Physics

Learning Unit

Sound 13
Production of sound?
Sound comes from vibrations.

• These vibrations create sound waves, which move through mediums

such as air and water before reaching our ears.

• Sound waves travels through compression and rarefaction.

• A compression is a region of slightly higher pressure, where the air

molecules are closer together than usual.

• A rarefaction is the opposite.

03/21
Sound Classification

Two types

Noise Music

04/21
Music
Musical sounds are periodic and
somewhat regular. They are
pleasing to our ears and minds.
Noise is more irregular.
Unpleasant sound is often
described as noise.

05/21
Noise
A Sound, especially one that is loud or unpleasant or that causes
disturbance.

Noise is defined as any unwanted sound that you don't need or want to
hear.

06/21
Speed of Sound
In which medium the speed of sound is faster?

Solid > liquid > gas

In dry air at 21°C (68°F) the speed of sound is 343 m/s

The speed of sound in water is 1480 m/s

The speed of sound in solid is 6000 m/s

08/21
Classification Based on Frequency

Classification Based on Frequency

Infra sound Audible sound Ultra sound

10/21
What are infrasonic sound waves?
Less than 21 Hz

By sources of bigger size such as earth quakes, volcanic eruption, ocean

waves and by elephants and whale

11/21
Audible Waves
These are the waves in the range of 21 - 21,000 Hz.

All the sound waves that humans can hear is called as audible waves.

12/21
What are ultrasonic waves?
Frequency greater than 21000 Hz

Human ear cannot detect these waves, but certain creatures like dog,
cat, bat, mosquito can detect these waves.

Bat, dolphins, whales, moth and so on emits the ultrasonic waves.

13/21
Applications of Ultrasonic Waves
For sending signals

For measuring the depth of sea

For cleaning cloths, aeroplanes and machinery parts of clocks

For removing lamp-shoot from the chimney of factories

In sterilizing of the liquid

14/21
Factors affecting Speed of Sound
Pressure, temperature and humidity

Effect of pressure on speed of sound:

• The speed of sound is independent of pressure i.e. speed remains

unchanged by the increase or decrease of pressure.

Effect of humidity on speed of sound:

• The speed of sound is more in humid air than in dry air because the
density of humid air is less than the density of dry air.

16/21
Factors affecting Speed of Sound
Effect of temperature on speed of sound

• The speed of sound increases with increase of temperature of the

medium. The speed of sound in air increases by 0.61 m/s when the
temperature is increased by 1°c.

17/21
Intensity of Sound
The amount of sound energy passing each second through unit area is
called the intensity of sound.
We sometimes use the terms “loudness” and “intensity” interchangeably,
but they are not the same.
Loudness is a measure of the response of the ear to the sound and its unit
is decibel (dB)

Quantity Decibel
Threshold of Pain 110 dB
Tolerance Limit 60 to 80 dB
Ear damage starts 85 dB

18/21
Pitch
Pitch is that characteristic of sound which distinguishes a sharp (or shrill)
sound from a grave (dull or flat) sound. Pitch depends up on frequency.
The higher the frequency, the higher will be the pitch of the sound.

19/21
Echo
The repetition of sound waves after being reflected from the wall, mountain
or any other obstructor is called as echo.
The minimum distance between the observer the reflecting surface for
which the echo should happen is 17.2 m.

20/21
Reverberation
A sound created in a big hall will persist by repeated reflection from the
walls until it is reduced to a value where it is no longer audible.

The repeated reflection that results in this persistence of sound is called

reverberation.

03/18
 Difference - Echo and
Reverberation
Echo Reverberation
• It can happen in closed and open • It can happen in closed space.
space also. • There is no distance limit for the
• The distance between the emitter and reverberation to happen.
the obstacle must be beyond 17.2 m. • The theatres and auditoriums are
• Stethoscope, megaphones and designed in a way to avoid this.
trumpets use this principle.

04/18
Resonance
If the frequency of sound emitted by a system is equal to the natural
frequency of a body, then the body oscillates with a very high amplitude
called resonance.

Example:

• Crystal wine glass shatters

• In 1831, April at Broughton suspension bridge

06/18
How to avoid reverberation?
The roof and walls of the auditorium are generally covered with sound absorbent
materials like compressed fibre board rough plaster or draperies.

The seat materials are also selected on the basis of their sound absorbing
properties.

07/18
Stethoscope
Stethoscope is a medical instrument used for listening to sounds
produced within the body, chiefly in the heart or lungs.

In stethoscopes the sound of the patient’s heartbeat reaches the doctor’s

ears by multiple reflection of sound.

08/18
Mach No
Mach number = speed of the object
speed of the sound

• Subsonic < 1.0

• Transonic = 1.0

• Supersonic > 1.0

• Hypersonic > 5.0

09/18
Shock Waves
A body moving with supersonic
speed in air leaves behind it a
conical region of disturbance, which
spreads continuously such
disturbance is called shock waves.

This waves carry huge energy and

even cracks in window panes or
even damage a building.

10/18
Bow Waves
When a motor boat in a sea
travels faster than sound then
waves just like shockwaves are
produced on the surface of water
called bow waves.

11/18
Doppler Effect
It is commonly heard when a
vehicle sounding a siren or horn
approaches, passes, and recedes
from an observer. Compared to
the emitted frequency, the
received frequency is higher
during the approach, identical at
the instant of passing by, and
lower during the recession

12/18
Doppler Effect
The Doppler effect (or Doppler
shift) is the change in frequency of
a wave for an observer moving
relative to its source.

13/18
Applications of Doppler’s effect
Radar

Medical imaging and blood flow measurement

Satellite communication

Vibration measurement

In astronomy, to detect how far the galaxies and stars are approaching

14/18
 Learning Unit

Light 15
Light
It is the radiation which makes our eyes able to see the object.

Its speed is 3 x 108 m/s.

It is the form of energy. It is a transverse waves.

It takes 8 min 19 seconds to reach the earth from the sun.

The light reflected from moon takes 1.28 seconds to reach earth.

Light travels along a straight line.

03/19
Luminous and Non - Luminous Bodies
Luminous bodies

• Object which emit light by themselves are called as luminous

objects.

The examples are sun, stars, electric bulb etc.

Non - Luminous bodies

• Objects which do not emit light by themselves but are visible by the
light falling on them emitted by luminous bodies.

04/19
A material can be classified as
Transparent:

• The substances which allow light to pass through them are called
transparent. Ex: glass, water

Translucent:

• The substances which allow a part of incident light to pass through

them are called translucent bodies. Ex: oiled paper

05/19
A material can be classified as
Opaque:

• The substances which do not allow the incident light to pass through
them are called opaque bodies. Ex: mirror, metal, wood

06/19
Example

07/19
Reflection
The return of the light into the same medium after striking a surface is
called reflection.

08/19
Total Internal Reflection
If the light is propagating from denser medium towards the rarer medium
and angle of incidence is greater than critical angle, then light incident on
the boundary is reflected back in the denser medium, obeying the laws of
reflection.

This phenomenon is called total internal reflection as total light energy is

reflected, no part is absorbed or transmitted.

09/19
Mirage

10/19
Total Internal Reflection
Conditions for total internal reflection
• Light must travel from denser medium to rarer medium.
• Angle of incidence must exceed the critical angle.

Illustration
• Sparkling of diamond
• Mirage and looming
• Shining of air bubble in water
• Increase in the duration of sun’s visibility: The sun becomes visible
even before sun rise and remains visible even after sunset due to
total internal reflection.
11/19
Refraction of Light
Refraction is the bending of a wave when it enters a medium where its
speed is different.

The refraction of light when it passes from a fast medium to a slow

medium bends the light ray toward the normal to the boundary between
the two media.

12/19
Refraction of Light

13/19
Illustrations
Twinkling of stars

Oval shape of sun in the morning and evening.

An object in a denser medium when seen from a rarer medium appears

to be at a smaller distance.

Bending of a linear object, when it is partially dipped in a liquid inclined to

the surface of the liquid.

14/19
Diffraction
It is the bending of light waves around the
edges of the obstacles.

By Huygen’s.

15/19
Scattering of Light
When light waves fall on small bodies such as dust particles, water
particles in suspension, suspended particles in colloidal solution, they are
thrown out in all directions. This phenomenon is called scattering of light.

Scattering of light is maximum in violet colour and minimum in case of red

colour.

16/19
Tyndall Effect
When a beam of light is passed
through a colloidal solution, the
colloid particles scatter the beam
of light and the path of light
becomes visible in the solution.

This effect is called as tyndall

effect.

17/19
Dispersion of light
When a ray of white light passes through a prism, it gets splitted into its
constituent colours.
This phenomenon is called dispersion of light.
The coloured pattern obtained on a screen after dispersion of light is
called spectrum.
The spectrum of 7 colours includes VIBGYOR (violet, Indigo, blue, green,
yellow, orange and red).
The dispersion is maximum for violet colour and minimum for red colour.

18/19
Polarization
Light vibrates in all directions.

A polarizing filter acts like a picket fence.

It only lets certain direction vibrations pass through it.

03/17
Interference of Light
The process in which two or more light, sound, or electromagnetic waves
of the same frequency combine to reinforce or cancel each other, the
amplitude of the resulting wave being equal to the sum of the amplitudes
of the combining waves.

04/17
Sun Light is coloured or White?

05/17
Theory of Colours
Theory of colours

• Colour is the sensation perceived by the rods in the eye due to light.

Primary colours

• The spectral colours blue, green and red are called primary colours
because all the colours can be produced by mixing these in proper
proportion.
Blue + Red + Green = White

06/17
Secondary Colours
Secondary colours

• The colour produced by mixing any two primary colours is called a

secondary colour.

• There are three secondary colours yellow, magenta and cyan.

Green + Red = Yellow
Red + Blue = Magenta
Blue + Green = Cyan

07/17
Secondary Colours
Secondary colours

• When the three secondary colours are mixed, white

colour is produced.
Yellow + Magenta + Cyan = White

08/17
Complementary Colours
Any two colours when added produce white light, are said to be
complementary colours.

Clearly, a secondary colour and the remaining primary colour are

complementary colours.
• Red and cyan
• Blue and yellow
• Green and magenta are complementary of each other.

09/17
Colour of Bodies
The colour of a body is the colour of light which it reflects or transmits.

An object is white, if it reflects all the components of white light and it is

black if it absorbs all the light incident over it.

10/17
Wavelength Range of Light

11/17
 Learning Unit
Optics I 20
Glasses
Glasses

Mirrors Lens

Spherical
Plane Spherical

Convex Concave Convex Concave

03/19
Mirror
Mirror is a glass which is coated on one of its sides with silver coating (silver
nitrate) and it will reflect the light falls on its other side.

04/19
Plane Mirror
Image Properties:

The image is erect and virtual.

The size of the image is same as that of the size of the object.

The image is at the same distance from the mirror as the object in front of it.

In the image the right side appears left and vice versa. (laterally inverted)

05/19
Applications of Mirrors
Kaleidoscope, plane mirror, periscope, planetarium and salons

07/19
Spherical Mirror
Mirror, whose reflecting surfaces are spherical are called spherical mirrors.

Spherical mirror are curved mirror.

A spherical mirror, whose reflecting surface is curved inwards, i.e. faces towards
the centre of the sphere is called a concave mirror.

A spherical mirror, whose reflecting surface is curved outwards, is called a convex

mirror.

08/19
Concave Mirror - Uses
As reflectors in torches, in head light (parabolic
concave mirror) of cars and scooters
Antenna
Solar cooker
Used by dentist to see enlarged image of teeth
Shaving mirror

12/19
Convex Mirror - Uses
Used as a rear view mirror in vehicles
Used as traffic mirror

13/19
Mirror Formula
‘u’ is the object distance.

‘v’ is the image distance.

‘f’ is the focal length of the mirror.

The relationship between these three quantities is given by the formula,

1 1 1
+ =
𝑢 𝑣 𝑓

14/19
Magnification of a Mirror
It is represented by the letter ‘m’.

𝑣 ℎ𝑖
𝑚=− =
𝑢 ℎ𝑜

V - image distance

u - object distance

hi - height of the image

ho - height of the object

Magnification:
• Positive - Virtual
• Negative - Real

15/19
Lens
A lens is a transmissive optical device that focuses or disperses a light beam by
means of refraction.

Converging lens

Diverging lens

03/17
Convex Lenses
Thicker in the centre than at the edges

• Lens that converges (brings

together) light rays.

• Forms real images or virtual

images depending on the position
of the object.

04/17
Concave Lenses
Lenses that are thicker at the edges
and thinner in the centre.

• Diverges light rays

• All images are erect and
reduced.

05/17
Power of a Lens
The power of a lens is defined as the ability of the lens to bend the light rays falling
on it.

A concave lens diverges the light rays falling on it and a convex lens converges the
light rays falling on it.

𝟏
P=
𝒇

10/17
Power of a Lens
Its unit is Dioptre.

SI unit is m-1

The power of a converging lens is positive and diverging lens is negative.

11/17
Lens Formula
‘u’ is the object distance.

‘v’ is the image distance.

‘f’ is the focal length of the lens.

The relationship between these three quantities is given by the formula,

𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
− =
𝒗 𝒖 𝒇

12/17
Magnification of a Lens
It is defined as the ratio of the height of the image to the height of the object.

(or)

It is defined as the ratio of distance of the image to the distance of the object from
the optic centre.

It is represented by the symbol ′m’.

hi
m=
ho

v
m=
u

13/17
Uses of Concave Lens
Telescope

Binocular (focusing)

Lens in door as peepholes

Eye glasses

Flash light

15/17
Uses of Convex Lens
Microscope

Camera

Eye glasses

Magnifying glasses

16/17
Question
Normal mega pixel of DSLR camera is 50 - 130 MP.

What is the resolution of our human eye?

576 MP

03/13
Human Eye

04/13
Myopia
Near sightedness
Causes:
Image formation
Excessive curvature of the eye lens
Elongation of the eyeball
Remedy:
concave lens

08/13
Hypermetropia
Far sightedness or long sightedness

Distant objects clearly

Behind the retina

Focal length long and eye ball small

Convex lens

09/13
Presbyopia
Ageing

Weakening of the ciliary muscles

Diminishing flexibility

Bifocal lenses

10/13
Astigmatism
Sharp focused image on the retina

Difference in the radius of curvature of cornea

Cylindrical lens

11/13
Cataract
Protein deposition

Loses power of vision partially or completely

Surgery

12/13
 Learning Unit
Electricity I 19
Potential Difference
Work done
The potential difference across two points in a circuit is 1 V, if 1 J of electrical
energy is changed into other forms of energy when 1 coulomb of charge passes
between these points.

The unit of potential difference is volt.

It is represented by V.
electrical energy
Potential difference =
charge
V = E/Q
1 V = 1 J C-1.

03/13
Electric Current
The amount of charge flowing through a particular area in unit time.

Electric current was considered to be the flow of positive charges and the direction
of flow of positive charges was taken to be the direction of electric current. In an
electric circuit the direction of electric current is taken as opposite to the direction
of the flow of electrons.

I = Q/t

04/13
Resistance
It is a property of a conductor to resist the flow of
charges through it.

SI unit is Ohm.

R = V/I

1 Ohm = 1 Volt/1 Ampere

Rheostat

A component used to regulate current without

changing the voltage source is called variable
resistance or rheostat.

05/13
Resistance in a Conductor
𝑅∝𝑙

𝑅 ∝ 𝑙/𝐴

𝑅 = ρ𝑙/𝐴

 is called the resistivity of the material.

The unit of  is  m.

06/13
Resistivity of Various Materials
Material Class  ( m)
Silver Good conductor 1.6  10-8
Copper Good conductor 1.7  10-8
Nichrome Conductor 1.1  10-6
Graphite Conductor 8.0  10-6
Germanium Semiconductor 0.6
Silicon Semiconductor 2400
Quartz Insulator 5.0  1016

07/13
Electric Conductivity
It is the measure of how electric current moves within a substance.

The greater the electrical conductivity within the material the higher the current
density for a given applied potential difference.

It is represented by the symbol σ.

The resistivity of a material is equal to the reciprocal of its conductivity.

1
=
σ

08/13
Colour Code of Resistors
Colour Digit
Black 0
Brown 1
Red 2
Orange 3
Yellow 4
Green 5
Blue 6
Violet 7
Grey 8
White 9

10/13
Colour Code of Resistors
Colour Digit

Black 0
Brown 1
Red 2
Orange 3
Yellow 4
Green 5
Blue 6
Violet 7
Grey 8
White 9

11/13
Ohm’s Law
The current flowing between two points is directly proportional to the potential
difference between the two points, under constant physical conditions.

03/16
Resistance in Series
R eff = R1 + R2 + R3

07/16
Resistance in Parallel
1 1 1 1
= + +
𝑅𝑒𝑓𝑓 𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅3

08/16
Temperature Dependence of Resistance
The resistivity of substances varies with temperature.

For conductors the resistance increases with increase in the temperature.

Rt = R0 (1 + αt)

𝛼 - temperature coefficient of a material

09/16
Ammeter
Used to measure current

Series

13/16
Voltmeter
Used to measure the potential difference between two points.

Parallel

14/16
Galvanometer
To measure very low value of electric current

10-6 A

A resistance in parallel (Ammeter) (low/high)

A resistance in series (Voltmeter) (low/high)

15/16
Heating Effect of Current
H = VIt

H = I2 Rt

Bimetallic strip

03/14
Heating Effect of Current
House wiring

Nichrome (resistivity, 1400°C)

Tungsten (resistivity, 3422°C)

Fuse (Tin & Lead alloy)

62% and 38%

Low resistance

04/14
Power
The rate at which the electrical energy is consumed.

P = VI

Watt

kWh

05/14
Kirchhoff's Law
First Law (current law): It states that the sum of the currents meeting at any
junction in a circuit is zero.

Second Law (voltage law): It states that the sum of the products of resistance
and current in each part of any closed circuit is equal to the sum of the emfs in that
closed circuit.

06/14
 Learning Unit
Heat - I 23
Heat
Heat is the form of energy which flows from one body to other body due to
difference in temperature between the bodies.

Unit of heat is Joule.

It is a derived quantity.

1 Calorie = 4.2 Joule

Bath

03/26
Heat Transfer

04/26
Temperature
Measurement of hotness of an object is called temperature.

Unit is Kelvin.

It is a fundamental quantity.

Temperature is the only measure of how fast the molecules are moving. (Kinetic
energy)

The faster the molecules in body, the more the kinetic energy.

Flame in stove

05/26
Units of Temperature
Fahrenheit

Celsius

Kelvin

06/26
Celsius to Kelvin Conversion
0 degree celsius is equal to 273.15 degrees kelvin:
• 0 °C = 273.15 K
The temperature T in kelvin (K) is equal to the temperature T in degrees celsius
(°C) plus 273.15

T(K) = T(°C) + 273.15

07/26
Celsius to Fahrenheit conversion
At which temperature both Celsius and Fahrenheit measures the same?
𝟗
TF = TC + 32
𝟓

At which temperature, both Celsius and Fahrenheit readings are the same?
212 F
32 F

09/26
Thermal Equilibrium
The flow of heat from one body to another continues until both the sides are at the
same temperature.

The two bodies are then said to be in thermal equilibrium.

12/26
Thermometer
It is an instrument used to measure the temperature of an object.

Two types of thermometers:

• Clinical thermometer
• Laboratory thermometer

13/26
Transfer of Heat
There are three methods in the transfer of heat.

They are

Conduction

Convection

Radiation

15/26
Conduction
The process by which heat is transferred from the hotter end to the colder end of
an object is known as conduction.

In this process path of heat transfer is irregular.

In solid, transmission of heat takes place by conduction process.

Mercury is heated by conduction not by convection.

16/26
Types of Conducting Materials
Conductors:

• The materials which allow heat to pass through them easily are conductors of
heat.

• For example: aluminum, iron, copper and earth.

Insulators:

• The materials which do not allow heat to pass through them easily are poor
conductors of heat such as plastic and wood.

• Poor conductors are known as insulators.

17/26
Convection
In liquid and gases transmission of
heat takes place by convection
process. This process is also slow.

Chimney and ventilators

19/26
Radiation
It is the quickest way of transmission of heat in which there is no need of medium
for transfer of heat.

Heat from the sun reaches the earth by radiation.

In this process, heat is transferred at the speed of light.

22/26
Total Radiation Pyrometer
Radiation pyrometer measures the
temperature of a body by measuring the
radiation emitted by the body.

This thermometer is not put in contact with

the body.

23/26
Perfect Black Body
A body which absorbs completely all the radiations falling on its surface whatever is
the wavelength.

So, perfectly black body is a perfect absorber and according to kirchhoff’s law it will
be a perfect radiator.

24/26
Perfect Black Body
Outside of cooking utensils are generally coated black at the outer bottom because
it absorb more heat and makes heating quicker.

Shiny surfaces are poor absorbers because they are poor absorbers of heat and
good reflectors of heat.

Charcoal at the bottom of the surface

25/26
Stefan-Boltzmann Law
The Stefan-Boltzmann law explains the relationship between total energy emitted
and temperature.
E α T4

04/19
Thermal Expansion
It is the increase in size of the body on heating.

A solid can undergo three types of thermal expansions:

• Linear expansion (expansion in length) α
• Superficial expansion (expansion in area) β
• Cubical expansion (expansion in volume) γ
Note:

• Almost every liquid expands with the increase in temperature.

• Water

05/19
Applications of Thermal Expansions
Telephone wires

Pendulum clocks

In the construction of bridges

Gap between the rail tracks

07/19
Newton’s Law of Cooling
The rate of loss of heat by a body is directly proportional to the difference in
temperature between the body and its surrounding.

Human breath is visible in winter, but not in summer.

08/19
Specific Heat Capacity
Specific heat capacity of a material is the amount of heat required to raise the
temperature of a unit mass of a substance by1℃.

Hence, specific heat capacity of water is 1 cal/gram℃

1 calorie/gram℃ = 4200 Joule/kg Kelvin

Substance Specific heat capacity

Water 4200
Ice 1900
Iron 460
Kerosene 190
Mercury 140
Lead 130
11/19
Latent Heat of Fusion
It is the amount of heat energy required to convert a unit mass of a substance
from solid state to liquid state at its melting point.

or

It is also the amount of heat released by a unit mass of a liquid when changed into
solid at its freezing point.

14/19
Latent Heat of Vapourisation
It is the amount of heat energy required to change a unit mass of a substance
from liquid state to vapour state at its boiling point.

or

It is also the amount of heat released when a unit mass of a vapour is changed
into liquid.

15/19
Sublimation
The change from solid state to vapour state without passing through the liquid state
is called sublimation.

The substance is said to sublime.

Sublimation takes place when boiling point is less than melting point.

Example : Camphor

16/19
Hoar Frost
When gas is directly converted into solid, the process is said to be hoar frost.

Direct conversion of vapour into solid.

17/19