Classical Mechanics

Lecture 4
Syllabus
 History, philosophy, & general discussion
of Hamilton Principle

• It is worth briefly mentioning this topic (not in Goldstein!). So the topic is

adopted from Marion and Thronton
• Historically, to overcome some practical difficulties of Newton’s mechanics
(e.g. needing all forces & not knowing the forces of constraint)
⇒ Alternate procedures were developed
Hamilton’s Principle
⇒ Lagrangian Dynamics
⇒ Hamiltonian Dynamics
⇒ Also Others!

• All such procedures obtain results 100% equivalent to Newton’s 2nd Law: F =
dp/dt
• ⇒ Alternate procedures are NOT new theories! But reformulations of
Newtonian Mechanics in different math language.
• Hamilton’s Principle (HP): Applicable outside particle mechanics! For
example to fields in E&M.
• HP: Based on experiment!
• HP: One of many “Minimal” Principles: (Or variational principles)
– Assume Nature always minimizes certain quantities when a physical
process takes place
– Common in the history of physics

• HP: Philosophical Discussion

HP: ⇒ No new physical theories, just new
formulations of old theories
HP: Can be used to unify several theories: Mechanics, E&M, Optics, …
HP: Very elegant & far reaching!
HP: “More fundamental” than Newton’s Laws!
HP: Given as a (single, simple) postulate.
HP & Lagrange Eqtns apply (as we’ve seen) to non-conservative systems.
• History : List of (some) other minimal principles:
– Hero, 200 BC: Optics: Hero’s Principle of Least Distance: A light ray
traveling from one point to another by reflection from a plane mirror,
always takes shortest path.
– By geometric construction:
⇒ Law of Reflection. θi = θr
Says nothing about the Law of Refraction!

– Fermat, 1657: Optics: Fermat’s Principle of Least Time: A light ray

travels in a medium from one point to another by a path that takes the
least time.
⇒ Law of Reflection: θi = θr
⇒ Law of Refraction: “Snell’s Law”

– Maupertuis, 1747: Mechanics: Maupertuis’s Principle of Least Action:

Dynamical motion takes place with minimum action:
• Action ≡ (Distance) × (Momentum) = (Energy)× (Time)
• Based on Theological Grounds!!! (???)
• Lagrange: Put on firm math foundation.
• Principle of Least Action ⇒ HP
– Hamilton’s Principle (As originally stated 1834-35)
– Of all the possible paths along which a dynamical system may
move from one point to another within a specified time interval
(consistent with any constraints), the actual path followed is that
which minimizes the time integral of the difference between the
kinetic and potential energies.
– That is, the one which makes the variation of the following integral
vanish:

– Feynman: Quantum-Mechanical Path Integral Approach

 Variational Principles & Lagrange’s Equations

Hamilton’s Principle

• Our derivation of Lagrange’s Equations from D’Alembert’s Principle:

Used Virtual Work - A Differential Principle. (A LOCAL principle).

• Here: An alternate derivation from Hamilton’s Principle:

An Integral (or Variational) Principle (A GLOBAL principle).
✔ More general than D’Alembert’s Principle.
✔ Based on techniques from the Calculus of Variations.
✔ Brief discussion of derivation & of Calculus of Variations. More details:
See the text!
• System: n generalized coordinates q1,q2,q3,..qn.
– At time t1: These all have some value.
– At a later time t2: They have changed according to the eqtns of motion &
all have some other value.
• System Configuration: A point in n-dimensional space (“Configuration
Space”), with qi as n coordinate “axes”.

– At time t1: Configuration of System is represented by a point in this space.

– At a later time t2: Configuration of System has changed & that point has
moved (according to eqtns of motion) in this space.

– Time dependence of System Configuration: The point representing this in

Configuration Space traces out a path.
• Monogenic Systems ≡ All Generalized Forces (except constraint forces) are
derivable from a Generalized Scalar Potential that
may be a function of generalized coordinates, generalized velocities, & time:

– If U depends only on qi (& not on & t),

U = V & the system is conservative.

• Monogenic systems, Hamilton’s Principle:

The motion of the system (in configuration space) from time t1 to time t2
is such that the line integral (the action or action integral)

…………. (1)

has a stationary value for the actual path of motion.

L ≡ T - V = Lagrangian of the system

L = T - U, (if the potential depends on & t)

 I = ∫L dt (limits t1 < t < t2, L = T - V )
• Stationary value ⇒ I is an extremum (maximum or minimum, almost always
a minimum).
• In other words: Out of all possible paths by which the system point could
travel in configuration space from t1 to t2, it will ACTUALLY travel along
path for which I is an extremum (usually a minimum).

FIGURE Path of the system point in

configuration space.
• In the terminology & notation from the calculus of variations: HP ⇒ the
motion is such that the variation of I (fixed t1 & t2) is zero:

…………. (2)

δ ≡ Arbitrary variation (calculus of variations).

δ plays a role in the calculus of variations that the derivative plays in calculus.

• Holonomic constraints ⇒ (2) is both a necessary & a sufficient condition for

Lagrange’s Equations.
– That is, we can derive (2) from Lagrange’s Equations.
– However Goldstein & (most texts like Marion) do it the other way
around & derive Lagrange’s Equations from (2).
– Advantage: Valid in any system of generalized coordinates.!!
 Variational Calculus Techniques

• Brief pure math

discussion!
• Marion’s book on
undergrad mechanics,
devotes an entire chapter
(Ch. 6)
• Useful & interesting.
Read details from
Goldstein (Sect. 2.2) on
your own.
 Calculus of variations
• Consider the following problem in the xy plane:
The Basic Calculus of Variations Problem:
Determine the function y(x) for which the integral

…………. (1)
is an extremum (max or min)
y′(x) ≡ dy/dx (Note: in Goldstein’s book this is (x)!)

– Semicolon in f separates independent variable x from dependent variable

y(x) & its derivative y′(x)
– f ≡ A GIVEN functional.

• Functional ≡ Quantity f[y(x),y′(x);x] which depends on the functional form of

the dependent variable y(x). “A function of a function”.
 Calculus of variations

• Consider a functional of the following type

• …………. (2)
•What function y(x) yields a stationary value (minimum, maximum, or saddle) of
J?
 Calculus of variations

Let us write
y0(x) =

• Assume that function y0(x) yields a stationary value and consider all
possible functions in the form:
 Calculus of variations
• where is some function of x that has a continuous first derivative
and that vanishes at and ,

• Because the varied function must be identical with y(x) at the

endpoints of the path:
…………. (4)
• The situation is depicted schematically in Figure.

Fig. The function y(x) is

the path that makes the
functional/an extremum.
The neighboring
functions y(x) + η(x)
vanish at the endpoints
and maybe close to y(x),
but are not the
extremum.
 …………. (3)
• In this case our functional becomes a function of α:

…………. (4)

• Stationary value condition:

The condition that the integral have a stationary value (i.e., that an
extremum results) is that J be independent of α in first order along the
path giving the extremum (α = 0), or, equivalently, that

…………. (5)

= a necessary condition; it is not sufficient.

 Calculus of variations
•We shall find as given below:

…………. (6)
1 2
1

…………. (7)

[Since so ]
 Calculus of variations
2 Integrating by parts, the integral becomes
[Use Integration by parts

]
u dv

u v v du

…………. (8)
 Calculus of variations

• Using eqns (7) and (8) in eqn (6), we have

…………. (9)

• The integral in Equation (9) now appears to be independent of α.

• But the functions y and y' with respect to which the derivatives of f are
taken are still functions of α.
 Calculus of variations
• Using (9) in the stationary value condition (5)

• Or

…………. (10)

• ⇒ arbitrary

Nontrivial !!! = a necessary condition

(significant) for J to have an
extremum value.
≡ Euler’s Equation
Now here y and y' are the original functions, independent of α.
 ≡ Euler’s Equation

…………. (11)
– Euler, 1744. Applied to mechanics
≡ Euler - Lagrange Equation

[ Note- if , , so

Gives . Hence
Trivial … 😐
arbitrary
]
(not significant)
• Since we know that the conditions on all the varied curves are that they pass
through the points (x1, y1), (x2, y2), and hence the partial derivative of y
with respect to α at x1 and x2 must vanish i.e.

• Where

• Equation (10) can be re-written as

• We can define

δy = infinitesimal departure of the varied path from the correct path

y(x) at the point x and thus corresponds to the virtual displacement
• Similarly, the infinitesimal variation of J about the correct path

• Hence eqn (10) can be re-written as

≡ Variational form of Euler’s Equation

 Shortest distance between two points on a plane

• An element of length in a plane is

• Total length of any curve going between points 1 and 2 is

• The condition that the curve is the shortest path is that the
functional I takes its minimum value

• The integrand contains our function

• The two partial derivatives in the Euler-Lagrange equation are:

 Shortest distance between two points on a plane
• Thus, the Euler-Lagrange equation gives us

• or

• This says that

where c is constant
• Rearranging the terms

• This solution can be valid only if

where a is constant
 Shortest distance between two points on a plane
• On integration, the solution of the above equation

•
Straight line

• or it has the form y(x) = mx + b where b is integration

constant

. In other words, a straight line is the shortest path.

The constants of integration, a and b, are determined by the condition

that the curve pass through the two end points, (x1, y1), (x2, y2)
 The brachistochrone problem
Statement of the problem
• Find a curve joining two points, along which a particle falling from rest
under the influence of gravity travels from the highest to the lowest point in
the least time

• Brachistochrone solution: the value of the functional t [y(x)] takes its minimum value
 The Brachistochrone
• A classic problem!
A particle is moving in the xy-plane in a constant, conservative force field F.
It starts at rest at 1 = (x1,y1) & moves to 2 = (x2,y2) (a “lower point” than 1).
Find the path y(x) that allows the particle to move from 1 to 2 in the least
time. This is schematically shown in the figure.
• Solution:
• Minimize the time t between points 1 & 2.
• For convenience, choose 1 = (0,0), 2 = (x2,y2).
• Path in the plane: s = [x2 + y2]½.
• Velocity: v = (ds/dt) ⇒ dt = (ds/v).

• We want to minimize:

• Get v from energy conservation: T + U = const. T = , U = -Fx.

• Newton’s 2nd Law: F = mg = constant. (g = acceleration, not necessarily
gravitational!)

• Initial conditions: v = 0 at x = 0 ⇒ T + U = 0

⇒ ⇒ .
Differential path length:

Minimize t: ⇒ t plays the role of J in the general formalism.

⇒ Identify the functional f in the general formalism as ∝ integrand:

(a constant in the integrand is ignored. It doesn’t affect the final result!)

• General Euler Eqtn:

• Our case:
…………. (i)

• ⇒

• Euler’s Eqtn. becomes:

• Or: = const. ≡ (2a)-½ …………. (ii)

where a is constant
Now
…………. (iii)
Setting (ii) = (iii) & squaring (solving for y′(x)) gives:

…………. (iv)
• Integrating (iv) gives the desired path y(x)

Change variables: x = a(1 - cosθ), dx = a sinθdθ

(the constant of integration = 0 since

it started at the origin (0,0) )

= Equation of a Cycloid
• Summary: A particle in the xy-plane under a constant, conservative force. At
rest at (0,0). The path for it to move from (0,0) to (x2,y2) in the minimum time t
= ∫(ds/v) is one on which x & y satisfy the parametric equations:
x = a(1 - cosθ)
y = a(θ - sinθ)

• These are the well-

known equations. for a
CYCLOID, passing
through the origin as in
the figure.

• The constant a is adjusted ,so the path passes through the specified point 2
= (x2,y2).
• Geometrically, a Cycloid is a curve traced by a point on a circle which is
rolling along a straight line (in this case, the x-axis, as in the figure).
 Minimum surface of revolution
• A curve connects 2 points
in the xy-plane: 1 = (x1,y1),
2 = (x2,y2). A surface is
generated by rotating this
curve about an axis (figure
shows the y-axis) in the
xy-plane. Find the eqtn of the
curve (y = y(x) or x = x(y)) such
that the area of the surface of
revolution is a minimum.

• The Euler Equation procedure gives :

y = a cosh-1(x/a) + b or x = a cosh[(y-b)/a]
This is a Catenary. The same as the curve of a flexible cord hanging
between 2 supports. a, b = constants determined by requiring y(x) to pass
through points 1 & 2
• Solution:
• Let the axis of revolution be the y-axis as shown.

• The differential area of the strip in the figure:

= 2πxdx [1 + (dy/dx)2]½
= 2πxdx[1 + (y′)2]½ ; y′= (dy/dx).

• Area of the surface of revolution:

Goal: Find y(x) which minimizes A!

• Here: A is the J of the general formalism.

• ⇒ The functional f is:
• …………. (i)
• Euler’s equation gives a criterion on f
which will make A a minimum:

…………. (ii)

• From (1):

…………. (iii)

• So eqn (ii) becomes:

…………. (iv)

• Solve (iv) for y = y(x), We get:

…………. (v)
• Solve (v) for y′(x): y′(x) = (dy/dx)

…………. (vi)

• Integrate (vi):
•

• The solution of this integration is

• b = integration constant.

• Or:

• a & b are chosen so that y(x) passes through 1 = (x1,y1) & 2 = (x2,y2).
 The “2nd Form” of Euler’s Equation

• A frequently occurring special case in the variational problem is when the

functional f[y(x),y′(x);x] does not depend explicitly on x:
• ⇒ (∂f/∂x) = 0
It still depends on x implicitly through y(x) & y′(x) = (dy/dx)

• In this case, we can derive a 2nd form of Euler’s Equation.

• Consider the total x derivative of f[y(x),y′(x);x]:

(using y′′ ≡
dy′/dx))
…………. (1)
• Also consider the expression:

…………. (2)

• Solve (1) for y′′(∂f/∂y′) & put into (2):

⇒

…………. (3)
• The last 2 terms of (3) are:

…………. (4)
• Euler’s Equation is: ⇒ (4) = 0

• So eqn (3) becomes:

= “2nd Form” of Euler’s

Eqn.
• The “2nd Form” of Euler’s Equation:

…………. (5)

• (5) is most useful in the frequently occurring special case when (∂f/∂x) = 0
– That is, when f is not an explicit function of x
• If (∂f/∂x) = 0, (5) becomes:

Or

…………. (6)

• (6) is often a convenient equation to use to solve for y(x), in cases when
(∂f/∂x) = 0.
 GEODESIC
• GEODESIC ≡ The shortest path between two
points on a surface.
Find the geodesic on a sphere.

• We shall use spherical coordinates,

At radius r, in this problem, dr = 0
because its on the sphere’s surface.
• Square of the differential length element:
(ds)2 = r2[(dθ)2 + sin2θ(dϕ)2]
⇒ The differential path length on the surface is:
ds = r [(dθ)2 + sin2θ(dϕ)2]½
Or: ds = r[(dθ/dϕ)2 + sin2θ]½dϕ
• The distance on the surface between points 1
& 2 is
• Goal: Find the curve (path) θ(ϕ) or ϕ(θ) which minimizes

• Use the Euler Equation method. s plays the role of J in the general
formalism.
• Instead of x & y, we have θ, θ′= (dθ/dϕ) & ϕ as variables.
• Choose θ as the dependent variable & ϕ as the independent variable.
• (x → ϕ, y → θ in the formalism).
• ⇒ The functional f[θ(ϕ),θ′(ϕ); ϕ] in the general formalism is the integrand:

• Apply the Euler Equation method:

Note that (∂f/∂ϕ) = 0
⇒ Use the “2nd Form” of Euler’s Equation!
• Now the “2nd Form” of Euler’s Eqtn!

≡a

• Do the differentiation:

• Multiply by both the sides by & simplify:

…………. (i)

• The solution to (i) gives the θ(ϕ) or ϕ(θ) which is the geodesic for the sphere.
• Solve (i) for

…………. (ii)

(∵ cosecθ = (1/sinθ), cotθ = (1/tanθ) )

• Integrate (ii): …………. (iii)

• Where α is an integration constant. β2 ≡ (1-a2)a-2

• Invert (iii):

…………. (iv)

• The geodesic for the sphere is given by (4)!

• The geodesic for the sphere is given by:

…………. (iv)

Geometric interpretation?
• Multiply (iv) by r sinθ & note a trig identity: sin(ϕ - α) = sinϕ cosα - cosϕ sinα
• Define 2 new constants in terms of α & β : A ≡ β cosα; B ≡ β sinα
• (iv) becomes: A(r sinθ sinϕ) - B(r sinθ cosϕ) = r cosθ

• Convert from spherical to Cartesian coordinates:

x = r sinθ cosϕ, y = r sinθ sinϕ, z = r cosθ

⇒ The Geodesic becomes: Ay - Bx = z

– Equation of a plane passing through the sphere’s center!
– Geodesic = Path that a plane passing through the center forms at the
intersection of surface of sphere
⇒ Geodesic of a Sphere ≡ A Great Circle!
(This is both the minimum & the maximum “straight line” distance on a
sphere’s surface).