Python Cheat Sheet: Keywords

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Keyword Description Code example

False​, ​True Data values from the data type Boolean False​ == (​1 ​> ​2​), ​True​ == (​2 ​> ​1​)

and​, ​or​, ​not Logical operators: x, y = ​True​, ​False

(x ​and​ y)​ → both x and y must be True (x ​or​ y) == ​True​ ​# True
(x ​or​ y)​ → either x or y must be True (x ​and​ y) == ​False​ ​ True
#
(​not​ x)​ → x must be false (​not​ y) == ​True​ ​ True
#

break Ends loop prematurely while​(​True​):

​break​ ​# no infinite loop
print(​"hello world"​)

continue Finishes current loop iteration while​(​True​):

​continue
print(​"43"​) ​# dead code

class Defines a new class → a real-world concept class​ ​Beer​:

(object oriented programming) ​def​ ​__init__​(self)​:
self.content = ​1.0
def Defines a new function or class method. For latter, ​def​ ​drink​(self)​:
first parameter (“self”) points to the class object. self.content = ​0.0
When calling class method, first parameter is implicit.
becks = Beer() ​# constructor - create class
becks.drink() ​# beer empty: b.content == 0

if​, ​elif​, ​else Conditional program execution: program starts with x = int(input(​"your value: "​))
“if” branch, tries the “elif” branches, and finishes with if​ x > ​3​: print(​"Big"​)
“else” branch (until one branch evaluates to True). elif​ x == ​3​: print(​"Medium"​)
else​: print(​"Small"​)

for​, ​while # For loop declaration # While loop - same semantics

for​ i ​in​ [​0​,​1​,​2​]: j = ​0
print(i) while​ j < ​3​:
print(j)
j = j + ​1

in Checks whether element is in sequence 42​ ​in​ [​2​, ​39​, ​42​] ​# True

is Checks whether both elements point to the same y = x = 3

object x​ ​is​ ​y​ ​# True
[​3​] ​is​ [​3​] ​# False

None Empty value constant ​ ​()​:

def​ f
x = ​2
f() ​is​ ​None​ ​# True

lambda Function with no name (anonymous function) (lambda​ x: x + ​3)(3)​ ​# returns 6

return Terminates execution of the function and passes the def​ i​ ncrementor​(x)​:
flow of execution to the caller. An optional value after ​return​ x + ​1
the return keyword specifies the function result. incrementor(​4​) ​# returns 5
 Python Cheat Sheet: Basic Data Types
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Description Example

Boolean The Boolean data type is a truth value, either ## 1. Boolean Operations
​ alse​.
True​ ​or F x, y = ​True​, ​False
print(x ​and​ ​not​ y) ​# True
The Boolean operators ordered by priority: print(​not​ x ​and​ y ​or​ x) ​# True
not​ x​ ​ → “if x is False, then x, else y”
x ​and​ y​ → “if x is False, then x, else y” ## 2. If condition evaluates to False
x ​or​ y​ ​ → “if x is False, then y, else x” if​ ​None​ ​or​ ​0​ ​or​ ​0.0​ ​or​ ​''​ ​or​ [] ​or​ {} ​or​ set():
​# None, 0, 0.0, empty strings, or empty
These comparison operators evaluate to ​True​: ​# container types are evaluated to False
1​ < ​2​ ​and​ ​0​ <= ​1​ ​and​ ​3​ > ​2​ ​and​ ​2​ >=​2​ ​and
print(​"Dead code"​) ​# Not reached
1​ == ​1​ ​and​ ​1​ != ​0​ ​# True

Integer, An integer is a positive or negative number ## 3. Arithmetic Operations

Float without floating point (e.g. ​3​). A float is a x, y = ​3​, ​2
positive or negative number with floating point print(x + y) ​# = 5
precision (e.g.​ ​3.14159265359​). print(x - y) ​# = 1
print(x * y) ​# = 6
The ‘​//​’ operator performs integer division. print(x / y) ​# = 1.5
The result is an integer value that is rounded print(x // y) ​# = 1
toward the smaller integer number print(x % y) ​# = 1s
(e.g. 3​ ​ // ​2​ == ​1​). print(-x) ​# = -3
print(abs(-x)) ​# = 3
print(int(​3.9​)) ​# = 3
print(float(​3​)) ​# = 3.0
print(x ** y) ​# = 9

String Python Strings are sequences of characters. ## 4. Indexing and Slicing

s = ​"The youngest pope was 11 years old"
The four main ways to create strings are the print(s[​0​]) ​# 'T'
following. print(s[​1​:​3​]) ​# 'he'
print(s[​-3​:​-1​]) ​# 'ol'
1. Single quotes print(s[​-3​:]) ​# 'old'
'Yes' x = s.split() ​# creates string array of words
2. Double quotes print(x[​-3​] + ​" "​ + x[​-1​] + ​" "​ + x[​2​] + ​"s"​)
"Yes"
# '11 old popes'
3. Triple quotes (multi-line)
"""Yes
## 5. Most Important String Methods
We Can"""
y = ​" This is lazy\t\n "
4. String method
print(y.strip()) ​# Remove Whitespace: 'This is lazy'
str(​5​) == ​'5'​ ​# True
print(​"DrDre"​.lower()) ​# Lowercase: 'drdre'
5. Concatenation
print(​"attention"​.upper()) ​# Uppercase: 'ATTENTION'
"Ma"​ + ​"hatma"​ ​# 'Mahatma'
print(​"smartphone"​.startswith(​"smart"​)) ​# True
print(​"smartphone"​.endswith(​"phone"​)) ​# True
print(​"another"​.find(​"other"​)) ​# Match index: 2
These are whitespace characters in strings.
print(​"cheat"​.replace(​"ch"​, ​"m"​)) ​# 'meat'
● Newline \​ n
print(​','​.join([​"F"​, ​"B"​, ​"I"​])) ​# 'F,B,I'
● Space ​ s
\
print(len(​"Rumpelstiltskin"​)) ​# String length: 15
● Tab ​ t
\ print(​"ear"​ ​in​ ​"earth"​) ​# Contains: True
 Python Cheat Sheet: Complex Data Types
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Description Example

List A container data type that stores a l = [​1​, ​2​, ​2​]

sequence of elements. Unlike strings, lists print(len(l)) ​# 3
are mutable: modification possible.

Adding Add elements to a list with (i) append, (ii) [​1​, 2

​ ​, 2 ​ ​].append(​4​) ​# [1, 2, 2, 4]
elements insert, or (iii) list concatenation. [​1​, 2​ ​, 4 ​ ​].insert(​2​,​2​) ​# [1, 2, 2, 4]
The append operation is very fast. [​1​, 2 ​ ​, 2 ​ ​] + [​4​] # [1, 2, 2, 4]

Removal Removing an element can be slower. [​1​, ​2​, ​2​, ​4​].remove(​1​) ​# [2, 2, 4]

Reversing This reverses the order of list elements. [​1​, ​2​, ​3​].reverse() ​# [3, 2, 1]

Sorting Sorts a list. The computational complexity [​2​, ​4​, ​2​].sort() ​# [2, 2, 4]
of sorting is linear in the no. list elements.

Indexing Finds the first occurence of an element in [​2​, 2

​ ​, 4​ ​].index(​2​) ​# index of element 4 is "0"
the list & returns its index. Can be slow as [​2​, 2​ ​, 4​ ​].index(​2​,​1​) ​# index of element 2 after pos 1 is "1"
the whole list is traversed.

Stack Python lists can be used intuitively as stack = [3]

stacks via the two list operations append() stack.append(​42​) ​# [3, 42]
and pop(). stack.pop() ​# 42 (stack: [3])
stack.pop() ​# 3 (stack: []​)

Set A set is an unordered collection of unique basket = {​'apple'​, ​'eggs'​, ​'banana'​, ​'orange'​}
elements (“at-most-once”). same = set([​'apple'​, ​'eggs'​, ​'banana'​, ​'orange']​)

Dictionary The dictionary is a useful data structure for calories = {​'apple'​ : ​52​, ​'banana'​ : ​89​, ​'choco'​ : ​546​}
storing (key, value) pairs.

Reading and Read and write elements by specifying the print(calories[​'apple'​] < calories[​'choco'​]) ​# True
writing key within the brackets. Use the keys() and calories[​'cappu'​] = ​74
elements values() functions to access all keys and print(calories[​'banana'​] < calories[​'cappu'​]) ​# False
values of the dictionary. print(​'apple'​ ​in​ calories.keys()) ​# True
print(​52​ ​in​ calories.values()) ​# True

Dictionary You can access the (key, value) pairs of a for k, v in calories.items():
Looping dictionary with the​ items()​ method. print(k) if v > 500 else None​ ​# 'chocolate'

Membership Check with the ‘in’ keyword whether the basket = {​'apple'​, ​'eggs'​, ​'banana'​, ​'orange'​}
operator set, list, or dictionary contains an element. print(​'eggs'​ ​in​ basket) ​# True
Set containment is faster than list print(​'mushroom'​ ​in​ basket) ​# False
containment.

List and Set List comprehension is the concise Python # List comprehension
Comprehens way to create lists. Use brackets plus an l = [(​'Hi '​ + x) ​for​ x ​in​ [​'Alice'​, ​'Bob'​, ​'Pete'​]]
ion expression, followed by a for clause. Close print(l) ​# ['Hi Alice', 'Hi Bob', 'Hi Pete']
with zero or more for or if clauses. l2 = [x * y ​for​ x ​in​ range(​3​) ​for​ y ​in​ range(​3​) ​if​ x>y]
print(l2) ​# [0, 0, 2]
Set comprehension is similar to list # Set comprehension
comprehension. squares = { x**​2​ ​for​ x ​in​ [​0​,​2​,​4​] ​if​ x < ​4​ } ​# {0, 4}
 Python Cheat Sheet: Classes
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Description Example

Classes A class encapsulates data and functionality: data as class​ ​Dog​:

attributes, and functionality as methods. It is a blueprint """ Blueprint of a dog """
for creating concrete instances in memory.
# class variable shared by all instances
species = [​"canis lupus"​]

def​ ​__init__​(self, name, color)​:

self.name = name
self.state = ​"sleeping"
self.color = color

def​ ​command​(self, x)​:

if​ x == self.name:
self.bark(​2​)
elif​ x == ​"sit"​:
Instance You are an instance of the class human. An instance is a self.state = " ​ sit"
concrete implementation of a class: all attributes of an else​:
instance have a fixed value. Your hair is blond, brown, or self.state = " ​ wag tail"
black--but never unspecified.
def​ ​bark​(self, freq)​:
Each instance has its own attributes independent of for​ i ​in​ range(freq):
other instances. Yet, class variables are different. These print(​"["​ + self.name
are data values associated with the class, not the + ​"]: Woof!"​)
instances. Hence, all instance share the same class
variable ​species ​in the example.
​ black"​)
bello = Dog(​"bello"​, "
Self The first argument when defining any method is always alice = Dog(​"alice"​, "​ white"​)
the ​self ​argument. This argument specifies the
​ black
print(bello.color) #
instance on which you call the method.
print(alice.color) #​ white
self ​gives the Python interpreter the information about
the concrete instance. To ​define ​a method, you use s ​ elf bello.bark(​1​) ​# [bello]: Woof!
​ n instance
to modify the instance attributes. But to ​call a
method, you do not need to specify ​self​. alice.command(​"sit"​)
print(​"[alice]: "​ + alice.state)
Creation You can create classes “on the fly” and use them as # [alice]: sit
logical units to store complex data types.
bello.command(​"no"​)
class​ ​Employee()​: print(​"[bello]: "​ + bello.state)
pass # [bello]: wag tail
employee = Employee()
employee.salary = ​122000 alice.command(​"alice"​)
employee.firstname = ​"alice" # [alice]: Woof!
employee.lastname = ​"wonderland" # [alice]: Woof!

print(employee.firstname + ​" " bello.species += [​"wulf"​]

+ employee.lastname + ​" " print(len(bello.species)
+ str(employee.salary) + ​"$"​) == len(alice.species)) ​# True (!)
# alice wonderland 122000$
 Python Cheat Sheet: Functions and Tricks
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Description Example Result

A map(func, iter) Executes the function on all elements of list(map(​lambda​ x: x[​0​], [​'red'​, [​'r'​, ​'g'​, ​'b'​]
D the iterable 'green'​, ​'blue'​]))
V
A map(func, i1, ..., Executes the function on all k elements of list(map(​lambda​ x, y: str(x) + ​' '​ + [​'0 apples'​, ​'2
ik) the k iterables y + ​'s'​ , [​0​, ​2​, ​2​], [​'apple'​, oranges'​, ​'2
N
C 'orange'​, ​'banana'​])) bananas'​]
E
string.join(iter) Concatenates iterable elements ' marries '​.join(list([​'Alice'​, 'Alice marries Bob'
D separated by ​string 'Bob'​]))

F filter(func, Filters out elements in iterable for which list(filter(​lambda​ x: ​True​ ​if​ x>​17 [​18​]
U iterable) function returns ​False​ ​(or 0) else​ ​False​, [​1​, ​15​, ​17​, ​18​]))
N
C string.strip() Removes leading and trailing print(​" \n \t 42 \t "​.strip()) 42
T whitespaces of string
I
O sorted(iter) Sorts iterable in ascending order sorted([​8​, ​3​, ​2​, ​42​, ​5​]) [​2​, ​3​, ​5​, ​8​, ​42​]
N
sorted(iter, Sorts according to the key function in sorted([​8​, ​3​, 2 ​ ​, ​42​, ​5​], key=​lambda [​42​, ​2​, ​3​, ​5​, ​8​]
S
key=key) ascending order x: ​0​ ​if​ x==​42​ e​ lse​ x)

help(func) Returns documentation of ​func help(str.upper()) '... to uppercase.'

zip(i1, i2, ...) Groups the i-th elements of iterators ​i1, list(zip([​'Alice'​, ​'Anna'​], [​'Bob'​, [(​'Alice'​, ​'Bob'​),
i2, ...​ together 'Jon'​, ​'Frank'​])) (​'Anna'​, ​'Jon'​)]

Unzip Equal to: 1) unpack the zipped list, 2) zip list(zip(*[(​'Alice'​, ​'Bob'​), [(​'Alice'​, ​'Anna'​),
the result (​'Anna'​, ​'Jon'​)])) (​'Bob'​, ​'Jon'​)]

enumerate(iter) Assigns a counter value to each element list(enumerate([​'Alice'​, ​'Bob'​, [(​0​, ​'Alice'​), (​1​,
of the iterable 'Jon'​])) 'Bob'​), (​2​, ​'Jon'​)]

T python -m http.server Want to share files between PC and phone? Run this command in PC’s shell. <P> is any port number 0–65535. Type <
R <P> IP address of PC>:<P> in the phone’s browser. You can now browse the files in the PC directory.
I
C Read comic import​ antigravity Open the comic series xkcd in your web browser
K
S
Zen of Python import​ this '...Beautiful is better than ugly. Explicit is ...'

Swapping numbers Swapping variables is a breeze in Python. ​ Jane'​, ​'Alice'

a, b = ' a = ​'Alice'
No offense, Java! a, b = b, a b = '​ Jane'

Unpacking arguments Use a sequence as function arguments def​ ​f​(x, y, z)​:​ return​ x + y * z
via asterisk operator *. Use a dictionary f(*[​1​, ​3​, ​4​]) 13
(key, value) via double asterisk operator ** f(**{​'z'​ : ​4​, ​'x'​ : ​1​, ​'y'​ : 3
​ ​}) 13

Extended Unpacking Use unpacking for multiple assignment a, *b = [​1​, ​2​, ​3​, ​4​, ​5​] a = ​1
feature in Python b = [​2​, ​3​, ​4, 5​]

Merge two dictionaries Use unpacking to merge two dictionaries x={​'Alice'​ : ​18​} z = {​'Alice'​: ​18​,
into a single one y={​'Bob'​ : ​27​, ​'Ann'​ : ​22​} 'Bob'​: ​27​, ​'Ann'​: ​22​}
z = {**x,**y}
 Python Cheat Sheet: 14 Interview Questions
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Question Code Question Code

Check if list l = [​3​, ​3​, ​4​, ​5​, ​2​, ​111​, ​5​] Get missing def​ g​ et_missing_number​(lst):
contains print(​111​ ​in​ l) ​# True number in ​return​ set(range(lst[len(lst)​-1​])[​1:
​ ]) - set(l)
integer x [1...100] l = list(range(​1​,​100​))
l.remove(​50​)
print(get_missing_number(l)) ​# 50

Find duplicate def​ ​find_duplicates​(elements): Compute def​ i ​ ntersect​(lst1, lst2):

number in duplicates, seen = set(), set() the res, lst2_copy = [], lst2[:]
integer list ​for​ element ​in​ elements: intersection ​for​ el ​in​ lst1:
​if​ element ​in​ seen: of two lists ​if​ el ​in​ lst2_copy:
duplicates.add(element) res.append(el)
seen.add(element) lst2_copy.remove(el)
​return​ list(duplicates) ​return​ res

Check if two def​ i​ s_anagram​(s1, s2): Find max l = [​4​, ​3​, ​6​, 3
​ ​, ​4,
​ ​888​, ​1,
​ ​-11​, ​22​, ​3]
​
strings are ​return​ set(s1) == set(s2) and min in print(max(l)) # ​ 888
anagrams print(is_anagram(​"elvis"​, ​"lives"​)) ​# True unsorted list print(min(l)) # ​ -11

Remove all lst = list(range(​10​)) + list(range(​10​)) Reverse def​ ​reverse​(string):

duplicates from lst = list(set(lst)) string using ​if​ len(string)<=​1​: r
​ eturn​ string
list print(lst) recursion ​return​ reverse(string[​1​:])+string[​0​]
# [0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9] print(reverse(​"hello"​)) ​# olleh

Find pairs of def​ ​find_pairs​(l, x): Compute a, b = ​0​, ​1

integers in list pairs = [] the first n n = ​10
so that their ​for​ (i, el_1) ​in​ enumerate(l): Fibonacci for​ i ​in​ range(n):
sum is equal to ​for​ (j, el_2) ​in​ enumerate(l[i+​1​:]): numbers print(b)
integer x ​if​ el_1 + el_2 == x: a, b = b, a+b
pairs.append((el_1, el_2)) # 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, ...
​return​ pairs

Check if a def​ ​is_palindrome​(phrase): Sort list with def​ ​qsort​(L):

string is a ​return​ phrase == phrase[::​-1​] Quicksort ​if​ L == []: ​return​ []
palindrome print(is_palindrome(​"anna"​)) ​# True algorithm ​return​ qsort([x ​for​ x ​in​ L[​1​:] ​if​ x< L[​0​]]) + L[​0​:1
​ ​] +
qsort([x ​for​ x ​in​ L[​1​:] ​if​ x>=L[​0​]])
lst = [​44​, ​33​, 2​ 2​, 5
​ ​, ​77​, ​55​, ​999​]
print(qsort(lst))
# [5, 22, 33, 44, 55, 77, 999]

Use list as # as a list ... Find all def​ ​get_permutations​(w):

stack, array, l = [​3​, ​4​] permutation ​if​ len(w)<=​1​:
and queue l += [​5​, ​6​] ​# l = [3, 4, 5, 6] s of string ​return​ set(w)
smaller = get_permutations(w[​1: ​ ])
# ... as a stack ... perms = set()
l.append(​10​) ​# l = [4, 5, 6, 10] ​for​ x ​in​ smaller:
l.pop() ​# l = [4, 5, 6] ​for​ pos ​in​ range(​0,
​ len(x)+​1​):
perm = x[:pos] + w[​0​] + x[pos:]
# ... and as a queue perms.add(perm)
l.insert(​0​, ​5​) ​# l = [5, 4, 5, 6] ​return​ perms
l.pop() ​# l = [5, 4, 5] print(get_permutations(​"nan"​))
# {'nna', 'ann', 'nan'}
 Python Cheat Sheet: NumPy
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Name Description Example

a.shape The shape attribute of NumPy array a keeps a tuple of a = np.array([[​1​,​2​],[​1​,​1​],[​0​,​0​]])

integers. Each integer describes the number of elements of print(np.shape(a)) ​# (3, 2)
the axis.

a.ndim The ndim attribute is equal to the length of the shape tuple. print(np.ndim(a)) ​# 2

* The asterisk (star) operator performs the Hadamard product, a = np.array([[​2​, 0

​ ​], [​0​, ​2​]])
i.e., multiplies two matrices with equal shape element-wise. b = np.array([[​1​, 1​ ​], [​1​, ​1​]])
print(a*b) ​# [[2 0] [0 2]]

np.matmul(a,b), a@b The standard matrix multiplication operator. Equivalent to the print(np.matmul(a,b))
@ operator. # [[2 2] [2 2]]

np.arange([start, ]stop, Creates a new 1D numpy array with evenly spaced values print(np.arange(​0​,​10​,​2​))
[step, ]) # [0 2 4 6 8]

np.linspace(start, stop, Creates a new 1D numpy array with evenly spread elements print(np.linspace(​0​,​10​,​3​))
num=​50​) within the given interval # [ 0. 5. 10.]

np.average(a) Averages over all the values in the numpy array a = np.array([[​2​, ​0​], [​0​, ​2​]])
print(np.average(a)) ​# 1.0

<slice> = <val> Replace the <slice> as selected by the slicing operator with a = np.array([​0​, ​1​, ​0​, 0
​ ​, ​0​])
the value <val>. a[::​2​] = ​2
print(a) ​ [2 1 2 0 2]
#

np.var(a) Calculates the variance of a numpy array. a = np.array([​2​, ​6​])

print(np.var(a)) ​# 4.0

np.std(a) Calculates the standard deviation of a numpy array print(np.std(a)) ​# 2.0

np.diff(a) Calculates the difference between subsequent values in fibs = np.array([​0​, 1

​ ​, ​1​, ​2​, ​3​, ​5​])
NumPy array a print(np.diff(fibs, n=​1​))
# [1 0 1 1 2]

np.cumsum(a) Calculates the cumulative sum of the elements in NumPy print(np.cumsum(np.arange(​5​)))

array a. # [ 0 1 3 6 10]

np.sort(a) Creates a new NumPy array with the values from a a = np.array([​10​,​3​,​7​,​1​,​0​])
(ascending). print(np.sort(a))
# [ 0 1 3 7 10]

np.argsort(a) Returns the indices of a NumPy array so that the indexed a = np.array([​10​,​3​,​7​,​1​,​0​])
values would be sorted. print(np.argsort(a))
# [4 3 1 2 0]

np.max(a) Returns the maximal value of NumPy array a. a = np.array([​10​,​3​,​7​,​1​,​0​])

print(np.max(a)) ​# 10

np.argmax(a) Returns the index of the element with maximal value in the a = np.array([​10​,​3​,​7​,​1​,​0​])
NumPy array a. print(np.argmax(a)) ​# 0

np.nonzero(a) Returns the indices of the nonzero elements in NumPy array a = np.array([​10​,​3​,​7​,​1​,​0​])
a. print(np.nonzero(a)) ​# [0 1 2 3]