Exploring Science Active Book 8

8L Sound and Hearing

a. Animal sounds
- Uses
 Communicate
 Remind danger
 Find mate
 Hunt
 Stop intruder
b. Sound device
- How sound travels
 Vibrating (moving back and fro) objects produce sounds
- How tuning fork produces sound
 Variation in air pressure

 Collision between air particles

 Complete to and fro movement  sound wave move away from the fork
- Reminders:
 Cycle per second = number of waves generated per second
 Increase in cycles per second ≠ higher speed
 E.g. travelling in oil and in water
c. Music to your ears
- Ways to detect
 Microphone connected to an oscilloscope
 Sound intensity meter
- Terms used in sounds
 Frequency
 No. of complete waves passing a point per second
 Unit : Hertz (Hz)


20 Hz Audible Range 20000 Hz

  Wavelength
 Distance between same point on two cycles

 Wavelength is inversely proportional to frequency

 Amplitude = loudness
 Reminder : higher pitch ≠ louder
d. Light and sound
- Similarity
 Wave
 Reflection
 Refraction -- focusing
 Transfer energy
- Difference
 Sound: requires a medium, travels slower (334 ms-1), faster in solid than gas or liquid because….


 Light : does not require a medium, travel faster, (3x108 ms-1), faster in air than solid or liquid
- Use for communication
e. How do we hear sound
- Sound approaches
 Eardrum (vibrate)
 Three tiny bones (vibrate)
 Cochlea (conversion)
 Auditory nerve (transmission)
 Brain (interpretation)
 Reminder: make a louder sound by using “trumpet tube”
- Ear damage
 Blocked by wax
 Cure by washing out the wax
 Damage to eardrum due to loud sound
 Repair itself
 Infection to middle ear
 Antibiotics
 Tiny bones fused due to aging  less sensitive to vibration
 Nerve does not work well
 Permanent damage to cochlea due to persistent loud noise
- How dolphin talk
 Clicks from nasal sacs
 Echolocation
 Reflected waves (echo) being focused by the fats to the inner ear
f. Use of sounds
- Unwanted  noise
 Need sound insulators  don’t pass the vibrations to other particles
 Sound intensity meter
 Threshold hearing to human
 Uses of ultrasound
 Flaws check
 Ocean depth
 Communication
 Echolocation
Exploring Science Active Book 8
8K Light
a. What a picture!
- Cameras
 Bitumen
 Chemical cameras
 Digital cameras
 Communication
 Space explorations
- Travelling light
 Luminous: light creating
 Light spreads out and some of them goes into our eyes
 Non Luminous
 Seen because light bounces off them (is reflected) and enters our eyes
 Ray diagram
 Speed of light
 Fastest things in the universe
 Measurable
 Observing difference in time of successive moon eclipses
 Lanterns but failed
- Properties of light
 Travel in straight lines
 Shadows
 Because light cannot travel through or bend around opaque objects
 Scattering
 By comparatively large molecules


 Reflection
 Refraction

b. Cameras and eyes

- Nature of objects
 Transparent
  Translucent – a glow of light
Shadows
 Opaque – light cannot pass through (absorbed)
 Light energy  Heat energy
 Selection of materials for heat conduction
- Camera Verse Eyes
Pinhole Camera Eyes
Entry of light Pinhole in the front Pupil
 Brightness or
protection
Focusing Lens / None Lens
Image formation Screen Retina
 Easily damaged by
strong light
Image detection Chemicals or sensors Rods and cones and brain

 Differences
 Energy change
 Retina converts light to electrical signals
 Existence of optical nerve
 Pass the impulses to the brain
 Brain allows you to see the image

c. Mirror image
- Reflection
 Regular reflection  clear and sharp images
 Irregular reflection (Scattering)  blurred images
 Reminder: this scattering is different from that mentioned in (a)
 Plane Mirror: glass coated with silver or aluminium on the back (Also mercury)
 Laws of reflection on a plane mirror
 Angle of incidence ═ Angle of reflection
 Reflection occurs at the surface of the mirror
 Properties of the image formed
 Same size
 Laterally inverted
 Object and image are of same distance from the mirror
 Virtual
 

 HSW: Periscope


d. Lens and Light

- Use of lens
 Refract the light (bending) to make the image sharp and clear
- Refraction
 When light travels from one transparent substance to another
 Take place at the interface
 If incidented at 90o  no change in direction
 If one medium is optically denser  Light travelling from the less dense one to it bends towards
normal
 Light travels slower in dense materials
  Image appears closer and bigger for above case
- Lens
 Converging lens
 Focus light to one point
 Fatter  bend more  closer focus
 HSW : Magnified or diminished images
 Microscope
 Diverging lens
 Diverge the light
 Focus located on the side of the object
 HSW : Diminished image


e. Making rainbows
- Dispersion of white light
 White light is
composed of different colors
 Split up with a prism
 A band of colors  spectrum
 Separation of colors  dispersion
 E.g.
 Rainbow is formed by refraction of light rays by rain or mist
 Aberration (色差) in lens but solved by a combination of lenses
- Absorption and Transmission
 Coloured object because they do not reflect all the colours
 White  Black 
 3 primary colours  Red, Green, Blue
 Shining a coloured light  colour subtraction

Exploring Science Active Book 8
8I Heat Transfers
a. Hot stuff
- Heat and temperature
 Heat – a form of energy (thermal energy)
 Unit: Joules (J)
 **Depends on: temperature, material, mass
 Flow from a hot object to a cool one until same temp.
 Greater temp. difference  faster rate of heat transfer
 Temperature – how or cold an object is
 Unit: Degree Celsius (oC)
 Difference
 Temp. can be measured but heat cannot.

b. Heating solids
- Conductors & Insulator
 Conductors
 Heat is quickly conducted away  feel cold
 Insulators
 E.g. Carpets, jackets
 Air trapped (Insulator)  keep warmth
- Model of conduction
1. Particles at the hot end gains energy and vibrates more
2. Collision between particles passes the energy on
 Conduction best in solid, then liquid, then gas
 Because the closer the particles, the easier is the collision

- Effect of heating up
 Particles move faster  The solid expands and the density decreases
 If cooled  solid contracts and the density increases
c. Heating fluids
- Convection model
1. When the air near the fire is heated, the particles spread further apart

2. The air becomes less dense and rises

3. It meets cooler air and passes the energy on.

4. It cools and becomes denser. The denser air sinks, setting up a cycle or convection current.

- E.g. sea breeze, land breeze, shape of a fire

d. Changing state
- Temperature curve

 M
elting point,
freezing point,
 boiling point, condensation point
- Change of states
 Temp. stays constant when the substance changes from one state to another
 Stepping up requires energy; stepping down releases energy

- Evaporation
 Sweating for cooling
 Absorb heat from your body

 Dogs don’t sweat but pant

to cool themselves
 Warmer air from the lungs evaporates the water on their tongue
 Breathable jackets
 They let the water vapour out that you will sweat less  less heat is lost to the evaporation
of sweat  keep you warm and dry

e. Radiation
- Similarity with light
 Does not require a medium for travel
 E.g. all radiation from the sun travels through the empty space
 Can pass through transparent objects
 Can be focused using a magnifying glass

- Heat transfer
 Emitted by hot things
 Easily absorbed by dark objects; but easily reflected by shiny materials

- Use of IR
 Thermal imaging
 Measure IR and convert the data into maps of temps.
 Uses:
 Provide sight at night
 Weather forecasting
Exploring Science Active Book 8
8A Food, glorious food!
a. On a diet (Keywords: Nutrients, Food labels, Food tests)
i. Types of nutrients
 Carbohydrates
Energy
 Fats
 Proteins Growth & Repair
 Vitamins
Keep Body Healthy
 Minerals
 Fibre Assist peristalsis
 Water
- Carry dissolved chemicals
around
- Maintain shape of the cells
- Maintain body temperature

ii. Main use of food

 Energy
 Growth and repair
 Health

iii. Food tests

 Iodine test
 Starch
 If present, Brown  Blue Black
 Biuret test
 Protein
If present, Blue  Purple
 Transparent test
 Fat
If present, a greasy mark
 Benedict’s test
 Glucose
If present, Green, Yellow and Red colours are seen
 Test for sucrose
 Hydrochloric acid + boiling  cool down  sodium hydrogen carbonate solution 
Benedict’s test
 If present, Green, Yellow and Red colours are seen.
b. Balanced diet (Keywords: energy requirement, e
- Contain a wide variety of foods
- Food pyramid

Nutrients Examples Why it’s needed Good sources

Carbohydrate Starch, sugars 1. Energy source Pasta, Cereal food, Fruits, Sweets
N.B. If excess  fat
Fat 1. Energy source Meat, oil
2. Keep warm
Protein 1. Growth & Repair Meat, beans

Vitamins Vitamin C 1. Help cells in tissues to stick Vitamin C: fruit and vegetables
together properly
Minerals Calcium, Iron 1. Calcium: health of bones 1. Calcium: milk
2. Iron: make red blood cells 2. Iron: spinach
Fibre 1. Keep intestine clean Vegetables, fruit, wholemeal bread
2. Prevent constipation
Water 1. Solvent
2. Maintain shape of the cells
3. Maintain body temp.

- Health Problems due to Diet

 Too much fats
 heart disease
 fat blocks the supply of blood to the heart muscles  die and cause chest pain
 cancer
 obesity
 Too little proteins
  Kwashiorkor (big tummy)
 Too little food
 Weak and tired
 Kwashiorkor (厭食症)

- Variety of Diet
 Different people require different calories per day
 Girl < Boy
 Factory worker < Office lady
 Woman < Pregnant woman
c. You’ve got guts
- Process of digestion

Ingestion Digestive Juice:

Saliva
- Produced by salivary glands
- Breaks down starch into sugar (by
amylase)
- Makes food moist  easy to swallow
Teeth
- Grind the food into smaller piece
Swallowing:
- Muscles in gullet contracts to push the
food down

Stomach Digestive Juice:

- Food is churned up with strong acid (pH
1-2)
- Pepsin (an enzyme)Break down proteins
into amino acids

Small intestine Digestive juice in small intestine:

- pH > 7
- Pancreatic amylase – starch  sugar
- Lipase – fat  fatty acid
- Large food molecules  small molecules
 wall of small intestine  blood stream
(absorption)

Egestion No digestive juice in large intestine

Fibre is not digested
- Some animals can use bacteria to digest
fiber
Only water can be removed  faeces –
Appendix stored in rectum  anus
- Why digestion
 Large insoluble food molecules are broken by enzymes into smaller soluble molecules  small
enough that can pass through the wall

 Enzyme:
 Break large molecules into smaller ones
 Do not get used up at the end of breaking
 Only works on one particular type of molecule
 E.g. amylase – starch; proteases – proteins; lipase – fat
 Very sensitive to pH and temp.
 E.g. salivary amylase stop working after entering the stomach (acidic)
 Model: Visking tubing
 A tubing with very small holes on it
 Only small and soluble molecules can pass through


Water, glucose

Water, starch,
amylase After some time,
the right side will be
full of glucose

 The insoluble large starch molecules are broken down by amylase into smaller glucose
molecules  so can pass through the wall of intestine and be absorbed
 The model only works best at body temperature because the enzyme (amylase) works best
at 37oC.
 Similar applies to pH
d. In the blood (absorption)
- Intestinal wall
 Villi
 Thin wall
Greatly increases the surface area for absorption  rate ⇧
 Microvilli
 Blood capillaries
 Join up to a vein  liver
 Liver: remove poison and store excess nutrients and then pump around the body by
the heart
 The whole process is assisted by the blood circulating system

- Tissues
 When the capillary reaches the tissue, food leaks out to form tissue fluid, carrying the dissolved
food to cells
 Respiration
 Some of glucose in the tissue is used to release energy
 Glucose + Oxygen  Carbon dioxide + Water + Energy
 Energy is used as:
 Heat  Keep warm
 Muscular work
 Energy to form cells  Growth and repair
Exploring Science Active Book 8
8B Going for Gold
a. Energy for life
- Respiration
 Require glucose
 Glucose is provided by the digestion of the carbohydrates
 E.g. athlete’s glucose supplement
 Boyle’s experiment
 Air is needed for our body
 Mayow’s experiment
 Certain part of the air is needed to keep a candle alight and a mouse alive
 Word equation
 glucose + oxygen  carbon dioxide + water (+ Energy)

Reactant Product

b. Round and round

- Digested carbohydrates (sugars) are absorbed by the small intestine; oxygen is absorbed by the lungs
- Cells need glucose and oxygen to release energy
- The reactants are brought to the cells through circulatory system
 Capillaries: tiny tube with very small holes in the walls  Small molecules can get out easily as
tissue fluid
 Arteries – carry blood away from the heart
 Vein – carry blood to the heart
- Circulating process
1. When the heart muscles contract, the deoxygenated blood in the left chamber is pumped through
the pulmonary artery to the lung while the oxygenated blood is pumped through the aorta and
then the capillaries to the cells for release of energy.
 Plasma containing dissolved oxygen and glucose leaks out, forming the tissue fluid
 Red blood cell cannot leak out.
2. Deoxygenated blood reaches lung and is oxygenated
inside the alveoli.
3. When the heart muscles relax, the oxygenated blood
in the lung flows back through the pulmonary vein
into the right chamber while the deoxygenated blood
from the cells flow through into the left chamber
through a vein.
4. The contraction and relaxation process repeats again
and again.

c. Into thin air

- Effect of aerobic exercise
 Heartbeat and breathing rate increases to get enough oxygen to your cells for respiration.
  If too little oxygen  weak and tired
- Diseases related to respiration
 Emphysema
 Cannot take enough oxygen from the air
 Have shortness of breath even when resting
 Tiredness
 Frostbite
 Blood vessels narrow when it is cold
 If not enough oxygen is got, cells die because
of lack of energy
 Heart attack
 Blood vessels supplying oxygen to the heart muscles are blocked by fat  not enough
oxygen for the muscle cells to be alive
 Treatment: beta blocker
 Slow the heart down  less glucose and oxygen is needed for the heart muscles 
less likely to die
 Mountaineers should not take beta blocker ∵ blood vessel is narrowed due to
coldness  more blood flow to satisfy the oxygen requirement
- Chemicals affecting respiration
 Carbon dioxide
 Product of respiration
 Harmful if in large amounts
 So it is carried back to lungs and is excreted
 Carbon monoxide
 Stop the red blood cells from carrying oxygen
 Turn the muscles and red blood cells bright red
 Used in packaging meat
 Hydrogen cyanide
 Stop one of the reaction in aerobic respiration (by inhibiting the working of an enzyme)
 It can leak into the tissue fluid and kills cells quickly

d. Exchange rates
- Gaseous exchange in the lungs
 Respiratory system
 Breathing
 Muscles in the lungs change size
 Inhale  lungs bigger
 Exhale  lungs smaller Ventilation
 Air sacs (alveoli)
Carbon dioxide and oxygen
 Large surface area for exchange of gases
can diffuse easily and
 One cell thick
efficiently into and out of
 Many surrounding blood capillaries (also thin)
the blood
 Deoxygenated blood (dark red) is oxygenated (bright red)
  Cleanness of the respiratory tract
 Mucus – traps dust, dirt and germs
 Ciliated epithelial cells (trachea and bronchi) – sweeps mucus out of lungs and into the
gullet  swallowed

- Effect of cigarette smoking

 Chemicals and heat
 Stop cilia working
 Mucus accumulates in the lungs  reduces the surface area for gas exchange
 Irritate alveoli
 Break down of alveoli (Emphysema)
 Reduces surface area
 Similar effect in breathing in large amount of dust over a long period
 Remarks: chronic effect of air pollution
 Questions**

e. Respiration detection
- Composition of inhaled air and exhaled air
Inhaled air Exhaled air
Nitrogen gas 78% 78%
Oxygen gas 21% 16%
Carbon dioxide gas 0.03% 4%
Water vapour Variable More
Temperature Variable Warmer
Dirt particles Variable Cleaner

- Respiration of aquatic lives

 From dissolved oxygen
 Water plants
  Dissolved oxygen diffuses into the cells

 Aquatic animals
 Gills – filter the water

 Large surface area and good blood supply

 Speed up the diffusion
 Effect of power stations on aquatic lives
 ∵ Water is used for cooling  the river water is warmed up
 But oxygen dissolves less in warmer water  suffocation of fish
 Solution: careful monitoring of water temperature

- Detection of carbon dioxide

 Hydrogencarbonate indicator
 Normal – pink
 More carbon dioxide – yellow
 Less carbon dioxide – purple
Exploring Science Active Book 8
8D The way of dodo
Fossils reveal the history of the Earth
a. Dead as a dodo
i. Animals extinct due to various reasons
ii. Organisms are adapted to their habitats. If environment (e.g. temperature) changes, the organisms
may not be adapted to the new environment and then die.
b. Death of the dinosaurs
i. Why did dinosaurs become extinct?
- Volcanoes
 Emissions like sulphur dioxide and carbon dioxide caused acid rain and global warming
 Evidence: rocks formed by these huge eruptions in India
- Meteorite Impact
 Giant meteorite  rocks and dusts covered the Earth, blocking the sunlight  coldness kills the
dinosaurs.
 Evidence: Barringer Crater in the USA
 Evidence: Iridium layer found in liquid rocks and asteroids

- Disease
 Doesn’t explain all evidence
 E.g. why so many sea animals died at the same time
ii. Animal kingdom
 Vertebrates (with backbone) and Invertebrates
 Dinosaurs with hip bones  Saurischia
 Without hip bones  Omithischia
 Scientists who study fossils: paleontologists

c. Prehistoric plants
- Evidence from plants
Plants in wet areas Plants in drier regions
 Mosses do not have roots  Flowering plants have roots
 Their leaves are thin and lose water  They have cuticle (waxy and
quickly waterproof) on their leaves
 Mosses live in wet places  Their stems have xylem vessels (tubes
that carry water)
- Plants extinction
 If atmosphere gets too hot  lose too much water and die
  If atmosphere becomes very dark  stop photosynthesis and cannot generate food and energy
d. Detective work
- Community = living things in a habitat
- Population = no. of individuals of one species
- Method of sampling
 Take as many samples as possible
 Quadrat – plants
 Tree beating – animals in trees
 Sweepnet – animals in tall grass
 Tullgren funnel – animals in leaves
 Animals have a behavior that makes them move away from heat and light
 Those who fall into a beaker can be counted.
 Pond dipping – water organisms
 Pitfall trap – small land animals
 Working examples

e. Physical environment factors

- Factors
 Temperature
 Acidity Causes changes in communities,
 Water flow populations and distributions
 Wind speed
- Tools
 pH paper
 anemometer
 sensors connected to computers  record data and send to lab
- e.g. corals
 Only live at certain temperature
 If gets too warm, they turn white and die

f. Focus on: Computer modeling

- Age of rocks from volcanoes  no. of volcanoes on Earth at a particular time.
 estimate the amount of carbon dioxide added by volcanoes to the air.
 - Air trapped in the polar ice  composition of atmosphere
- Measure the changes in environmental factors  make models that can explain changes in the past
and predict changes in the future

g. Living factors
- Animals
 Mates
 Food
 Water
 Space Resources for the
- Plants growth of population
 Water
 Light
 Space
 Mineral salts
 E.G. Migration of swallow
 For warmer area where there is more food
 Stimulus is the cold weather
- Living factors are organisms that affect other organisms around them
 Predator depend on them as food  feeding relationships in food web
 If the prey disappears, the population of predator will decrease sharply
 If the competitor disappears, its opponent’s population will increase
(Remarks: producers, herbivores, primary / secondary consumer, top predator (Omnivore/
carnivore))

- Symbiosis
 Provide shelters or help to decompose animal waste
h. Pyramids and poisons
- Pyramids of numbers
 Energy losses reduce the amount of energy as food chain goes on.
 Energy losses at each stage  population the pyramid can support depends on the energy
stored in organisms

- Poisons in the food webs

 Pesticides are used to kill organisms that eat or ruin their pests
 They may be passed and accumulated along the food chains if they are not destroyed  fatal
concentration
 E.g. DDT  weakening of bird egg shell
Exploring Science Active Book 8
8F Materials and recycling
Elements, compounds, mixtures  recycling from mixtures back to elements to form new compounds

a. Sorted!
- We classify materials before recycling
- Classify substance – codes
 Labels
 E.g. plastics – recycling code

b. The material world

i. How were different elements discovered?
- Needs extraction
- The time of discovery is related to the easiness of extraction from ores
 Bronze Age  Iron Age
 Remarks: Copper is extracted by heating certain rocks in charcoal
 Relationship between reactivity and easiness of extraction

- NF: Method of extraction

  Direct Heating

 Heating with carbon

 Displacement

 Electrolysis

c. Elementary
- Elements
 Cannot be split into simpler substances by mixing them or heating them
 E.g. Lime can be split by electrolysis into calcium and oxygen.
  Atoms
 The smallest particle of an element
 Atoms builds up elements
 Different atoms  mixture instead of elements
 Diagram

- How do we represent different elements

d. Compound interest
- Compound – elements joined together by chemical reactions
- Molecule – discrete form of non-metals in nature
 Chemical formula (empirical  represent the simplest ratio of elements)
Dish

 E.g. CFC – CF2Cl2

 E.g. *PVC – C2H5Cl
 E.g.* Polythene – CH2
- Chemical formula
 Showing the ratio of different elements
 Oxide name
 First word: metal name; Second word: represent the non-metal
 “-ide”  compound contains two elements; “ox-“  name of non-metal
 If there are two non-metals to one metal  use “di-“ before oxide
 E.g. carbon dioxide
 Chemical formula :

 E.g. formation of rust

 iron + oxygen  iron oxide
  HSW: how to speed up rusting

e. Mixtures
- A mixture is what you get when you put two substances in such a way that no chemical reaction occurs
between the components and you can separate them again.

- Examples: Eggs vs Dough

f. Metal detecting
- Properties of metals
 Shiny
 Flexible
 Good heat conductors
 Solids at room temp.
 Good electrical conductors
 Some are magnetic – e.g. iron

- Properties of non-metals
 Usually gases or liquids at room temp.
 Melt easily
 Good heat and electrical insulators
 Usually brittle

- Some examples of non-metals

 Sulphur
 Low melting point (m.p.)
 Brittle
 Yellow
 Chlorine
 Poisonous gas at room temperature
 Uses:
 Use with oxygen to bleach recycled paper
 Kill harmful bacteria in swimming pool
 Remarks: high concentration of chlorine is harmful
  Iodine
 Poisonous
 Purple in colour
 Sublimes upon heating (i.e. changes directly from solid to gas)

g. Re-use, renew and recycle – how can 3R be beneficial to both business and environment

- Reuse
Sustainable
 Use the things again without melting them into the simplest form
development
- Recycle
because depletion of
 Use the waste to make other substances
resources
- Glass
 Reused by washing
 Recycled by crushing up and melting to make new bottles
 Recycled glass:
  Bottles
 Roads
- Paper
 Recycled paper  envelopes, cardboard and toilet paper
 Plant trees after chopping them down

- Metals
 Extraction of aluminum
 Bauxite – containing aluminium oxide
 Electrolysis of aluminium oxide  aluminium [at 1500oC]
 aluminium oxide  aluminium + oxygen
 Aluminium has a lower melting point than aluminium oxide  recycling is beneficial
 No need to extract and use so much bauxite
 Less waste in landfill
 Reduce energy cost ∵ less energy is used to extract and melt the raw materials
 Reduce carbon dioxide emissions
- Plastics
 Recycling is important to plastics
 Difficult to reuse plastic bottles
 ∵ they soften or melt at relatively low temp.
 ∵ the source of plastics – oil – is limited
 Recycled plastics
 Black sacks
 Traffic cones
 Crates

 Fleeces
Exploring Science Active Book 8

Particle diagram

Atoms, Elements, Compounds, Mixtures

8G All that glitters

Physical change Chemical change

Chemical formula

Word equation

a. Difference between elements and compounds

- Atoms
 The smallest particles that make up every substance
- Elements
 Only one type of atom
- Compounds
 Two or more elements
 Linked by chemical bonds (attraction)
 The elements cannot be separate easily
 Particle diagram

b. Some structures in compounds or elements

i. Molecules
- Natural existing forms of some elements and compounds
 E.g.
Substance Number of atoms Chemical name Chemical formula Diagram
joined in a
molecule
Hydrogen 2H Hydrogen

Water 2 H and 1 O
Natural gas 1 C and 4 H Carbon hydride

Nitric acid 1 H ,1 N, 3 O Hydrogen nitrate HNO3

Sulphuric acid 2 H, 1 S, 4 O Hydrogen sulphate H2SO4

Hydrochloric acid 1 H, 1 Cl Hydrogen chloride HCl

Carbon dioxide

Carbon monoxide

ii. Large regular structures

 E.g. Iron sulphide

c. Chemical formula
- Unique to compounds
- Represent the ratio of atoms of each element that are bonded together
- If it changes  different compound
 Changes in Chemical formula is represented by a word equation
 E.g. Iron + Sulphur  Iron sulphide
 Sodium carbonate + Calcium chloride  Sodium chloride + Calcium carbonate
Reactants Products
 Can also be represented by particle diagram

d. Physical changes Vs Chemical changes

Physical change Chemical change
No new substances formed New substances are formed
Easy to reverse Can be different to change
 May require heating May require heating
Usu. No heat is given Heat is usu. given out

e. Types of chemical changes

- Oxidation (1)
 Formation of oxide
 E.g. Iron sulphide + oxygen  iron oxide + sulphur dioxide
Brass yellow red
- Decomposition
 Involving one kind of reactant
 E.g. copper carbonate  copper oxide + carbon dioxide
green black
- Precipitation
 Formation of solids in a solution
 Usu. w/o heating
 E.g. sodium carbonate + copper sulphate  copper carbonate (solid) + sodium sulphate

f. Mixtures
- Involves two or more types of pure substances
 A pure substance contains only one element or compound
- Components of mixtures can be in various ratios
 E.g. inhaled air vs exhaled air
- No chemical bonds formed in between
- Cannot be represented by a chemical formula
- Can be separated by physical methods while compounds can only be separated by chemical methods
like electrolysis

g. Points of a substance

- Definition
 Melting point – From solid to liquid (melt)
 Freezing point – From liquid to solid
 Boiling point – From liquid to gas (evaporate)
- Pure substances have sharp points ; Mixtures melts or boils over a range of temperatures
  Impurities will lower one’s melting point or boiling point
 Explained by particle diagrams
e.g. Solder

 Application: spreading salts on the roads in winter  water does not freeze easily
 Application: checking the purity (does not know the identity of the impurities)

f. Alloys
- Mixture of metals
- Pure metals may be too soft, too fragile, too easily being corroded
- Properties of alloys depend on the relative ratio of the metals being mixed
 E.g. Carat gold system
 Other examples of alloys: steel (Carbon, iron, and some other metals), solder( tin and lead), brass
(copper and zinc).
9A Inheritance and Selection

Hybrid Species Cloning Genetic Breeding

modification

9A Inheritance and Selection

Characteristics

Variations

Genes Environment

Fertilization

Gametes
a. Types of organisms
- Species
 Similar organisms that can reproduce
- Hybrid
 Mix of two different species that results in one which cannot reproduce

b. Characteristics
- e.g. eye colour, skin colour, hair colour, disease resistance
- that can describe one entity
- controlled by DNA which contain the inherited genetic information
- difference in characteristics among members of a species  variation

c. Causes of variation
- Genetic factor
 Genes
 Half from mother; half from father
 Gender is determined by sex chromosomes

 Gametes
  Sperm cell
 The tip of head
 Contains chemicals that dissolve the jelly coat of egg cell and help sperm cell
to burrow in.
 Very little cytoplasm
 Thin streamlined shape to reduce resistance
 Tail
 Allows it to swim
 Egg cell
 Large cytoplasm
 Food reserve for the fertilized egg cell
 Jelly coat
 Ensure only one sperm cell can enter
 Both sperm cell and egg cell have nucleus containing half of the chromosomes
 Dominant vs Recessive character

 Mutation
 Changes in genes
 Sources:
 X ray
 Gamma ray
 Allergen
 Usu. bad e.g. malignant tumor

- Environment factor
 Can benefit and suffer from the change
 Occur very slowly
 Caused by damages
 Wearing
 Sunlight
 Heat resistance
 Diseases
 HSW: Life process
 Movement
 Reproduction
 Sensitivity
 Growth
 Respiration
 Excretion
 Nutrition
 Classify causes into environmental and genetic
d. Artificial modification on characteristics
- Breeding
 Selective breeding
 E.g. Dogs are mated according to speed and character
 Cross breeding
 Different breeds are mated
 E.g. good milk cow + good meat cow  good meat and milk cow
 Problem: may result in defects

- Cloning
 To create exact copies
 Can solve food supply problem but the species will be too vulnerable to environmental changes
 Process
 Nucleus from an adult sheep cell is placed inside an empty egg cell
 Egg cell grow into an embryo
 The embryo is placed in the uterus of a sheep
 Although have exact genes, but the growing environment may be different

- Genetically modification
 A desired gene is put into the DNA of a desired animal
 E.g. Spidergoat -- spider silk gene is put into the DNA of a goat (cloned afterwards) to
produce Biosteel
 E.g. Insulin bacteria – the gene for the production of insulin in pigs are put into the DNA of a
bacterium
 E.g. Genetically modified (GM) sweetcorn
 Potential danger
 GM may kill insects that normally eat it
 GM contains genes that they do not naturally contain
 Spread of diseases

e. Gardeners’ tricks
- Artificial breeding
 Transfer of pollen grains
 Stigma of flowers
 Pollen grains pass from pollen tube to ovary
 Nucleus of pollen grain finally reaches ovum
 Fertilized egg will grow into seeds
- Take-a-cutting
 Asexual reproduction – does not require gametes
 Part of the parent plant can form a new plant
 Reason for decreasing the biodiversity  little resistance to environmental changes
9B Fit and Healthy
a. Definition of fitness
- S-factors:
 Suppleness  stretching
 Strength  weight pulling
 Speed  running
 Stamina (the time length of doing sth)

- The coordination of different organ systems

 Digestive – food  glucose
 Breathing – oxygen
 Circulatory – carry oxygen and glucose to muscles
 Skeletal – Bones and Muscles
 Muscles  aerobic and anaerobic respiration  energy for work

- Ways to improve the performance of the factors

 Balanced diet (proteins, fat, carbohydrates, water, minerals and vitamins, fiber)
 Muscle training  Better coordination of heart and lung
 Stronger heart muscles

 Slower resting heartbeat rates and fast recovery after exercise

 Pattern of heartbeat rate – an indicator for how fit you are
 Notes: Length of exercise, slope of the curve, level of heart rate
 Plenty of sleep  enough spirit
- Choice of sports
 Swimming, weight training, football, table tennis, hiking, cricket
 9ba7

b. Breathing
- Terms
 Breathing
 Change in volume of your lung
 Ventilation
 Air flow during breathing
 Nose ⇄ Trachea ⇄ Bronchi ⇄ Bronchiole ⇄ Air sac
 Gas exchange
 The absorption of O2 and removal of CO2 at the air sac/ alveoli
 Respiration
 Glucose + O2  CO2 + H2O
 Occurs in the cells

- Breathing action
 Inhalation
1. Muscles between ribs (intercostal muscles) contract and pull the ribs up and out
2. The diaphragm contracts and moves down. (flattened)
3. The volume of the lung increases  pressure decreases
4. Air moves in.
 Exhalation
1. Muscles between ribs relax and the ribs move back down
2. The diaphragm relaxes and moves up. (dome-shaped)
3. The volume of the lung decreases  pressure increases
 4. Air moves out.
 Model
 Balloon – lungs
 Rubber sheet – diaphragm

c. Smoking
- Ciliated epithelial cells
 Ciliated epithelial cells along the respiratory tract produce mucus to trap dust and germs
 Cilia (hairs) on them sweep the mucus to mouth for coughing out or swallowing.
 If the tract is narrowed by the swollen blood vessels  stuffy nose

- Bad things about smoking

 Nicotine – make arteries narrower, may stop blood flow
 If occurs in the heart and brain, stroke or heart attack may result easily
 CO – stop red blood cells carrying oxygen
 Tar – lung damage (ciliated epithelial cells, air sac, irritation) and lung cancer
- Non-smokers are also subjected to the damage
- Model demonstrating the effect – smoking machine
 Cotton wool turns yellow (oily)
 Acidic
 Limewater turns white

d. Health problems regarding diet

- Two extremes (Anorexia vs Obesity)

Nutrient Recommended Deficiency disease Problems if too much eaten

daily amount for
14-year-olds*
Protein More in boys Kwashiorkor – swollen -
tummy, liver damage
Calcium More in boys Rickets – weak bones with Kidney damage
odd shapes
 Iron More in girls Anaemia – tiredness and Heart damage
shortness of breath Liver damage

Vitamin A - Liver damage and Tissue damage

night-blindness – inability to Loss of coordination
see in dim light
Vitamin B1 - Beriberi – paralysis, swelling -
in the limbs
Vitamin C - Scurvy – bleeding gums -

- Remarks: Test the presence of vitamin C by DCPIP

e. Addictive and Depressants

- Stimulant
 Increase the speed that neurons carry electrical signals (impulse)
 Can cause
 liver damage because of too much workload
- Depressant
 Slow the neurons down
 Too much intake can
 stop the heart and lung functioning
 cause brain damage
 liver damage

Addictive Stimulant Depressant Health problems

Caffeine ✓ - if overdosed, mental
illness and withdrawal
effects will result
- liver damage
Cannabis ✓ ✓ - memory loss
- liver damage

Ecstasy ✓ - mental illness

- kidney problems
- liver damage
Cocaine ✓ - artery blockage
- liver damage

Heroin ✓ - vein collapse

- vomiting
- severe headache
- liver damage
 Nicotine ✓ - artery narrowing
 increase blood pressure
and heart rate (why?)
- liver damage
Alcohol ✓ - Brain damage if heavy
for a long time
- Deficiency disease of
vitamins
- liver damage

f. Skeletal system
Exploring Science Year 9
9C Photosynthesis
a. Comparison between photosynthesis and respiration
Photosynthesis Respiration
Equation Light energy Glucose + O2 -------->
CO2 + H2O ----------------------------> CO2 + H2O
Chlorophyll
Glucose + O2

Light energy to chemical energy

Useful products - Glucose and O2 - Energy
Essential factor for the reactions - Light - Glucose
- Chlorophyll (capture light) - O2
- CO2
- H2O
Reaction place - Chloroplasts in cell - Mitochondria in cell
Photosynthesis and respiration assist each other and maintaining a balance
Question: rate of photosynthesis and respiration in a day

The higher rate dominates

b. Limiting factor
- The factor that will affect the rate of photosynthesis
 Direct:
 Light
 Chlorophyll
 CO2
 Indirect
 H2O
 Minerals like magnesium, nitrates
- *Experiments
 More of direct factors  faster photosynthesis

c. Different parts of the plant

- Transport
 Xylem – dead cells transport water and minerals from root to leaf
 Phloem – transport glucose or converted sugars but not oxygen from leaf to different parts of
the plant
 Case of flooding in roots
 - Root
 Root hair cell
 Increase the surface area  absorb water quickly
 Water is important because
 For photosynthesis
 For cooling of leaves under strong light
 For support by turgid pressure
 For chemical medium
 If too little water  wilting
 Stomata (not a cell)
 With guard cells
 Similar to air sac – place for gaseous exchange
 When too less water  stomata will be closed by guard cell
 Palisade cell
 Densely closed packed near the leaf surface  maximum light
 Lots of chloroplasts  maximum absorption
 Able to shift in the cell  maximum absorption
 minimum damage
 How to reduce water loss in plants?

d. Use of products from photosynthesis

- Biomass
 All materials in an organisms
- Use of glucose (6 C, 12 H, 6 O)
 Aerobic respiration  energy
 + minerals (e.g. nitrates)  amino acids  proteins  growth and repair
 Cellulose  cell wall
 Starch  energy store
 Fats  cell membrane and energy store
e. Farming methods  increase crop yield for profits
- Use of machines
  Reduce processing time
- Use of toxic chemicals
 Pesticides – kill pests
 Insecticides – kill insects
 Fungicides – kill fungi that stop plants from photosynthesizing
 Herbicides (selective) – eliminate weeds that compete nutrients
 Ethylene – speeds up ripening
- Genetic combination / selective breeding
 Increase crop yield and sustainability
- Fertilisers
 Supply sufficient minerals to the crops
 Minerals
 Potassium salts  enzymes in respiration and photosynthesis
 Magnesium salts  chlorophyll
 Phosphates  cell membrane and healthy roots
 Nitrates  proteins  growth and chlorophyll
 Organic or inorganic
- Greenhouse
 Make sure the plants have the best conditions for growth
 Essential:
 Temperature
 Light
 Humidity
f. Farming problems
- Water pollution
- Algae boom
 Death of water organisms
- Kill helpful insects
 But is biological feasible?
 Affect local food web
- Accumulation of toxic chemicals in the food web
- GM food may distort the food web and may be harmful to some pollinating insects
- Deforestation
 Carbon cycle
 Oxygen produced by photosynthesis in plants and CO2 is absorbed
 CO2 is released by respiration and O2 is absorbed
 The further introduction of CO2 from the
 Combustion of coal and oil
 Combustion of fire wood
  increasing amount of atmospheric CO2
  global warming


9L Pressure and Moments
Definition of Pressure
- The amount of force acting on a certain area.
- The bigger the force, and the smaller the area  bigger pressure
- Formula:
𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒
 𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 = 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎

 𝑈𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒: 𝑁𝑚−2 𝑜𝑟 𝑃𝑎𝑠𝑐𝑎𝑙(𝑖. 𝑒 𝑃𝑎) !!!Beware of the units

 Suppose you are stepped by a woman who weighs 60 kg and is wearing high heels. If a typical
high heels has an area of 0.0004 m2, how much pressure will the high heels act on your feet?

Fluid pressure
- Include gases / liquids
- The origin of pressure
 Random bumping of particles into each other and any surface
 The force of particles hitting surfaces creates pressure.
 The higher the frequency of collision per unit area  the greater the pressure will be.
 The pressure of gas and liquid comes from all directions.
 E.g. car tyres
- Water pressure
 Increase with depth
Quiz: Why dams are built with a thicker bottom?

 Note that water is not compressible – how to control the size of force?
 Hydraulic system
 Principle: Piston with different areas


 Assume the area of Y is 20cm2. What the force at Y?
(Hint: the pressure within a fluid (gas/liquid) is the same through the fluid)
  A smaller force generates a bigger force is conservation of energy being violated?
 No, energy depends on the force and the distance moved by the piston. Although the
force at Y is bigger, the distance it moves is smaller  conservation still retains

- Atmospheric pressure
 Decrease with height
Quiz: Why decrease with height?

 Living things and pressure?

- What will happen if water pressure and atmospheric pressure are used together?
 Note that water is not compressible but gas is.

- Lever system
 Effort, Pivot and Load


 Moment
 The turning effect of a force
 Unit: Newton metres

 Formula: Moment (Nm) = Force(N) x Perpendicular distance of the force from the pivot(m)
 If moment creates a turning, what can stop the object from turning? Counter-moment
 IF Clockwise Moment = Anticlockwise Moment  Balance / Equilibrium

 Quiz: If the distance of the left-hand load is now 20 m from the tower, what the maximum
load the crane can lift?
 Quiz: If one of the moveable concrete blocks is removed, what will happen to the crane if
the crane is still at the same position?
9K Speeding Up
1. Speed
𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
- Speed = 𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒

- Distance = Speed × Time

𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
- Time = 𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑

- Mean speed: Average of two speeds

𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑑
 Mean Speed = 𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑝𝑠𝑒𝑑

 E.g. Tom rides a bicycle. For the first 30 mins, he rides at 5 m/s. Later, he rides at 10 m/s for 45
mins. Calculate the mean speed of Tom’s journey.
Solution:
Total distance = 5 × 30 × 60 =
Total time = 30 × 60 + 45 × 60 =
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
Mean speed = 𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒

=
- Units:
 Speed: m/s or km/h
 Distance: m or km
 Time: s or h

2. Effect of Forces on Speed

- **Force exerted on the same body
- Balanced force = steady  constant speed or remain at rest – resultant force = 0
e.g. ping pong ball, plane
 - Unbalanced force  net resultant force
 Acceleration
 Increasing or Decreasing speeds

3. Acceleration
𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑
- Acceleration = 𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒

- Final Speed − Original Speed = Change in Speed = Acceleration × Time

𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑
- Time = 𝐴𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛

- Acceleration depends on:

 Size of the force
 Mass of the object
 Force = Mass x Acceleration
𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒
 Mass = 𝐴𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛

 Unit:
 Mass: kg
 Force = N
 Acceleration = m/s/s
e.g.
A drag racer accelerates at 30 m/s/s. Its mass is 950 kg. What force does its engine produce?

4. Parachuting
- Demonstrate the effect of balance and unbalanced forces
Two forces: weight VS Air resistance
- Learn how to read a distance-time graph

The steeper the slope, the greater the speed.

5. Air resistance
- More streamlined  less air resistance
- Greater weight  less effect from air resistance  move faster
- E.g. The case for a balloon and a cannon ball

-
9Ka6
B5

Label the parts

What does the hair do?

Name three component in the cigarette smoke is harmful to our health. Please describe the impact.
Why smoking increases the heart disease? Why heart rate increases?
Label
Coronary arteries  function?
Large blood vessels
Atrium
Ventricles

Which side has a thicker wall? Why?

Difference between atrium and ventricle
Exploring Science Year 9
9C Photosynthesis

Process of photosynthesis and related experiments for the limiting factor

Adaptation of plants for photosynthesis and respiration
Chemicals used for increasing crop yield
Problems with the boosting of crop yield