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Calculus of Variations

This document summarizes the derivation of Lagrange's equations from Hamilton's principle of least action. Hamilton's principle states that the actual motion of a system will be the path that makes the action integral stationary. Applying the techniques of variational calculus, this principle leads to Euler's equations, which in turn give Lagrange's equations when applied to mechanical systems and expressed in terms of the Lagrangian. Lagrange's equations provide an alternative formulation of classical mechanics that is equivalent to Newton's laws of motion.

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262 views

Calculus of Variations

This document summarizes the derivation of Lagrange's equations from Hamilton's principle of least action. Hamilton's principle states that the actual motion of a system will be the path that makes the action integral stationary. Applying the techniques of variational calculus, this principle leads to Euler's equations, which in turn give Lagrange's equations when applied to mechanical systems and expressed in terms of the Lagrangian. Lagrange's equations provide an alternative formulation of classical mechanics that is equivalent to Newton's laws of motion.

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rahpooye313
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© Attribution Non-Commercial (BY-NC)
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Ch.

2: Variational Principles & Lagranges Eqtns

Sect. 2.1: Hamiltons Principle


Our derivation of Lagranges Eqtns from DAlemberts Principle: Used Virtual Work - A Differential Principle. (A LOCAL principle). Here: An alternate derivation from Hamiltons Principle: An Integral (or Variational) Principle (A GLOBAL principle). More general than DAlemberts Principle.
Based on techniques from the Calculus of Variations. Brief discussion of derivation & of Calculus of Variations. More details: See the text!

System: n generalized coordinates q1,q2,q3,..qn.


At time t1: These all have some value. At a later time t2: They have changed according to the eqtns of motion & all have some other value.

System Configuration: A point in n-dimensional space


(Configuration Space), with qi as n coordinate axes. At time t1: Configuration of System is represented by a point in this space. At a later time t2: Configuration of System has changed & that point has moved (according to eqtns of motion) in this space. Time dependence of System Configuration: The point representing this in Configuration Space traces out a path.

Monogenic Systems All Generalized Forces (except constraint forces) are derivable from a Generalized Scalar Potential that may be a function of generalized coordinates, generalized velocities, & time:
U(qi,qi,t): Qi - (U/qi) + (d/dt)[(U/qi)]

If U depends only on qi (& not on qi & t), U = V & the system is conservative.

Monogenic systems, Hamiltons Principle: The motion of the system (in configuration space) from time t1 to time t2 is such that the line integral (the action or action integral) I = L dt (limits t1 < t < t2) has a stationary value for the actual path of motion. L T - V = Lagrangian of the system
L = T - U, (if the potential depends on qi & t)

Hamiltons Principle (HP)


I = L dt (limits t1 < t < t2, L = T - V )
Stationary value I is an extremum (maximum or minimum, almost always a minimum). In other words: Out of all possible paths by which the system point could travel in configuration space from t1 to t2, it will ACTUALLY travel along path for which I is an extremum (usually a minimum).

I = L dt

(limits t1 < t < t2, L = T - V )

In the terminology & notation from the calculus of variations:

HP the motion is such that the variation of I (fixed t1 & t2) is zero:

L dt = 0

(limits t1 < t < t2) (1)

Arbitrary variation (calculus of variations).


plays a role in the calculus of variations that the derivative plays in calculus.

Holonomic constraints (1) is both a necessary & a sufficient condition for Lagranges Eqtns.
That is, we can derive (1) from Lagranges Eqtns. However this text & (most texts) do it the other way around & derive Lagranges Eqtns from (1). Advantage: Valid in any system of generalized coords.!!

More on HP (from Marions book)


History, philosophy, & general discussion, which is worth briefly mentioning (not in Goldstein!). Historically, to overcome some practical difficulties of Newtons mechanics (e.g. needing all forces & not
knowing the forces of constraint)

Alternate procedures were developed

Hamiltons Principle Lagrangian Dynamics Hamiltonian Dynamics Also Others!

All such procedures obtain results 100% equivalent to Newtons 2nd Law: F = dp/dt Alternate procedures are NOT new theories!
But reformulations of Newtonian Mechanics in different math language.

Hamiltons Principle (HP): Applicable outside


particle mechanics! For example to fields in E&M.

HP: Based on experiment!

HP: Philosophical Discussion


HP: No new physical theories, just new formulations of old theories HP: Can be used to unify several theories: Mechanics, E&M, Optics, HP: Very elegant & far reaching! HP: More fundamental than Newtons Laws! HP: Given as a (single, simple) postulate. HP & Lagrange Eqtns apply (as weve seen) to non-conservative systems.

HP: One of many Minimal Principles:


(Or variational principles)

Assume Nature always minimizes certain quantities when a physical process takes place Common in the history of physics History: List of (some) other minimal principles: Hero, 200 BC: Optics: Heros Principle of Least Distance: A light ray traveling from one point
to another by reflection from a plane mirror, always takes shortest path. By geometric construction:

Law of Reflection. i = r
Says nothing about the Law of Refraction!

Minimal Principles:
Fermat, 1657: Optics: Fermats Principle of Least Time: A light ray travels in a medium from one point to another by a path that takes the least time. Law of Reflection: i = r Law of Refraction: Snells Law Maupertuis, 1747: Mechanics: Maupertuiss Principle of Least Action: Dynamical motion takes place with minimum action: Action (Distance) (Momentum) = (Energy) (Time) Based on Theological Grounds!!! (???) Lagrange: Put on firm math foundation. Principle of Least Action HP

Hamiltons Principle
(As originally stated 1834-35)

Of all possible paths along which a dynamical system may move from one point to another, in a given time interval (consistent with the constraints), the actual path followed is one which minimizes the time integral of the difference in the KE & the PE. That is, the one which makes the variation of the following integral vanish:

[T - V]dt = Ldt = 0

(limits t1 < t < t2)

Sect. 2.2: Variational Calculus Techniques Could spend a semester on this. Really
(should be) a math course! Brief pure math discussion! Marions book on undergrad mechanics, devotes an entire chapter (Ch. 6) Useful & interesting. Read details (Sect. 2.2) on your own. Will summarize most important results. No proofs, only results!

Consider the following problem in the xy plane:

The Basic Calculus of Variations Problem:


Determine the function y(x) for which the integral

J f[y(x),y(x);x]dx (fixed limits x1 < x < x2)


is an extremum (max or min) y(x) dy/dx (Note: The text calls this y(x)!) Semicolon in f separates independent variable x from dependent variable y(x) & its derivative y(x) f A GIVEN functional. Functional Quantity f[y(x),y(x);x] which depends on the functional form of the dependent variable y(x). A function of a function.

Basic problem restated: Given f[y(x),y(x);x], find (for fixed x1, x2) the function(s) y(x) which minimize (or maximize) J f[y(x),y(x);x]dx (limits x1 < x < x2)
Vary y(x) until an extremum (max or min; usually min!) of J is found. Stated another way, vary y(x) so that the variation of J is zero or J = f[y(x),y(x);x]dx =0 Suppose the function y = y(x) gives J a min value: Every neighboring function, no matter how close to y(x), must make J increase!

Solution to basic problem : The text proves


(p 37 & 38. More details, see Marion, Ch. 6) that to minimize (or maximize)

J f[y(x),y(x);x]dx

(limits x1 < x < x2)

or

J = f[y(x),y(x);x]dx =0 The functional f must satisfy:

(f/y) - (d[f/y]/dx) = 0
Eulers Equation Euler, 1744. Applied to mechanics Euler - Lagrange Equation
Various pure math applications, p 39-43 Read on your own!

Sect. 2.3 Derivation of Lagrange Eqtns from HP


1st, extension of calculus of variations results to Functions with Several Dependent Variables Derived Euler Eqtn = Solution to problem of finding path such that J = f dx is an extremum or J = 0. Assumed one dependent variable y(x). In mechanics, we often have problems with many dependent variables: y1(x), y2(x), y3(x), In general, have a functional like: f = f[y1(x),y1(x),y2(x),y2(x), ;x] yi(x) dyi(x)/dx Abbreviate as f = f[yi(x),yi(x);x], i = 1,2, ,n

Functional: f = f[yi(x),yi(x);x], i = 1,2, ,n Calculus of variations problem: Simultaneously find the n paths yi(x), i = 1,2, ,n, which minimize (or maximize) the integral: J f[yi(x),yi(x);x]dx
(i = 1,2, ,n, fixed limits x1 < x < x2) Or for which J = 0 Follow the derivation for one independent variable & get:

(f/yi) - (d[f/yi]dx) = 0 (i = 1,2, ,n) Eulers Equations


(Several dependent variables)

Summary: Forcing J f[yi(x),yi(x);x]dx


(i = 1,2, ,n, fixed limits x1 < x < x2) To have an extremum (or forcing

J = f[yi(x),yi(x);x]dx = 0) requires f to satisfy:


(f/yi) - (d[f/yi]dx) = 0 Eulers Equations
(i = 1,2, ,n)

HP The system motion is such that I = L dt is an extremum (fixed t1 & t2) The variation of this integral I is zero:

L dt = 0

(limits t1 < t < t2)

HP Identical to abstract calculus of variations problem of with replacements: J L dt; J L dt x t ; yi(x) qi(t) yi(x) dqi(t)/dt = qi(t) f[yi(x),yi(x);x] L(qi,qi;t)

The Lagrangian L satisfies Eulers eqtns with these replacements!


Combining HP with Eulers eqtns gives:

(d/dt)[(L/qj)] - (L/qj) = 0 (j = 1,2,3, n)

Summary: HP gives Lagranges Eqtns:

(d/dt)[(L/qj)] - (L/qj) = 0
(j = 1,2,3, n)

Stated another way, Lagranges Eqtns ARE Eulers eqtns in the special case where the abstract functional f is the Lagrangian L!

They are sometimes called the Euler-Lagrange Eqtns.

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