and be used by sampling personnel after
securing sample containers and before leaving the site. Suitable facilities shall also be
provided for adequate cleaning of all equipment after the samples are taken.
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 Sampling cocks for liquids shall be arranged so that splashing cannot occur and
contained. Facilities shall be provided for isolating the sample point from the system
by a bulb near to but not immediately adjacent to the sample point.
 All sample containers and tools shall be clean and fit for use without rinsing with the
product. Should rinsing be necessary or a sample line require initial purging, suitably
marked containers shall be provided for the surplus liquid and format instructions
issued directing the disposal of this surplus.
 All spillages shall be reported immediately. As necessary the sampler shall wear
suitable overalls so that in the event of these being contaminated he may change.
Contaminated clothing shall not be sent to laundry or cleaners until a competent person,
aware of the hazards involved, has taken the appropriate steps to remove the
contamination.
DOW INDEX & ASSESSMENT:
The Dow Index is calculated based on the nature of the chemical process and the characteristic
of the materials being handled. The index is also known as Fire and Explosion Index (F&EI)
has a numerical value, the higher value, the more hazardous is the process unit under study.
The identification guide formulated by the Dow Company and published by the Institute of
chemical engineers, USA (1994) provides detailed data for determining F&EI index.
The equation for Dow index:
F&EI = MF × (GPH × SPH) − − − −(1)
Where, F&EI is fire and Explosion index (the Dow index)
MF = Material Factor
GPH = General Process Hazards
SPH = Special Process Hazards
The material factor indicates the degree of risk from fire, explosion and reactivity of the
materials being handled in the process unit. The factor is basically derived from the ignition
and reactivity properties of the substances; a higher value denotes explosive nature while the
lowest value is given to a stable and inert material. Values of MF for specific substances are
known from available literature.
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General Process Hazards:

The GPH mainly incorporates the type of reactions (Endothermic, exothermic or otherwise),
process being handled indoors or in open, quantum and methods of material handling, plant
layout, availability of safe distances from risk zones, proper dykes for storage and effective
control of spillages, drains and vents, etc.
Special Process Hazards (SPH):
The SPH consists of consideration of several factors which could result in losses due to
likelihood of an accident. They are mainly temperatures (high or low), pressures (high or
vacuum), and concentrations of hazardous substances during normal and abnormal conditions
and chance of them reaching flammable zone, total quantity stored in storage vessel and in
process, toxicity of material handled, processing of particulates with respect to risk of dust
explosions, corrosion and erosion impact, hazards due to leakage from piping and equipment,
availability of high risk potential equipment such as process heaters, steam boilers, hot oil
circulation system, and high speed rotating equipment (compressors, centrifuges, dryers and
mixers, etc).
Approximate grading of hazardous units based on values of F&EI:
F&EI Degree of Hazard

1 to 60 Light
61 to 96 Moderate
97 to 127 Intermediate
128 to 158 Heavy
>159 Severe
The Dow guide gives full details of the process of such determination which also includes the
area likely to be damaged surrounding the source of incident.
Mond Index:
The mond index developed by ICI, UK is an extended version of the Dow index by
incorporation of other risk factors such as toxicity, features of plant layout and vapour cloud
explosions, etc. detailed analysis of GPH and SPH is carried out with special emphasis on plant
layout and its limitations. Either the plant layout under planning stage or the actual stage of the
operating unit can be evaluated. The Mond index is therefore derived from a more in depth
evaluation of several risk factors by means of study of sub-indices. These sub-indices, in
35
addition to basic Dow index parameters are mainly the overall fire load and explosion
characteristics (internal and external), toxicity index and plant layout deficiencies, etc.
Toxicity Index:
The toxicity index which forms a major additional parameter in mond index is worked out as
follows:
Th + Ts(1 + GPH + SPH)
Toxicity index = − − − −(2)
100
Where, GPH is general process hazards, SPH is Special Process Hazards and Th is Toxicity
factor based on NFPA hazard index with range from 0 to 4.
Ts is a correction factor for toxicity based on maximum allowable concentration (MAC) value
in ppm for the toxic substance.
The correlation is given by:
NFPA Index Toxicity Factor
0 0
1 50
2 125
3 250
4 325
MAC ppm Ts
<5 125
5-50 75
>50 50
The mond index differs from the Dow index mainly on account of inclusion of toxicity, layout
and VCEs but does not determine property and financial loss. However, depending on the
specific need of risk evaluation, a judicious balance can be arrived at for the selection of
appropriate indices and sub-indices.
It would be beneficial to determine the indices at an early stage of project implementation
preferably when piping and instrumentation diagrams and equipment location layout details
are being prepared. Protective and preventive measure adopted in the engineering efforts can
then be evaluated for adequacy and implementation of alternatives may be considered as a
36
result of such studies. The study is almost like other analytical techniques such as Hazid and
HAZOP but is more descriptive and supported by quantitative indices.
37

Dis07 U 2 Instrumentation For Safe Plant Operation

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DIS07 SAFETY IN CHEMICAL INDUSTRY

It is a general belief that automation through instrumentation provides more flexibility to

Instrumentation & Control:

2. WORK PERMIT APPLICATION:

Permit systems must adhere to the following eight principles:

2.1. Work requiring a permit:

 Repairs to railway tracks, tippers, conveyors

3. INDUSTRIAL PROCESSES & OPERATIONS

An explosive is a “substance or mixture, which when subjected to thermal or mechanical

1. The rate of decomposition of an explosive should be fast enough to produce a large

Explosives are primarily classified as 3 types:

1. Primary or initiating explosives (or detonators)

PRECAUTIONS DURING STORAGE OF EXPLOSIVES:

The following precautions should be taken while storing explosives:

1. Different explosives should be stored in separate boxes.

3.2. SAFETY IN PROCESSES/OPERATIONS INVOLVING FLAMMABLE DUST

The possible sources of ignition can be avoided by:

 Inadequate training and supervision of users;

Users must ensure: -

 Staff who handle cylinders are properly trained

 Propane cylinders are always transported and used upright.

4. Introduction to safety in chemical plants using chemicals and resulting in

 Always wear chemical goggles and adequate skin cover.

Precautions When Working with Anhydrous Ammonia

 Use good equipment specially designed for handling anhydrous ammonia.

Precautions in Bulk storage of Chlorine:

Hazards & Controls:

Pesticide is a chemical used to destroy an organism detrimental to human interest. It includes

4. CHEMICAL PROCESS IN HAZARDOUS OPERATIONS

4.1 CHEMICAL PROCESS

2.2 Hazardous Chemical Processes:

 chemical processes that have a large inventory of stored pressure energy

1. Rapid increase in rate with increasing temperature and normal characteristics.

The abnormal conditions which may occur in chemical reactor are:

 Loss of feed, coolant or utilities

Some causes of runaway reaction in reactors or storage tanks are:

7.1. Pressure Deviations:

 Changes in action of pumping equipment, e.g. failure of a pump or compressor.

7.2. Temperature Deviations

Temperature deviations in reactors can occur as a result of:

Some causes of temperature deviations are due to:

 Changes in heat input, e.g. loss of fuel

7.3. FLOW DEVIATIONS:

Temperature/pressure/flow sensors in the process initiate actions such as emergency cooling,

7.4. Vapour effects can cause:

 Reliability of the pumping equipment

Some of other causes of level deviations are:

7.6. Control Disturbances:

 Automatic shut-down systems

20. Spectrophotometer: a photometer for comparing two light radiation wavelength by

Specific instruments some special instruments available as follows

9. PROCESS CONTROL INSTRUMENTS

For temperatures: Thermocouples, radiation pyrometers, optical pyrometers, resistance

Quality analysis: commercial automatic analysis installed on Process Plant, chromatography

For centralised control computers: digital computers, automatic petroleum processing

Revolution metres: Tachometer, governor, a velocity metre accelerometer.

10. PROCESS AND CONTROL SYSTEM CHARACTERISTICS:

Process control system can be classified machine, reactor or parameterwise such as

Control system characteristics include manual analogue and computer controls.